To ancient people, the Earth seemed huge. Therefore, ancient philosophers, thinking about the structure of the Universe, placed the Earth at its center. All celestial bodies, they believed, revolve around the Earth.
In the modern world, when there is aviation and spaceships, the idea that our planet is not at all the center of the universe does not seem seditious to anyone.
However, this idea was first expressed in the 3rd century BC. Aristarchus of Samos. Unfortunately, almost all the works of this ancient Greek scientist have been lost and are known to us only in the retelling of his contemporary Archimedes. Therefore, the assumption that the Earth revolves around the Sun (and not the Sun around the Earth) is usually associated with the name of the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, who lived in the 15th-16th centuries. Copernicus arranged the planets of the solar system known to him as follows: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn revolve around the Sun, and the Moon revolves around the Earth. But further behind Saturn, Copernicus placed the “sphere of fixed stars” - a kind of wall enclosing the Universe. But Copernicus could not guess what was behind it - he did not have enough data for this. One should not accuse Copernicus of myopia, because the telescope that brought distant space closer to us was first used by Galileo only a hundred years later.
Modern science knows that our Sun is one of countless stars in the Universe, not the largest, not the brightest, not the hottest, moreover, the Sun is located far from the center of our Galaxy - a giant cluster of stars, which includes the Sun. And we are lucky in this. After all, otherwise such streams of cosmic rays would fall on the Earth that life would hardly arise on it. 9 large planets revolve around the Sun, minor planets - asteroids, comets and very small “pebbles” - meteoroids. All this together forms the solar system.
Earth is one of 9 planets. Not the biggest, but not the smallest, not the closest to the Sun, but not the farthest. The largest planet is Jupiter. Its mass is 318 times that of Earth. But Jupiter has no solid surface to walk on. The farthest planet from the Sun, Pluto, is almost 40 times farther from the Sun than Earth. Its surface is hard, it would be easy to walk on it - Pluto is smaller than the Moon and attracts weakly towards itself. It’s just cold there: the temperature is 200-240°C below the freezing point of water. Under such conditions, not only water, but also most gases become solid. But on Venus, our closest neighbor, the temperature is above +450°C. It turns out that the Earth is the only planet in the Universe so far suitable for life.
From the Earth to the Sun there are about 150 million km. Is it a lot or a little? Let's compare this distance with the sizes of the Sun and Earth. The diameter of the Sun is about 100 times smaller, and the diameter of the Earth is 10,000 times smaller. This means that if we depict the Sun as a circle with a diameter of 1 cm (the size of a 1 ruble coin), then we will have to draw the Earth at a distance of 1 m (at the other end of a large table), and it will be barely noticeable accurate.
Slide captions:
Asteroids
«
star-like"
Add
9. The most important difference between the Earth and other planets is...
10. The solar system includes:
A) planets
B) Satellites of the planets
IN) _______________
G)________________
Universe
This is the entire existing world. It is infinite in time and space.
Solar system
Mercury
Year – 88 Earth days
Rotation around its axis in 58.7 Earth days
Distance 58 million km
Venus
Year – 225 Earth days
Rotation around its axis in 243 Earth days
Distance 108 million km
Earth
Year – 365 Earth days
Revolution around its axis in 1 Earth day
Distance 150 million km
Mars
Year – 687 Earth days
Revolution around its axis in 24 hours
Distance 228 million km
Jupiter (moon - Ganymede)
Year – 12 earth years
Rotation around its axis in 10 hours
Distance 778 million km
Saturn
Year – 30 Earth years
Rotation around its axis in 10 hours 34 minutes
Distance 1426 million km
Uranus
Year – 84 Earth years
Rotation around its axis in 17 hours 12 minutes
Distance 2860 million km
Neptune
Year –165 Earth years
Rotation around its axis in 16 hours 6 minutes
Distance 4500 million km
Pluto
Year – 250 Earth years
Revolution around its axis in 6 Earth days 9 hours
Distance 5906 million km
Geographical dictation
5
. The smallest planet is Venus
6. Saturn is one of the giant planets
7. Mercury has a hydrosphere
8.The Andromeda Galaxy is closest to the earth
Earth in the Universe
Earth and space
Movement of the Earth around the Sun
Navigation stars
Navigation stars –
stars
, with the help of which in aviation, navigation and astronautics they determine the location and course of a ship.
For orientation in the Northern Hemisphere of the Earth, 18 navigation stars are used. In the northern celestial hemisphere it is Polar,
Vega
, Chapel,
Alioth
etc.
To these stars are added 5 stars of the southern hemisphere of the sky: Sirius, Rigel,
Spica
, Antares and
Fomalgayut
.
Geographical dictation
1. The galaxy to which the Earth belongs is called the Milky Way
2. Mars is one of the giant planets
3. Mercury is closest to the Sun
4. The largest planet is Jupiter
Magellanic Clouds
Andromeda's nebula
The movement of the Earth around its axis
66.5°
Comet
Resources:
http://images.yandex.ru/yandsearch?p=1&text=%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8F%20%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0 %D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0&img_url=bigjournal.net%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2012%2F03%2F%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE-% D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B8-%D1%81%D0%BE-%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BD%
D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0-45.jpg&pos=35&rpt=simage
Earth
http://images.yandex.ru/yandsearch?text=%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%20%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0 %B5%D1%82%D0%B0&img_url=www.milkywaygalaxy.ru%2Fimages%2Fmars%20foto.jpg&pos=1&rpt=simage
Mars
http://images.yandex.ru/yandsearch?p=1&text=%D1%8E%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%20%D0%BF%D0%BB %D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%20%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA %D0%B8&img_url=www.cbsnews.com%2Fi%2Ftim%2F2010%2F11%2F12%2Fvoy5_1_540x405.jpg&pos=59&rpt=simage
Jupiter
http://images.yandex.ru/yandsearch?text=%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%20%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0 %B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%20%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE&img_url=sandbox.yoyogames.com%2Fextras%2Fimage%2Fname%2Fsan1 %2F532%2F8532%2Fsaturn.jpg&pos=7&rpt=simage
Saturn
http://images.yandex.ru/yandsearch?text=%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%20%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0 %B5%D1%82%D0%B0%20%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE&img_url=cs10383.userapi.com%2Fu6851945%2F-6%2Fx_6ed35aa2.jpg&pos=1&rpt=simage
Uranus
http://astrohome-kherson.narod.ru/images/slice_4/asteroidu.htm
solar system
http://images.yandex.ru/yandsearch?text=%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%20%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0 %BB%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%8F&img_url=kartcent.ru%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2011%2F12%2Fkometa-halley-12.03.86.jpg&pos=1&rpt=simage
comet
http://images.yandex.ru/yandsearch?text=%D0%BF%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%20%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0 %B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0&img_url=y-tver.com%2Fusers%2F100%2Fcolor1324991656.jpg&pos=1&rpt=simage
http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D1%EE%EB%ED%E5%F7%ED%E0%FF_%F1%E8%F1%F2%E5%EC%E0
solar system
Milky Way
Huge,
gravitationally
connected system containing about 200 billion stars thousands of giant clouds of gas and dust, clusters and nebulae
m
eteors
1 option
Option 2
11. Navigation stars in the Northern Hemisphere are ______
12. What common features do the terrestrial planets have?
13. The Universe is
11. Navigation stars in the Southern Hemisphere are ______
12.What common features do the planets have?
–giants
13. The solar system is
Lesson on the world around us, 2nd grade
UMK: “Primary school of the 21st century”
Lesson type: lesson study
Subject: "Earth in the Universe"
Target: include students in a research search to determine the place of our planet Earth in the Universe, formation of knowledge about the Solar system, its composition, the place of the Earth in the Solar system.
The motto of the lesson: “Not a step back, not a step in place, but only forward and only all together.”
During the classes:
Organizing time.
The lesson begins.
But our lesson is unusual,
Not so familiar to you and me.
We explore today
There will be new worlds.
Are you ready, kids?
Look all back-
The guests are sitting in the classroom.
Are you ready to travel with us?
Well, the lesson begins.
All hands on the elbow.
Reporting the topic and objectives of the lesson:
Our lesson motto:
Children. “Not a step back, not a step in place, but only forward and only all together.”
Teacher. Lesson topic: "Earth in the Universe". What do you think we will explore today?
Children. Space, stars, planets, celestial bodies.
Teacher. Look at the blackboard. What can you say about these words? (small homeland, native side, Red Echo, Fatherland, Fatherland, Russia, planet Earth).
There are cards with words on the board. Children place them in circles, justifying their answer.
Red Echo
Home side
Small Motherland
Fatherland
Planet Earth
Children.
Red Echo, native side, small homeland is a small place on the planet where a person was born, grew up, where he lives, studies, where he took root. This is a blue circle.
Fatherland, Fatherland, Russia is our big country. Red circle.
Planet Earth is the home of our Motherland, and therefore ours, of all inhabitants of planet Earth.
Student. Reads the poem “I sing a song about the Motherland.”
I sing a song about the Motherland
And I cry out to her for love,
Everyone living in my land,
What is called the Red Echo.
About your small homeland
You can’t tell it in poetry or books.
I only know that the earth
There is nothing sweeter or more beautiful in the world!
I know all the paths in the forest.
My grandfather showed them
A clear picture from childhood:
He collected mushrooms and berries for me.
Introduced me to the inhabitants of the forest,
With his spiritual silence.
I can't forget the pictures of my childhood
About my dear homeland!
In any corner, at any end
Love sounds like an echo.
And a song about your homeland
Sounds in the hearts of Krasnoekhovites!
Teacher. We love our small homeland very much. But today in class we will talk about our common human home, planet Earth.
The Earth is such a sweet, dear planet for all humanity. How much do we know about her? What we don’t know is even more. Planet Earth reveals many of its secrets reluctantly. To a large extent, because the secrets of planet earth, so to speak, are not only its personal ones, they are Cosmic secrets, secrets of the Universe. Man always strives to understand the world in which he lives, to answer the questions: “What is the Universe? What does the Cosmos consist of? And what do you think?
Children. The Universe is space, the whole world, planets and stars.
Teacher. Each of you has your own vision of the Universe. Let's turn to her Majesty Astronomy. (the word opens on the board). What kind of science is this?
Children. This is the science of cosmic bodies, the Universe, planets, and stars.
Teacher. Since ancient times, Urania has been considered the muse of astronomy. This Muse personifies the power of contemplation; she calls us to leave the external chaos in which man exists and to immerse ourselves in the contemplation of the majestic running of the stars, which is a reflection of fate. This is the power of knowledge, the power that pulls towards the mysterious, pulls towards the high and beautiful - towards the Sky and the Stars. (a drawing of Urania opens on the board, in one hand he holds a scroll of star words, in the other - the meaning of the word astronomy). The name of the science “astronomy” comes from two Greek words – “astron” - star and “nomos” - law. At the same time, a star was understood as any luminary, so the Sun, Moon, and comets also fell into the sphere of interest of astronomy. Astronomy is the most ancient of sciences. The first astronomers were called stargazers. It is known that even cavemen observed the starry sky, since drawings of stars and constellations were found on the walls of the caves where they lived. (teacher changes clothes). Who am I?
Children. Stargazer, astronomer.
Teacher. Then today you will be young astronomers in class. Who is this?
Children. Astronomers are people who study planets and stars, the Universe, and Space.
teacher b. So let's start exploring. After all, our planet is part of the Universe. Imagine that we are astronomers. Before your important journey, we will host a scientific conference.
For thousands of years in a row, a person, looking at the night sky, learned about space and its laws: why the Sun looks like an ever-burning fire, how it moves across the sky; why do the stars rise at the same place on the horizon, but the moon changes its rising and setting points? The laws of the sky were learned in different centuries by sailors and farmers, cattle breeders and hunters. Astrologers used the stars to determine the fate of individuals and entire states. Everyone noticed something different for themselves, developing their mind and imagination. It’s not without reason that they say: he who knows nothing will believe in everything. So to prevent this from happening to you, answer me one question: what is the greatest power on earth?
Children. Knowledge.
Teacher. People have always been concerned with the question: are we alone in the Universe? What have people invented to understand the Universe?
Children. Telescope.
Student. To observe the sky in 1609, the Italian scientist Galileo Galilei (on the board there is a portrait and a drawing of a telescope) created the first telescope. The telescope created by Galileo gave a very unclear image and magnified only 30 times. But this was enough to make many discoveries. The first thing Galileo did was to see many stars that no one could see with the naked eye. The planets in the telescope did not look like stars, but like small circles. But the moon looked not like a disk, but like a ball, and one half of it was in the shadow. Galileo even discerned mountains - craters - on the moon. From the size of the shadows from the lunar mountains, he was able to calculate their height. It was a revolution in the science of the Universe.
Teacher. How did the Universe come into being?
Student. Scientists believe that the universe came into being as a result of a huge explosion called the Big Bang. They believe that the Universe is continuously expanding. This means that huge clusters of stars called Galaxies are moving further and further away from each other.
Teacher. What were the consequences of this explosion?
Children. This explosion occurred more than 15 billion years ago. As a result of the explosion, countless stars and other celestial bodies appeared.
Teacher. Which ones? (pictures open on the board).
Children.
Our Universe is heavily littered with rocky ice debris. Comets and asteroids orbit the Sun. Meteors are space debris that burns up in the atmosphere.
Meteorites are stone or iron fragments of space debris that fall to the surface of the earth. Most meteorites are destroyed as a result of impacts on the ground, but after the fall of large meteorites, craters are formed, allowing one to estimate their size.
Comets are like balls. Very big. They consist of stones and dust particles, held together by ice.
There is a comet that often approaches the Sun and becomes visible from Earth - Halley's Comet.
Asteroids - or "small planets" - are rocky or metallic celestial bodies.
Now let's summarize the first part of the conference. We fill out our star cards. (On the children’s desks are stars with a test task. Children fill out the test independently and raise the star when ready.)
Examination. (teacher reads questions, children raise stars)
Teacher. Now let's do it trip to the past. In ancient times, people believed that the earth was at the center of the Universe, and the Sun, Moon, and other planets revolved around it. Even now we say: “The sun sets, the sun rises.” Let's imagine the small city of Torun, on the Vistula River, which is located in Poland. On February 19, 1473, the future great scientist Nicolaus Copernicus was born in this city.
Student. I am Nicolaus Copernicus. My hobby is astronomy. I did not miss a single starry night watching the movement of the stars. The Earth is not the center of the Universe, as the Greek scientist Ptolemy believed. I claim that all planets revolve around the sun. (shows on the model) The Earth, revolving around the Sun, makes a full revolution around it in one year. Thanks to this, the seasons change. In addition, the earth rotates around its axis, making a full revolution in one day. Therefore, during the day on Earth, day alternates with night. I wrote about this in the book: “On the rotation of celestial bodies.” The sun and the celestial bodies moving around it make up the solar system. The solar system includes 9 planets, including Earth. They all move around the star in their own orbits.
Teacher. How is Earth different from other planets in the solar system?
Student. This is the only planet on which there is life.
Teacher. Thanks to the great scientist who solved the greatest mystery of the Universe. So what is the significance of the Sun? We conducted an experiment with plants. What is the result?
Children. The sun provides our planet with the necessary amount of heat and light.
Teacher. We love the sun. How many sayings have people made about the sun? Name them.
Children. The sun rose and brought joy to everyone.
The sun rises and the day comes.
The sun, like a dear mother, will never offend you.
Teacher. It was not for nothing that the Slavs worshiped the sun god, Horos. What do you know about him?
Children. He lived in the east and every morning rode across the sky in a chariot drawn by fire-breathing horses.
Teacher. The Sun is the star closest to Earth. The star is an old lady. To better learn about the Sun and its family, let's leave our classroom and go on a visit to the Universe . There are probably other civilizations in Space. What should we remember?
Children. We must not disturb the peace of the Universe.
Teacher. Let's choose a vehicle. Look at the blackboard. (table)
From Earth to Sun:
Running - 4000 years.
By car - 200 years
On an airplane - 20 years
On the Firefly rocket - 5 seconds.
The longest journey begins with the first step. Let's do it. Let's put on our spacesuits. 5,4,3,2,1….. Closed our eyes. We are already visiting the stars. (music is playing, star girls are dancing, the teacher is reading a poem by S. Yesenin).
Third slide.
STARS S. Yesenin
The stars are clear, the stars are high!
What do you keep inside yourself, what do you hide?
Stars that conceal deep thoughts,
By what power do you captivate the soul?
Frequent asterisks, tight asterisks!
What is beautiful about you, what is powerful about you?
What are you captivating, heavenly stars,
The power of great burning knowledge?
And why is it so when you shine
Beckon to the sky, into wide arms?
Look tenderly, you caress your heart,
Heavenly stars, distant stars!
Stars performing:
It is believed that a person became a person when he looked at the starry sky and was surprised...
Stars are very different: giants and midgets, blue and yellow, very hot and colder.
Blue and white stars are the hottest.
Yellow stars are warm.
And orange and red are the coldest. But even the coldest stars are hotter than any hot metal.
Our family is led by the Sun. This is a huge hot ball. If you imagine that the Sun is a watermelon, then next to it the Earth will look like a currant.
If you imagine that you can make a giant scale and put the Sun on one bowl, then you need to put 330 thousand planets like the Earth on the other bowl. (children show pictures).
Fifth slide.
Teacher. Attention, guys, "Black Hole". What is a “Black Hole”?
Children. A hole in the Universe, in Space.
Teacher. This is a region of space-time, no object can escape from it. But if we solve space problems, then maybe we will succeed.
Blitz survey.
Sixth slide.
Seventh slide.
What was the name of his ship? (East)
Eighth slide.
Who was the first to go into outer space? (Leonov)
Ninth slide.
The first dog is an astronaut. (Laika)
Tenth slide.
Who built the first spaceship? (Korolev)
Teacher. The danger is over. It's time to meet the star family.
Eleventh slide.
Before us is a parade of planets. What is the closest planet to the Sun? Would you like me to tell you a fairy tale about this planet?
Mercury was unlucky. He was born close to the Sun. He flew, flew around the Sun, and the Sun fried and fried him with its hot rays. Mercury cried, but his tears, in the form of clouds, immediately dried up from the heat. And then Mercury began to ask the other planets: “Hey, someone, take this heat away from me, I can’t give birth to life in such heat.” And then the Earth, Venus, Mars responded. They said to Mercury: “Give us your heat.” But the children who are born to us will consider you their dad. And so it happened. Children on our Earth whose father is Mercury are hot, active, restless, spinning around as if they have the sun in their bosom. Do we have kids like this in our class?
So, a parade of planets. (Children have models of planets in their hands; on the back of the model is written the address of the planet in the Universe)
Twelfth slide.
Mercury. I am the closest planet to the Sun. Less Earth. I have a hard, rocky surface. I am a restless person, I move very quickly around the Sun, three times faster than the Earth. It's hot on me during the day and terribly cold at night. I have a weak atmosphere. There are no satellites. My address:
Where: Universe
Galaxy City
District Solar System
First Ring Street
Thirteenth slide.
Venus. The second planet from the Sun is Venus. The surface on it is rocky. This planet has a dense atmosphere, but it consists of carbon dioxide, which neither humans nor animals can breathe. The heat on Venus is unbearable, 500 degrees. There are no satellites. In the sky, this planet is visible as the brightest bluish star. Very beautiful and attractive. My address:
WHERE: Universe
Galaxy City
District Solar System
Second Ring Street
Fourteenth slide.
Earth. I am the Earth. I am glad to welcome you, my children. What do you know about me?
Teacher. Our dear planet, the second grade of the Krasnoekhovskaya school welcomes you. We love you and want to sing a song about you. (children sing the song “Six Continents”. The boy acts as a teacher. He begins to sing. Children sing the chorus.)
Fifteenth slide.
Mars. Mars is the fourth planet. It is half the size of the Earth. A year on Mars lasts twice as long as on Earth. Mars has an atmosphere, but it is made of carbon dioxide. The surface of Mars is covered with orange-red dust, which allows the planet to be seen as a beautiful star. The sun is getting worse. Summers are colder than on Earth, and winters are harsher. Two satellites: Phobos (fear) and Deimos (horror). My address in the solar system:
Where: Universe
Galaxy City
District Solar System
Fourth Ring Street
Sixteenth slide.
Jupiter. The fifth planet from the Sun is Jupiter. It is a huge ball of liquid hydrogen, the lightest gas in the world, but there is so much of it that this planet is the heaviest planet of all. There are sixteen satellites. The planet is far from the Sun, so eternal winter reigns there.
My address:
Where: Universe
Galaxy city
District Solar System
Fifth Ring Street
Seventeenth slide.
Saturn. The sixth planet is the huge Saturn. It is located far from the Sun, so its temperature is very low. Saturn is a gas planet. This is a yellowish planet. It is surrounded by amazing rings consisting of ice blocks and stones. There are 17 satellites.
My address:
Where: Universe
Galaxy City
District Solar System
Sixth ring street
Eighteenth slide.
Uranus. Uranus is located behind Saturn. This planet rotates on its side. Therefore, first one side, then the other, is turned towards the Sun. The size of this planet is much larger than Earth. And it also consists of gases. The distance from the Sun does not allow this planet to heat up. Sputnikov-11. My address:
Where: Universe
Galaxy City
District Solar System
Eighth Ring Street
Nineteenth slide.
Neptune. Neptune is the eighth planet from the Sun. It appears dark blue because it also consists of methane gas, which burns in our stoves. Clouds are moving around the planet in different directions. Sputnikov-8. My address:
Where: Universe
Galaxy City
District Solar System
Eighth Ring Street
Twenty slide.
Pluto.
Pluto is the smallest planet in the solar system.
My address:
Where: Universe
Galaxy City
District Solar System
Ninth Ring Street
Teacher. The parade of planets has ended. Time to go home. The earth calls. What conclusion will we draw for ourselves?
Children. 1.Oh, how often, looking into the sky,
We dream of conquering space.
And, like young astronauts, overnight
Find yourself on other planets.
2. Be amazed at their power, greatness,
Reveal the secret of the heavenly heights.
And, of course, catch yourself thinking:
They cannot compare with our Earth!
Teacher. What riches will we return to Earth with?
(on the board there is a large envelope for tests - stars, children's creative projects )
Children: We take with us stellar knowledge.
And at the end of our journey, the stars arranged for you a procession of constellations. (Children read on cards placed on their desks before the lesson):
Constellations:
January snow on the road, the sun is shining in Capergog.
In February the days are longer, the sun shines Aquarius.
There are a lot of snow blocks in March, the sun is somewhere among Pisces.
In May the sun is in Corpuscle, expect freckles on your face.
In June the sun is in Gemini, children drink Fanta in the bushes.
In July to Raku The sun walks, a ray shines in your window.
August school opens, a lion runs behind the Sun.
It's September outside the window, Virgo The sun will invite.
In October, according to owls, the Sun shines from Libra.
In November, the sun shines in the sky Scorpio.
In December, like a tomboy, he hides behind the Sun Sagittarius.
Teacher. And what constellation do even small children know?
Children. Ursa Major and Ursa Minor (constellation on the wall)
Teacher. What star does everyone in the world know?
Children. Polar.
Teacher. During the flight we will conduct a quick survey. 5,4,3,2,1…
The largest planet . Jupiter.
The smallest . Pluto.
This planet has 17 satellites. Saturn.
A huge hot cosmic body. Sun.
The closest planet to the Sun . Mercury.
Turquoise blue gas ball. Neptune.
This planet revolves around the Sun lying on its side . Uranus.
Glowing balls of gas similar to the Sun. Stars.
The size of this planet is equal to the size of the Earth. Venus.
Scientists believe that there is life on this planet. Mars.
Earth satellite. Moon.
The science of cosmic bodies. Astronomy.
Children. Hello planet, hello earth.
From now on we are your children and friends.
From now on we are a big family together.
We are your children, planet Earth!
Teacher. Well, it’s time to sum up our scientific expedition. Reflection.
(We sing the song “In Our Solar System”) Twenty-first slide.
Let's celebrate today as Earth Day every year in our class.
The Universe consists of many cosmic bodies: stars, planets and their satellites, asteroids, comets, meteoric matter, cosmic gas and dust. A galaxy is a cluster of stars (star system). Metagalaxy is the visible part of the Universe (1026 m, 100 million light years, 1022 stars).
Sun (diameter - 1,390,000 km, mass - 1.99∙1030 kg, composition: 71% H, 27% He, 2% N, C, O, etc., surface temperature 6000 °C)
Solar energy is the driving force of all processes occurring on Earth. Solar activity is a set of physical processes occurring on the Sun. Solar activity cycles are 11, 22, 8090, 900 years. During periods when solar activity is maximum, the growth and development of living organisms is activated, social tension and the number of diseases increase, etc.
The planets of the Solar System are conventionally divided into two groups: Terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) - have a small size, but large mass and density, and few satellites. Giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune) are large in size, but have low mass and density, and have many satellites.
The Moon is a satellite of the Earth. Radius – 1738 thousand km, Distance to Earth – 384 thousand km. Mass – 1/81 of the mass of the Earth. Temperature: from -170 to +300°C. The period of the Moon's axial rotation is 27.3 Earth days (sidereal month). Influence of the Moon: The period of complete change of ebb and flow of lunar phases (new moon, (every 12 hours 25 minutes); first quarter, full moon, solar and lunar last quarter) - 29.5 eclipses. days (synodic month). Lunar day – 24 hours 50 minutes.
Shape and size of the Earth Evolution of ideas about the shape of the Earth: Disc (ancient times) Ball (Aristotle, 3rd century BC) Ellipsoid (Newton, 17th century) Geoid (modern times)
Evidence of the spherical shape of the Earth. Images from space. Degree measurements of the earth's surface. Lunar eclipses (the shadow of the Earth is visible in the form of a circle). When moving, tall objects gradually appear from the horizon. When moving along the meridian, the appearance of the starry sky changes. As you move up, the range of the visible horizon increases. Lighting tall objects before sunrise and after sunset. Traveling around the world.
Dimensions of the Earth Equatorial radius - 6,378 km Polar radius - 6,357 km Average radius - 6,371 km Amount of polar compression - 21 km Equator length - 40,075 km Polar meridian length - 40,008 km
Consequences of the spherical shape of the Earth and its size The spherical shape leads to the emergence of geographic (latitudinal) zonality due to a decrease in the angle of incidence of the sun's rays on the earth's surface from the equator to the poles. The size and shape of the Earth make it possible to maintain an atmosphere of a certain composition and hydrosphere, without which life is impossible.
Throughout the history of science, the interests of geoscience have included developing ideas about the world around humans - planet Earth, the solar system, the Universe. The first mathematically substantiated model of the universe was the geocentric system of C. Ptolemy (165-87 BC), which correctly for that time reflected the part of the world accessible to direct observation. Only 1500 years later, the heliocentric model of the solar system of N. Copernicus (1473-1543) was established.
Advances in physical theory and astronomy at the end of the 19th century. and the advent of the first optical telescopes led to the creation of ideas about an unchanging Universe. The development of the theory of relativity and its application to the solution of cosmological paradoxes (gravitational, photometric) created a relativistic theory of the Universe, which was initially presented by A. Einstein as a static model. In 1922-1924 gt. A.A. Friedman obtained solutions to the equations of the general theory of relativity for matter uniformly filling all space (model of a homogeneous isotropic Universe), which showed the non-stationary nature of the Universe - it must expand or contract. In 1929, E. Hubble discovered the expansion of the Universe, refuting the idea of its inviolability. The theoretical results of A.A. Friedman and E. Hubble made it possible to introduce the concept of “beginning” into the evolution of the Universe and explain its structure.
In 1946-1948. G. Gamow developed the theory of the “hot” Universe, according to which at the beginning of evolution the matter of the Universe had a temperature and density that were unattainable experimentally. In 1965, relict microwave background radiation was discovered, which initially had a very high temperature, which experimentally confirmed G. Gamow’s theory.
This is how our ideas about the world expanded in spatial and temporal terms. If for a long time the Universe was considered as an environment that included celestial bodies of various ranks, then according to modern ideas, the Universe is an ordered system developing unidirectionally. Along with this, the assumption arose that the Universe does not necessarily exhaust the concept of the material world and perhaps there are other Universes where the known laws of the universe do not necessarily apply.
Universe
Universe- this is the material world around us, limitless in time and space. The boundaries of the Universe will most likely expand as new opportunities for direct observation emerge, i.e. they are relative for each moment in time.
The Universe is one of the concrete scientific objects of experimental research. The fundamental laws of natural science are assumed to be true throughout the universe.
State of the Universe. The Universe is a non-stationary object, the state of which depends on time. According to the prevailing theory, the Universe is currently expanding: most galaxies (with the exception of those closest to ours) are moving away from us and relative to each other. The farther away the galaxy - the source of radiation - is located, the greater the speed of retreat (scattering). This dependence is described by the Hubble equation:
Where v- removal speed, km/s; R- distance to the galaxy, St. year; N - proportionality coefficient, or Hubble constant, H = 15×10 -6 km/(s×sa. year). It has been established that the acceleration speed increases.
One of the proofs of the expansion of the Universe is the “red shift of spectral lines” (Doppler effect): spectral absorption lines in objects moving away from the observer are always shifted towards long (red) waves of the spectrum, and approaching ones - towards short (blue).
Spectral absorption lines from all galaxies are inherently redshifted, which means expansion occurs.
Density of matter in the Universe. The distribution of matter density in individual parts of the Universe differs by more than 30 orders of magnitude. The highest density, if you do not take into account the microcosm (for example, the atomic nucleus), is inherent in neutron stars (about 10 14 g/cm 3), the lowest (10 -24 g/cm 3) - in the Galaxy as a whole. According to F.Yu. Siegel, the normal density of interstellar matter in terms of hydrogen atoms is one molecule (2 atoms) per 10 cm 3, in dense clouds - nebulae it reaches several thousand molecules. If the concentration exceeds 20 hydrogen atoms per 1 cm 3, then the process of convergence begins, developing into accretion (sticking together).
Material composition. Of the total mass of matter in the Universe, only about 1/10 is visible (luminous), the remaining 9/10 is invisible (non-luminous) matter. Visible matter, the composition of which can be confidently judged by the nature of the emission spectrum, is represented mainly by hydrogen (80-70%) and helium (20-30%). There are so few other chemical elements in the luminous mass of matter that they can be neglected. There is no significant amount of antimatter found in the Universe, with the exception of a small fraction of antiprotons in cosmic rays.
The universe is filled with electromagnetic radiation, which is called relict, those. left over from the early stages of the evolution of the Universe.
Homogeneity, isotropy and structure. On a global scale, the Universe is considered isotropic And homogeneous. A sign of isotropy, i.e. The independence of the properties of objects from the direction in space is the uniformity of the distribution of relict radiation. The most accurate modern measurements have not detected deviations in the intensity of this radiation in different directions and depending on the time of day, which at the same time indicates the great homogeneity of the Universe.
Another feature of the Universe is heterogeneity And structure(discreteness) on a small scale. On a global scale of hundreds of megaparsecs, the matter of the Universe can be considered as a homogeneous continuous medium, the particles of which are galaxies and even clusters of galaxies. A more detailed examination reveals the structured nature of the Universe. The structural elements of the Universe are cosmic bodies, primarily stars, forming stellar systems of different ranks: galaxy- galaxy cluster- Metagalaxy, They are characterized by localization in space, movement around a common center, a certain morphology and hierarchy.
The Milky Way Galaxy consists of 10 11 stars and the interstellar medium. It belongs to spiral systems that have a plane of symmetry (the plane of the disk) and an axis of symmetry (the axis of rotation). The oblateness of the Galaxy's disk, observed visually, indicates a significant speed of its rotation around its axis. The absolute linear speed of its objects is constant and equal to 220-250 km/s (it is possible that it increases for objects very distant from the center). The period of rotation of the Sun around the center of the Galaxy is 160-200 million years (on average 180 million years) and is called galactic year.
Evolution of the Universe. In accordance with the model of the expanding Universe, developed by A.A. Friedman on the basis of A. Einstein’s general theory of relativity, it has been established that:
1) at the beginning of evolution, the Universe experienced a state of cosmological singularity, when the density of its matter was equal to infinity and the temperature exceeded 10 28 K (with a density of over 10 93 g/cm 3 the matter has unexplored quantum properties of space-time and gravity);
2) a substance in a singular state underwent a sudden expansion, which can be compared to an explosion (“Big Bang”);
3) under conditions of nonstationarity of the expanding Universe, the density and temperature of matter decrease with time, i.e. in the process of evolution;
4) at a temperature of the order of 10 9 K, nucleosynthesis took place, as a result of which chemical differentiation of matter occurred and the chemical structure of the Universe arose;
5) based on this, the Universe could not exist forever and its age is determined from 13 to 18 billion years.
solar system
Solar system - this is the Sun and a set of celestial bodies: 9 planets and their satellites (as of 2002 their number was 100), many asteroids, comets and meteors that revolve around the Sun or enter (like comets) into the Solar System. Basic information about the objects of the Solar system is contained in Fig. 3.1 and table. 3.1.
Table 3.1. Some physical parameters of the planets of the solar system
| Solar System Object | Distance from the Sun | radius, km | number of earth radii | weight, 10 23 kg | mass relative to Earth | average density, g/cm 3 | orbital period, number of Earth days | period of rotation around its axis | number of satellites (moons) | albedo | acceleration of gravity at the equator, m/s 2 | speed of separation from the planet's gravity, m/s | presence and composition of the atmosphere, % | average surface temperature, °C | |
| million km | a.e. | ||||||||||||||
| Sun | - | 695 400 | 1.989×10 7 | 332,80 | 1,41 | 25-36 | 9 | - | 618,0 | Absent | |||||
| Mercury | 57,9 | 0,39 | 0,38 | 3,30 | 0,05 | 5,43 | 59 days | 0,11 | 3,70 | 4,4 | Absent | ||||
| Venus | 108,2 | 0,72 | 0,95 | 48,68 | 0,89 | 5,25 | 243 days | 0,65 | 8,87 | 10,4 | CO 2, N 2, H 2 O | ||||
| Earth | 149,6 | 1,0 | 1,0 | 59,74 | 1,0 | 5,52 | 365,26 | 23 h 56 min 4s | 0,37 | 9,78 | 11,2 | N 2, O 2, CO 2, Ar, H 2 O | |||
| Moon | 1,0 | 0,27 | 0,74 | 0,0123 | 3,34 | 29,5 | 27 h 32 min | - | 0,12 | 1,63 | 2,4 | Very dressed up | -20 | ||
| Mars | 227,9 | 1,5 | 0,53 | 6,42 | 0,11 | 3,95 | 24 h 37 min 23 s | 0,15 | 3,69 | 5,0 | CO 2 (95.3), N 2 (2.7), Ar (1.6), O 2 (0.15), H 2 O (0.03) | -53 | |||
| Jupiter | 778,3 | 5,2 | 18986,0 | 1,33 | 11.86 years | 9 h 30 min 30 s | 0,52 | 23,12 | 59,5 | N (77), Not (23) | -128 | ||||
| Saturn | 1429,4 | 9,5 | 5684,6 | 0,69 | 29.46 years | 10 hours 14 minutes | 0,47 | 8,96 | 35,5 | N, Not | -170 | ||||
| Uranus | 2871,0 | 19,2 | 25 362 | 868,3 | 1,29 | 84.07 years | 11 h3 | 0,51 | 8,69 | 21,3 | N (83), He (15), CH 4 (2) | -143 | |||
| Neptune | 4504,3 | 30,1 | 24 624 | 1024,3 | 1,64 | 164.8 years | 16h | 0,41 | 11,00 | 23,5 | N, He, CH 4 | -155 | |||
| Pluto | 5913,5 | 39,5 | 0,18 | 0,15 | 0,002 | 2,03 | 247,7 | 6.4 days | 0,30 | 0,66 | 1,3 | N2, CO, NH4 | -210 |
Sun is a hot gas ball, in which about 60 chemical elements were found (Table 3.2). The Sun rotates around its axis in a plane inclined at an angle of 7°15" to the plane of the Earth's orbit. The speed of rotation of the surface layers of the Sun is different: at the equator the period of revolution is 25.05 days, at a latitude of 30° - 26.41 days, in the polar regions - 36 days. The source of the Sun's energy is nuclear reactions that convert hydrogen into helium. The amount of hydrogen will ensure the preservation of its luminosity for tens of billions of years. Only one two-billionth of the solar energy reaches the Earth.
The sun has a shell structure (Fig. 3.2). In the center they highlight core with a radius of approximately 1/3 of the sun, a pressure of 250 billion atm, a temperature of more than 15 million K and a density of 1.5 × 10 5 kg/m 3 (150 times the density of water). Almost all of the sun's energy is generated in the core, which is transmitted through radiation zone, where light is repeatedly absorbed by a substance and re-emitted. Above is located convection zone(mixing), in which a substance begins to move due to uneven heat transfer (a process similar to the transfer of energy in a boiling kettle). The visible surface of the Sun is formed by its atmosphere. Its lower part with a thickness of about 300 km, emitting the bulk of the radiation, is called photosphere. This is the "coldest" place on the Sun with temperatures decreasing from 6000 to 4500 K in the upper layers. The photosphere is formed by granules with a diameter of 1000-2000 km, the distance between which is from 300 to 600 km. The granules create a general background for various solar formations - prominences, faculae, spots. Above the photosphere to an altitude of 14 thousand km is located chromosphere. During total lunar eclipses, it is visible as a pink halo surrounding a dark disk. The temperature in the chromosphere increases and in the upper layers reaches several tens of thousands of degrees. The outermost and thinnest part of the solar atmosphere is solar corona- extends over distances of several tens of solar radii. The temperature here exceeds 1 million degrees.
Table 3.2. Chemical composition of the Sun and terrestrial planets, % (according to A. A. Marakushev, 1999)
| Element | Sun | Mercury | Venus | Earth | Mars |
| Si | 34,70 | 16,45 | 33,03 | 31,26 | 36,44 |
| Fe | 30,90 | 63,07 | 30,93 | 34,50 | 24,78 |
| Mg | 27,40 | 15,65 | 31,21 | 29,43 | 34,33 |
| Na | 2,19 | - | - | - | - |
| Al | 1,74 | 0,97 | 2,03 | 1,90 | 2,29 |
| Ca | 1,56 | 0,88 | 1,62 | 1,53 | 1,73 |
| Ni | 0,90 | 2,98 | 1,18 | 1,38 | 0,43 |
Rice. 3.2. Structure of the Sun
Planets The solar system is divided into two groups: internal, or terrestrial planets - Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, and external, or giant planets - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. The estimated material composition of the planets is shown in Fig. 3.3.
Terrestrial planets. The inner planets have relatively small sizes, high density and internal differentiation of matter. They are distinguished by an increased concentration of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen, and a lack of hydrogen and helium. Terrestrial planets are characterized by tectonic asymmetry: the structure of the crust of the northern hemispheres of the planets differs from the southern ones.
Mercury - the planet closest to the Sun. Among the planets of the Solar System, it is distinguished by the most elongated elliptical orbit. The temperature on the illuminated side is 325-437°C, on the night side - from -123 to -185°C. The American spacecraft Mariner 10 in 1974 discovered a rarefied atmosphere on Mercury (pressure 10 -11 atm), consisting of helium and hydrogen in a ratio of 50:1. Mercury's magnetic field is 100 times weaker than Earth's, which is largely due to the planet's slow rotation around its axis. The surface of Mercury has much in common with the surface of the Moon, but the continental topography predominates. Along with lunar-like craters of various sizes, scarps that are absent on the Moon are noted - cliffs, 2-3 km high and hundreds and thousands of kilometers long.
Rice. 3.3. The structure and estimated material composition of the planets (according to G.V. Voitkevich): A - earth group: 1, 2, 3 - silicate, metal, metal sulfide substances, respectively; b- giants: 1 - molecular hydrogen; 2 - metallic hydrogen; 3 - water ice; 4 - core composed of stone or iron-stone material
The mass of Mercury is 1/18 of the mass of the Earth. Despite its small size, Mercury has an unusually high density (5.42 g/cm3), close to the density of the Earth. The high density indicates a hot, and likely molten, metallic core, which accounts for about 62% of the planet's mass. The core is surrounded by a silicate shell about 600 km thick. The chemical composition of the surface rocks and subsoil of Mercury can be judged only from indirect data. The reflectivity of the Mercury regolith indicates that it consists of the same rocks that make up the lunar soil.
Venus rotates around its axis even slower (in 244 Earth days) than Mercury, and in the opposite direction, so the Sun on Venus rises in the west and sets in the east. The mass of Venus is 81% of the earth's mass. The weight of objects on Venus is only 10% less than their weight on Earth. It is believed that the planet’s crust is thin (15-20 km) and its main part is represented by silicates, which are replaced at a depth of 3224 km by an iron core. The planet's topography is dissected - mountain ranges up to 8 km high alternate with craters with a diameter of tens of kilometers (maximum up to 160 km) and a depth of up to 0.5 km. Vast leveled spaces are covered with rocky scatterings of sharp-angled debris. A giant linear depression up to 1500 km long and 150 km wide with a depth of up to 2 km was discovered near the equator. Venus does not have a dipole magnetic field, which is explained by its high temperature. On the surface of the planet the temperature is (468+7)°C, and at depth, obviously, 700-800°C.
Venus has a very dense atmosphere. On the surface, the atmospheric pressure is at least 90-100 atm, which corresponds to the pressure of the earth’s seas at a depth of 1000 m. The chemical composition of the atmosphere consists mainly of carbon dioxide with an admixture of nitrogen, water vapor, oxygen, sulfuric acid, hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride. It is believed that the atmosphere of Venus roughly corresponds to the earth’s in the early stages of its formation (3.8-3.3 billion years ago). The cloud layer of the atmosphere extends from a height of 35 km to 70 km. The lower layer of clouds consists of 75-80% sulfuric acid, in addition, hydrofluoric and hydrochloric acids are present. Being 50 million km closer than the Earth to the Sun, Venus receives twice as much heat as our planet - 3.6 cal/(cm 2 × min). This energy is accumulated by the carbon dioxide atmosphere, which causes a huge greenhouse effect and high temperatures of the Venusian surface - hot and, apparently, dry. Cosmic information indicates a peculiar glow of Venus, which is probably explained by the high temperatures of surface rocks.
Venus is characterized by complex cloud dynamics. There are probably powerful polar vortexes and strong winds at an altitude of about 40 km. Near the surface of the planet, the winds are weaker - about 3 m/s (obviously due to the absence of significant differences in surface temperature), which is confirmed by the absence of dust in the landing sites of the Venus station's descent modules. For a long time, the dense atmosphere did not allow us to judge the rocks of the Venusian surface. Analysis of the natural radioactivity of uranium, thorium and potassium isotopes in soils showed results close to those of terrestrial basalts and partially granites. Surface rocks are magnetized.
Mars is located 75 million km farther from the Sun than the Earth, so the Martian day is longer than the Earth's, and the amount of solar energy it receives is 2.3 times less compared to the Earth. The period of rotation around its axis is almost the same as that of the Earth. The inclination of the axis to the orbital plane ensures the change of seasons and the presence of “climatic” zones - a hot equatorial one, two temperate ones and two polar ones. Due to the small amount of incoming solar energy, the contrasts of thermal zones and seasons of the year are less pronounced than on Earth.
The density of the atmosphere of Mars is 130 times less than that of Earth and is only 0.01 atm. The atmosphere contains carbon dioxide, nitrogen, argon, oxygen, and water vapor. Daily temperature fluctuations exceed 100°C: at the equator during the day - about 10-20°C, and at the poles - below -100°C. Large temperature differences are observed between the day and night sides of the planet: from 10-30 to -120°C. At an altitude of about 40 km, Mars is surrounded by an ozone layer. A weak dipole magnetic field has been noted for Mars (at the equator it is 500 times weaker than the Earth's).
The surface of the planet is pitted with numerous craters of volcanic and meteorite origin. The average height difference is 12-14 km, but the huge caldera of the Nix Olympics volcano (Snows of Olympus) rises to 24 km. The diameter of its base is 500 km, and the diameter of the crater is 65 km. Some volcanoes are active. A peculiarity of the planet is the presence of huge tectonic cracks (for example, the Marineris Canyon, 4000 km long and 2000 km wide with a depth of up to 6 km), reminiscent of terrestrial grabens and morphosculptures corresponding to river valleys.
Images of Mars show areas that are light in color (“continental” areas, apparently composed of granites), yellow in color (“marine” areas, apparently composed of basalts) and snow-white in appearance (glacial polar caps). Observations of the polar regions of the planet have established variability in the outlines of ice massifs. According to scientists, the glacial polar caps are composed of frozen carbon dioxide and, possibly, water ice. The reddish color of the surface of Mars is probably due to hematitization and limonitization (iron oxidation) of rocks, which are possible in the presence of water and oxygen. Obviously, they come from the inside when the surface warms up during the day or with gas exhalations that melt the permafrost.
A study of rocks showed the following ratio of chemical elements (%): silica - 13-15, iron oxides - 12-16, calcium - 3-8, aluminum - 2-7, magnesium - 5, sulfur - 3, as well as potassium, titanium , phosphorus, chromium, nickel, vanadium. The composition of the soil on Mars is similar to some terrestrial volcanic rocks, but is enriched in iron compounds and depleted in silica. No organic formations were found on the surface. In the near-surface layers of the planet (from a depth of 50 cm), the soils are bound by permafrost, extending up to 1 km deep. In the depths of the planet, the temperature reaches 800-1500°C. It is assumed that at shallow depths the temperature should be 15-25 ° C, and the water may be in a liquid state. Under these conditions, the simplest living organisms can exist, traces of whose vital activity have not yet been found.
Mars has two satellites - Phobos (27x21x19 km) and Deimos (15x12x11 km), which are obviously fragments of asteroids. The orbit of the first is 5,000 km from the planet, the second is 20,000 km.
In table Figure 3.2 shows the chemical composition of the terrestrial planets. The table shows that Mercury is characterized by the highest concentrations of iron and nickel and the lowest silicon and magnesium.
Giant planets. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are noticeably different from the terrestrial planets. In the giant planets, especially those closest to the Sun, the total angular momentum of the Solar system (in Earth units) is concentrated: Neptune - 95, Uranus - 64, Saturn - 294, Jupiter - 725. The distance of these planets from the Sun allowed them to retain a significant amount primary hydrogen and helium lost by the terrestrial planets under the influence of the “solar wind” and due to the insufficiency of their own gravitational forces. Although the density of the substance of the outer planets is small (0.7-1.8 g/cm 3), their volumes and masses are enormous.
The largest planet is Jupiter, which is 1300 times larger in volume and more than 318 times larger in mass than Earth. It is followed by Saturn, whose mass is 95 times the mass of the Earth. These planets contain 92.5% of the mass of all planets in the Solar System (71.2% for Jupiter and 21.3% for Saturn). The group of outer planets is completed by two twin giants - Uranus and Neptune. An important feature is the presence of rocky satellites on these planets, which probably indicates their external cosmic origin and is not associated with the differentiation of the substance of the planets themselves, formed by condensations primarily in the gaseous state. Many researchers believe that the central parts of these planets are rocky.
Jupiter with characteristic spots and stripes on the surface that are parallel to the equator and have variable outlines, it is the most accessible planet for exploration. The mass of Jupiter is only two orders of magnitude less than the Sun. The axis is almost perpendicular to the orbital plane.
Jupiter has a powerful atmosphere and a strong magnetic field (10 times stronger than the Earth’s), which determines the presence around the planet of powerful radiation belts of protons and electrons captured by Jupiter’s magnetic field from the “solar wind”. The atmosphere of Jupiter, in addition to molecular hydrogen and helium, contains various impurities (methane, ammonia, carbon monoxide, water vapor, phosphine molecules, hydrogen cyanide, etc.). The presence of these substances may be a consequence of the assimilation of heterogeneous material from Space. The layered hydrogen-helium mass reaches a thickness of 4000 km and, due to the uneven distribution of impurities, forms stripes and spots.
The huge mass of Jupiter suggests the presence of a powerful liquid or semi-liquid core of the asthenospheric type, which can be a source of volcanism. The latter, in all likelihood, explains the existence of the Great Red Spot, which has been observed since the 17th century. If there is a semi-liquid or solid core on the planet, there must be a strong greenhouse effect.
According to some scientists, Jupiter plays the role of a kind of “vacuum cleaner” in the solar system - its powerful magnetic-gravitational field intercepts comets, asteroids and other bodies wandering in the Universe. A clear example was the capture and fall of the comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 onto Jupiter in 1994. The force of gravity turned out to be so strong that the comet split into separate fragments, which crashed into the atmosphere of Jupiter at a speed of over 200 thousand km/h. Each explosion reached millions of megatons of power, and observers from Earth saw explosion stains and diverging waves of excited atmosphere.
At the beginning of 2003, the number of Jupiter's satellites reached 48, a third of which have their own names. Many of them are characterized by reverse rotation and small sizes - from 2 to 4 km. The four largest satellites - Ganymede, Callisto, Io, Europa - are called Galileans. The satellites are composed of hard stone material, apparently of silicate composition. Active volcanoes, traces of ice and, possibly, liquids, including water, were found on them.
Saturn, The “ringed” planet is no less interesting. Its average density, calculated from the apparent radius, is very low - 0.69 g/cm 3 (without atmosphere - about 5.85 g/cm 3). The thickness of the atmospheric layer is estimated at 37-40 thousand km. A distinctive feature of Saturn is its ring located above the cloud layer of the atmosphere. Its diameter is 274 thousand km, which is almost twice the diameter of the planet, and its thickness is about 2 km. Based on observations from space stations, it has been established that the ring consists of a number of small rings located at different distances from each other. The substance of the rings is represented by solid fragments, apparently silicate rocks and ice blocks ranging in size from a speck of dust to several meters. Atmospheric pressure on Saturn is 1.5 times higher than on Earth, and the average surface temperature is about -180°C. The planet's magnetic field is almost half as strong as the Earth's, and its polarity is opposite to the polarity of the Earth's field.
30 satellites have been discovered near Saturn (as of 2002). The most distant of them, Phoebe (diameter about km) is located 13 million km from the planet and revolves around it in 550 days. The closest one is Mimas (diameter 195 km) located at 185.4 thousand km and makes a full revolution in 2266 hours. The mystery is the presence of hydrocarbons on the satellites of Saturn, and possibly on the planet itself.
Uranus. The axis of rotation of Uranus is located almost in the plane of its orbit. The planet has a magnetic field, the polarity of which is opposite to that of the Earth, and the intensity is less than that of the Earth.
In the dense atmosphere of Uranus, whose thickness is 8500 km, ring formations, spots, vortices, and jet streams have been discovered, which indicates a restless circulation of air masses. The wind directions generally coincide with the rotation of the planet, but at high latitudes their speed increases. The greenish-blue color of the cold atmosphere of Uranus may be due to the presence of [OH - ] radicals. The helium content in the atmosphere reaches 15%; methane clouds have been found in the lower layers.
Around the planet, 10 rings ranging in width from several hundred meters to several kilometers, consisting of particles about 1 m in diameter, were discovered. Moving inside the rings are stone blocks of irregular shape and a diameter of 16-24 km, called “shepherd” satellites (probably asteroids).
Among the 20 satellites of Uranus, five stand out for their significant sizes (from 1580 to 470 km in diameter), the rest are less than 100 km. They all look like asteroids captured by the gravitational field of Uranus. On the spherical surface of some of them, giant linear stripes were noticed - cracks, possibly traces of glancing impacts of meteorites.
Neptune- the most distant planet from the Sun. Atmospheric clouds are formed mainly by methane. In the upper layers of the atmosphere there are wind currents rushing at supersonic speeds. This means the existence of temperature and pressure gradients in the atmosphere, apparently caused by the internal heating of the planet.
Neptune has 8 rocky satellites, three of which are of significant size: Triton (diameter 2700 km), Nerida (340 km) and Proteus (400 km), the rest are smaller - from 50 to 190 km.
Pluto- the most distant of the planets, discovered in 1930, does not belong to the giant planets. Its mass is 10 times less than the earth's.
Rotating rapidly around its axis, Pluto has a highly elongated elliptical orbit, and therefore from 1969 to 2009 it will be closer to the Sun than Neptune. This fact may be additional evidence of its “non-planetary” nature. It is likely that Pluto belongs to bodies from the Kuiper belt, discovered in the 90s of the 20th century, which is an analogue of the asteroid belt, but beyond the orbit of Neptune. Currently, about 40 such bodies with a diameter of 100 to 500 km, very dim and almost black, with an albedo of 0.01 - 0.02 (the Moon's albedo is 0.05) have been discovered. Pluto may be one of them. The surface of the planet is obviously icy. Pluto has a single satellite, Charon, with a diameter of 1190 km, with an orbit passing 19 thousand km from it and an orbital period of 6.4 Earth days.
Based on the nature of the movement of the planet Pluto, researchers suggest the presence of another extremely distant and small (tenth) planet. At the end of 1996, it was reported that astronomers from the Hawaiian Observatory had discovered a celestial body consisting of ice blocks that rotates in a near-solar orbit beyond Pluto. This minor planet does not yet have a name and is registered under the number 1996TL66.
Moon- a satellite of the Earth, rotating from it at a distance of 384 thousand km, whose size and structure bring it closer to the planets. The periods of axial and sidereal rotation around the Earth are almost equal (see Table 3.1), which is why the Moon always faces us with one side. The appearance of the Moon for an earthly observer is constantly changing in accordance with its phases - new moon, first quarter, full moon, last quarter. The period of complete change of lunar phases is called synodic month, which on average is equal to 29.53 Earth days. It doesn't match sidereal(to the stars) month constituting 27.32 days, during which the Moon makes a full revolution around the Earth and at the same time - a revolution around its axis in relation to the Sun. During the new moon, the Moon is between the Earth and the Sun and is not visible from the Earth. During a full moon, the Earth is between the Moon and the Sun and the Moon is visible as a full disk. Associated with the positions of the Sun, Earth and Moon solar And lunar eclipses- positions of the luminaries at which the shadow cast by the Moon falls on the surface of the Earth (solar eclipse), or the shadow cast by the Earth falls on the surface of the Moon (lunar eclipse).
The lunar surface is an alternation of dark areas - “seas”, corresponding to flat plains, and light areas - “continents”, formed by hills. The height differences reach 12-13 km, the highest peaks (up to 8 km) are located near the South Pole. Numerous craters ranging in size from several meters to hundreds of kilometers are of meteorite or volcanic origin (in the Alphonse crater, the glow of the central mountain and the release of carbon were discovered in 1958). Intense volcanic processes characteristic of the Moon in the early stages of development are now weakened.
Samples of the upper layer of lunar soil - regolith, taken by Soviet spacecraft and American astronauts, showed that igneous rocks of basic composition - basalts and anorthosites - emerge on the surface of the Moon. The former are characteristic of “seas”, the latter - of “continents”. The low density of regolith (0.8-1.5 g/cm3) is explained by its high porosity (up to 50%). The average density of the darker “marine” basalts is 3.9 g/cm3, and the lighter “continental” anorthosites is 2.9 g/cm3, which is higher than the average density of crustal rocks (2.67 g/cm3) . The average density of the Moon's rocks (3.34 g/cm3) is lower than the average density of the Earth's rocks (5.52 g/cm3). They assume a homogeneous structure of its interior and, apparently, the absence of a significant metallic core. Up to a depth of 60 km, the lunar crust is composed of the same rocks as the surface. The Moon has not detected its own dipole magnetic field.
In terms of chemical composition, lunar rocks are close to those on Earth and are characterized by the following indicators (%): SiO 2 - 49.1 - 46.1; MgO - 6.6-7.0; FeO - 12.1-2.5; A1 2 O 3 - 14.7-22.3; CaO -12.9-18.3; Na 2 O - 0.6-0.7; TiO 2 - 3.5-0.1 (the first numbers are for the soil of the lunar “seas”, the second - for continental soil). The close similarity of the rocks of the Earth and the Moon may indicate that both celestial bodies were formed at a relatively short distance from each other. The Moon formed in a near-Earth “satellite swarm” approximately 4.66 billion years ago. The bulk of iron and fusible elements at this time had already been captured by the Earth, which probably determined the absence of an iron core on the Moon.
Its small mass allows the Moon to retain only a very rarefied atmosphere consisting of helium and argon. Atmospheric pressure on the Moon is 10 -7 atm during the day and ~10 -9 atm at night. The absence of an atmosphere determines large daily fluctuations in surface temperature - from -130 to 180C.
Exploration of the Moon began on January 2, 1959, when the first Soviet automatic station, Luna-1, launched towards the Moon. The first humans were American astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin, who landed on the moon on July 21, 1969 on the Apollo 11 spacecraft.
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