Brutus and Cassius were killed. Death of the Roman Republic, Battle of Philippi

Second triumvirate

The union of supporters of individual power, who saw the ideal of government in the model that Caesar proposed when he declared himself dictator for life, did not form immediately. Initially, the paths of the future triumvirs (from the Latin tres viri - “three people”) diverged greatly - young Octavian (he was not even twenty when Caesar was killed), whom Caesar announced as his successor, tried to flirt with the aristocratic and trading circles of Rome and Italy .

Antony, Lepidus and Octavian created a triumvirate like Caesar and Crassus

Anthony, who enjoyed the respect and love of Caesar's veterans, and who had undoubted military leadership talent and military valor, tried to pursue an independent policy, and was almost defeated. However, the connivance of Octavian, and then the open cooperation of the new Caesar and Anthony, strengthened the positions of both heirs to such an extent that in 43 BC. e. decided to formally conclude an alliance for five years, known to us as the second triumvirate, and legitimize it. This distinguished the unification from the first triumvirate of Pompey, Crassus and Caesar, which was a secret agreement.

The third participant was Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, who was not afraid to act as a mediator between Octavian and Antony, for which he received a place in the triumvirate. As in the first triumvirate, the participants divided the territories under their control among themselves (the eastern provinces were in the hands of the Republicans who fled there from Italy). Mark Antony was considered the leader of the triumvirate, and indeed of the entire Caesarian party - Augustus was still young, and Lepidus was simply a rather ordinary person. The triumvirs had virtually unlimited powers to both make laws and enforce them.

Morning of the senatorial execution

The new masters of Italy and the western provinces immediately began to replenish the treasury and eliminate enemies using Rome’s favorite method - compiling special lists of people declared outlaws, whose lives were now worthless. Such lists were called proscriptions and were widely used in Rome from the beginning of the century. Many prominent aristocrats and senators were put to death (Cicero, for example, was outlawed) and rich financiers and tax farmers, who clearly had something to profit from. Rome was in turmoil - a man could be captured in the middle of the day by his own servants or stabbed to death by the soldiers whom the triumvirs brought with them. The things of the “enemies of the people” were sold at auction, but since the city was ruled by soldiers and Caesarians, people tried not to buy things at auctions, despite the attractive prices, for fear of revealing their wealth.

Mark Antony

The low profits received from proscriptions could not quench the thirst for gold of the triumvirs - from Caesar they received 43 legions and more than 100 thousand auxiliary troops (about 250 thousand soldiers and officers). Many soldiers were still awaiting pay for Caesar's campaigns in Greece and Spain, but funds were sorely lacking. Even despite the extraordinary taxes, new confiscations and robberies of the soldiers were kept down only thanks to new promises of generous awards. And unrest in Italy was becoming an increasingly realistic prospect - this could not continue for long, a war was needed.

Eastern "consuls"

The main opponents of the triumvirs were staunch republicans and the main participants in the assassination of Caesar, Guy Cassius Longinus and Marcus Junius Brutus. United in their views, they were radically different people: Cassius was a valiant warrior and a talented commander, and in this capacity he was perhaps not inferior to Mark Antony. Brutus was a true citizen, a stoic, a man more inclined to science than to political activity. He was thoroughly burdened by the burden that he had to put on his shoulders, which, as will become clear below, played an important role in the outcome of the Civil War.

War map of the Second Triumvirate and the Republicans

Cassius and Brutus decided to take advantage of the turmoil in Rome and strengthen their influence in the east as much as possible. An agreement was concluded with the Parthian king, who pledged not to invade Roman possessions in the coming years. Fallen or wavering kingdoms were brought into submission (for example, at Rhodes, Cassius captured 8,500 talents), the Republicans established control over sea communications and eliminated the threat from Cleopatra's Egypt. It must be said that at this time the eastern provinces of Rome were much richer than their western neighbors, who, in turn, supplied excellent soldiers, of whom there were plenty. Thus, the confrontation between the eastern and western provinces was once again resolved in the dispute between gold and iron.

The Caesarians had more than 40 legions, but Greece had less than half

In the summer of 42 BC. e. Cassius and Brutus united their armies in Asia Minor and crossed the Black Sea straits to Europe. They decided to defeat the forces of the Caesarians at all costs and revive the good old Roman Republic. And they had every opportunity for this: their army consisted of 17 legions, which were perfectly supplied and equipped, the carts were bursting with gold, which, as we know, is irreplaceable in war, the Republican fleet dominated the sea, which made life very difficult for their opponents. It seemed that all they needed was a little patience and luck, and Rome itself would fall at their feet. But, as often happens, it turned out a little differently.

All roads lead... to Greece?

The difficult political and financial situation forced the Caesarians to seek a decisive battle - only a battle could solve all their problems. In this case, Antony and Octavian had to concentrate troops in the Balkans, which were a kind of border with the Republicans. But even the transfer of troops from Italy to Illyria (about 130 km) caused serious difficulties - the triumvirs did not control Sicily and Sardinia, where Sextus Pompey (son of Gnaeus Pompey the Great) was entrenched, and did not have supremacy at sea.

The young poet Horace took part in the battle on the side of the Republicans

One way or another, Anthony managed to transport 8 legions at first, and when he learned that Cassius and Brutus were supposedly pushing back these 8 legions with all their might and threatening Illyria and Greece, he managed to increase the number of legions to 20 (approximately 110,000 people), as well as concentrated 13,000 cavalry. The Caesarians deployed these forces (except for one legion left in Amphipolna) on the battlefield at Philippi. Many of Caesar's veterans fought in the ranks of the army of Antony and Octavian and were again called up for service.

Roman soldiers during the Civil Wars

The Republican army, entrenched in the hills in front of Philippi, consisted of 17 legions of incomplete strength (about 90,000 people) and 22,000 cavalry. In addition, the legions were reinforced by infantry units from the eastern kingdoms (for example, the Asia Minor Celts). The Republican army was more diverse, the legions had weaker personnel.

And if tactically the triumvirs had an undoubted advantage, then strategically Cassius and Brutus had all the trump cards - they secured a favorable position on the hills, while their opponents were forced to set up camp in a swampy lowland. The Republicans organized the supply of food and supplies for the army, and the supplies of their opponents were melting and melting - Antony did not show it, but the situation was becoming more and more serious. Cassius firmly tried to adhere to the strategy of attrition: if this went further, the army of the triumvirs could simply scatter.

However, the soldiers of Cassius, and especially Brutus, who did not have such authority, languished from idleness when the enemy was under their noses - Antony (he actually commanded both armies - Octavian was unwell) day after day withdrew troops for battle, challenging the enemy. The Republican soldiers didn't care about strategy, they wanted to go home to their families in Italy. It was in this atmosphere that the Battle of Philippi began.

Sapper fight

The reason for the battle was a rather unusual reason - engineering and counter-engineering work on both sides. The fact is that Anthony decided to force events: throughout the second half of September he continued to withdraw troops for battle, and at the same time he cut a road through the swamps in order to cut off the Republicans entrenched on the hills from the supply of food. The work was carried out so quietly and skillfully that even Cassius did not suspect anything until the last moment. When the truth was revealed, Cassius decided to cut off Anthony’s communications with this road by blocking it with a wall.

Plan of the Battle of Philippi

October 3, 42 BC e. Antony noticed Cassius' legionaries moving forward to build the wall. He decided to use this moment to provoke the Republicans into battle: he turned his right wing against the fortifications of Cassius and moved forward.

Battle

Cassius did not expect such audacity - an attack on an army of equal size defending field fortifications was complete madness. However, Anthony not only decided to take a risk, but also had a fairly accurate calculation: while the main part of his army was fighting Cassius’ legionnaires, he sent several legions to storm Cassius’s main camp, which he had been strengthening for several weeks now. Since the camp was well fortified, it was almost unguarded - all the soldiers were taken out into the field to work on building a wall in order to cut off Anthony's communications.

The western provinces were behind the triumvirs, the eastern - behind the republicans

Anthony's legionaries attacked Cassius' camp and, after a lengthy battle, managed to take possession of it. Cassius' soldiers, seeing that the camp had been taken and having no overall command over them, began to scatter. However, there was no serious persecution - the Caesarians sought to plunder the enemy camp.

Brutus and Cassius at Philippi, frame from m/s Rome

It would seem a convincing victory for the triumvirs. But only on one flank. The opposite flank, commanded by Octavian, who had recovered and joined the active army, was completely destroyed. Brutus' soldiers rushed to attack the unsuspecting soldiers of Guy Caesar, overthrew them and drove them all the way to the camp, which the Republicans also managed to capture. From that moment on, Brutus's troops turned into the same uncontrollable crowd - they began to rob and riot in the camp, Octavian himself managed to escape by a lucky chance: he allegedly had a bad dream and his doctor advised him to stay away from the camp that day, which saved the future Augusta.

Loss for the Republic

In fact, this is where the battle ended - the soldiers dragged the loot to their camp, engaging in rare skirmishes. Republican losses on this day reach 8,000, but the triumvirs lost, according to historians, twice as many. Strategically, the situation did not change, which also benefited Brutus. However, a terrible misfortune befell the republican army: Gaius Cassius Longinus, the only republican commander capable of competing with Antony, was killed. According to legend, he allegedly saw a detachment of soldiers sent to him from Brutus to report the victory over Octavian, and considered them enemies. At that moment, he asked his freedman to hold the sword and rushed at him. However, in reality he was most likely killed by someone from his circle who was bribed by the triumvirs or hacked to death during the chaos in the camp.

Second battle

Brutus was not a capable commander and eventually gave in to the requests, pleas and demands of the soldiers, provoked by the Caesarians, to fight another battle. The battle took place three weeks after the first (October 23) and was very fierce, but Antony crushed Brutus’ left flank and put his army to flight. Brutus himself committed suicide without hoping for leniency from the victors.

The death of Cassius was a death sentence for the republic

Within a short period of time after the battle, he was followed by representatives of many aristocratic families who fought on the side of the Republicans (for example, the only son of Cato the Younger). The army remained decapitated and quickly began to go over to the winning side in entire legions.

Victory of the triumvirs?

The hero of this short but effective campaign in Macedonia was Anthony - he was now considered not only one of the outstanding commanders of our time, but it was he who was assigned the place of the new Roman dictator and ruler, contrary to the will of Caesar. The idea of ​​a republic was rapidly becoming a thing of the past, no matter how hard the triumvirs tried to hide behind traditional republican institutions and traditions.

Pax Romana of Octavian Augustus

For now, the triumvirate continued to exist and function, but with the disappearance of the powerful republican counterbalance from the political arena, the contradictions between Octavian and Antony became increasingly aggravated. This will lead to another large-scale war between former comrades, in which, as we know, Augustus will win. A century of bloody upheavals, unrest, wars, poverty and betrayal will end with the establishment of the so-called. August Peace - for 50 years in the empire they will forget about military coups and civil wars. But that's a completely different story.

Denarius of Marcus Junius Brutus "Ides of March".
Illustration from the site http://www.trajan.ru/napoleon.html

Brutus Marcus Junius (85-42 BC), Roman politician. In the struggle between Caesar and Pompey, Brutus stood on the side of the latter. After the defeat of Pompey at Pharsalus (48), Brutus was appointed by Caesar, who sought to attract him to himself, governor in Cisalpine Gaul (46), then praetor in Rome (44). Together with Cassius, Brutus led a conspiracy (44) against Caesar. According to legend, Brutus was one of the first to strike Caesar with a dagger. Having left Rome after the assassination of Caesar, Brutus and Cassius led the Republicans in the fight against the second triumvirate (Octavian, Antony and Lepidus). Macedonia, Greece, Asia and Syria came under their rule. After the defeat at Philippi in the fall of 42, Brutus committed suicide.

Materials from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia were used.

Brutus Marcus Junius (85-42 BC). Descendant of Brutus Lucius, champion of the republic, who killed Julius Caesar along with Gaius Cassius (44 BC). Brutus was on Pompey's side in the civil war between Pompey and Caesar, but after Pompey's defeat he was forgiven by Caesar and even received a high position. Later, Brutus, under the influence of Cassius, led a conspiracy against Caesar. Brutus was guided by the idea of ​​restoring the Republic. After Caesar's death, Brutus fled to Greece; he committed suicide after being defeated by the troops of Octavian and Antony. Brutus has long been remembered in history as an idealist and tyrannicide. He amazed Plutarch with his moral fortitude. For Shakespeare, Brutus was "the noblest Roman of all." The same feeling is felt in Michelangelo's bust of Brutus. However, Dante placed Brutus along with Cassius and Judas Iscariot in the last, fourth, belt of the ninth circle of Hell for betraying Caesar. There is a version according to which Brutus was the illegitimate son of Julius Caesar. 

Who's who in the ancient world. Directory. Ancient Greek and Roman classics. Mythology. Story. Art. Policy. Philosophy. Compiled by Betty Radish. Translation from English by Mikhail Umnov. M., 1993, p. 44.

Marcus Junius Brutus (85-42 BC) - Roman commander and politician. His mother Servilia had a close relationship with Julius Caesar, so the Romans had reason to consider Marcus Brutus the son of Caesar.

Marcus Brutus received an excellent education in Greece, was friends and corresponded with Cicero. At the beginning of the Civil War 49-45. he, despite his dislike for Gnaeus Pompey, joined his party, but after the battle of Pharsalus he went over to the side of Julius Caesar. In 46, Marcus Brutus ruled Cisalpine Gaul, received the praetorship in 44, and later, together with Marcus Cassius, he organized a conspiracy against Caesar, as a result of which the dictator was killed on March 15, 44.
The supporters of Marcus Brutus failed to completely master the situation in Rome. The compromise between Mark Antony and the Caesarians, on the one hand, and Mark Brutus and Mark Cassius, on the other, was only a temporary respite. In view of the unrest in Rome, Brutus, Cassius and other conspirators hastened to leave for their provinces. Taking advantage of the removal of Mark Antony from Rome, Republican supporters in the Senate transferred military powers in the East to them. In 43, Brutus and Cassius agreed on joint action. Their army, consisting of 20 legions and numerous auxiliary troops, was well armed and trained.

Meanwhile, the triumvirs (Mark Antony, Octavian and Lepidus) triumphed in Rome; the conspirators were convicted, an army was raised against Brutus and Cassius. In an effort to seize the initiative, Brutus and Cassius moved to Europe. At Philippi in Macedonia in the fall of 42, their troops were defeated by the Caesarians. Seeing his cause lost, Marcus Brutus committed suicide.

Book materials used: Tikhanovich Yu.N., Kozlenko A.V.

350 great. Brief biography of the rulers and generals of antiquity. The Ancient East; Ancient Greece; Ancient Rome. Minsk, 2005. ".

Read more about Dion's biography from Plutarch - in his "

Brutus

Key year: Marcus Junius (son) BRUTUS Roman senator and general known as an assassin Caesar. Brutus was the son Mark of Junius Brutus , and stepsister Cato of Utica Servilia. Considered a descendant Lucius Junius Bruta. Opinions often differ on this issue. Some believe that the first consul Brutus was a patrician, and Caesar's killer belonged to a plebeian family, presumably descended from one of the freedmen (just as the plebeian family of the Claudii descended from a freedman of the Claudian patricians). Brutus was adopted by his mother's brother, Quintius Servilius Caepio, and therefore received his name. He was married for the second time to Portia, daughter Mark of Junius Brutus. However, there is another opinion regarding paternal ancestry. It is believed that Brutus’s ill-wishers, who were angry with him for the murder of Caesar, argued that, apart from his name, he had nothing in common with Brutus, who expelled the Tarquins, for, having killed his sons, that Brutus remained childless, and that the house of Caesar’s murderer was plebeian, and rose to senior positions only recently. However, the philosopher Posidonius says that only two adult sons of Brutus were executed, but there was still a third, very small, from whom the whole family descended. According to Posidonius, in his time there were several prominent people from this house who showed a clear resemblance to the image that stood on the Capitol. In 59 BC. e. Brutus was falsely accused of plotting against Pompey, but Caesar, who by then had become his mother's lover, saw to it that the charges were dropped. Brutus was at first an opponent of Pompey, who killed his father in Gaul, but then sided with him when Pompey defended the cause of the optimates (aristocratic faction) in the civil war. However, after Caesar defeated Pompey at the Battle of Pharsalus (48 BC), Brutus defected to Caesar, who received him in a friendly manner and gave him the title in 46 BC. e. in the administration of Cisalpine Gaul. In 44 BC. e. Brutus became praetor, after which he was to gain control of Macedonia and even become consul. And yet he became the head of a conspiracy against Caesar. He received anonymous demands from various sides, reminding him of his origins from Brutus, the liberator of Rome from royal power, and prompting him to break with Caesar. Finally, Gaius Cassius Longinus attracted him to my side. The example of Brutus then prompted many noble Romans to join the conspiracy against Caesar. But when Caesar was killed, Brutus and the conspirators failed to attract the people with them. Anthony, whose murder, together with Caesar, was prevented by Brutus himself, managed, by reading Caesar’s will to the people, which provided the people with very significant sums, to arouse rage and thirst for revenge on his murderers in the crowd. Then Brutus went to Athens and captured Macedonia. Hortensius, who had until then ruled Macedonia, joined him. Owning all of Greece and Macedonia, Brutus became the head of a strong army, with which he defeated in 43 BC. e. Guy Anthony, brother of the triumvir, and took him prisoner. Then he moved to Asia and united with the victorious Cassius, together with whom he received from the Senate supreme power over all the provinces in the East. In Rome, however, the triumvirs soon triumphed: Mark Antony, Octavian And Lepidus. All the conspirators were convicted, and an army was equipped against Brutus and Cassius. The latter moved back to Europe to repel the triumvirs. They crossed the Dardanelles and massed their army, 17 legions and 17,000 cavalry, on the plains of Philippi in Macedonia, where the triumvirs Antony and Octavian confronted them in the fall of 42 BC. e. In the first battle fought by Octavian, Brutus overpowered his troops; but Cassius was defeated by Antony and committed suicide. After about 20 days, Brutus was forced to yield to the demands of his army and give a second battle, in which he was completely defeated. With a few friends, he managed to escape death. Seeing, however, that his cause was irrevocably lost, he threw himself on his sword. Only a few fragments of Brutus' speeches have survived; on the contrary, his correspondence with Cicero The entire book has been preserved and comprises two books.

Aphorisms (9) Connections (34)

The assassination of Julius Caesar occurred on March 15, 44 BC. e. A group of conspirators attacked the dictator right in the Senate chamber. He suffered numerous puncture wounds, which caused his death. A man who can actually be considered the first Roman emperor has passed away.

Reasons for the assassination of Julius Caesar

Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) - a prominent political figure in Ancient Rome. In 49 BC. e. became a dictator, concentrating all power in his hands. But in this case, the conversation is not about a person who has seized all the power, but about an administrative position in the Roman Republic. The dictator was appointed by decision of the Senate for a maximum of 1 year. And the reason could be internal unrest, political instability or military invasion from outside. In such a situation there was a need for a strong hand. When the situation returned to normal, the dictator lost his powers

Caesar's dictatorial powers were renewed every year due to the Civil War. But in 46 BC. e. There were no longer any justifications for appointment to this position. However, Caesar's supporters again proclaimed him dictator, and even with powers for 10 years. Considering that Guy was already well over 50, his dictatorship could be considered lifelong.

In 45, Guy added the word “emperor” (victorious commander) to his name. And in the same year, Emperor Caesar was again appointed to the post of dictator, but for life. Now it turned out that the Roman Republic continued to exist only formally. In fact, all power was concentrated in the hands of one person, who relied on the army and devoted like-minded people.

The usurpation of power did not find support among certain sections of the Roman population. In particular, the nobles (Roman aristocracy) and some Caesarians opposed it. These people stood up for traditional political institutions, believing that dictatorship would not be able to solve the moral and political problems that were brewing in society. And Cicero drew a parallel between the reign of Julius Caesar and royal power.

However, the newly-made dictator (in the literal sense of the word) ignored the dissatisfied and started a campaign for his own sacralization. It was announced to everyone that the ancestors of the Julian family were the gods. And Venus was considered the ancestor in a direct line. A temple was erected in her honor and a magnificent cult was organized. The dictator's chariot and his statue were installed in the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol. And the most important temple of Rome turned out to be dedicated not only to Jupiter, but also to Caesar, who began to be called a demigod.

Thus, a cult of personality arose very quickly. Moreover, everything was done for the deification of Guy. He even stopped getting up from his throne during a conversation with senators, which alienated many of his loyal comrades. All this was the reason for the conspiracy of democracy supporters. As a result, the assassination of Julius Caesar became a reality.

The organizer of the conspiracy is considered to be Gaius Longinus Cassius. The second person among the conspirators is Marcus Junius Brutus. It is noteworthy that his mother was the dictator's mistress. As a result of this, Caesar trusted Brutus, but was prejudiced towards Cassius. It was these two people who gathered around them senators who were dissatisfied with the usurpation of power.

There were 80 conspirators in total. They decided to deal with the tyrant at one of the Senate meetings and chose Julius Caesar to kill on March 15, 44 BC. e. But before this date, the dictator was repeatedly hinted to take care of his safety. Guy never carried a weapon with him and had no security, living by the principle that it was better to die once than to be afraid all his life.

On that fateful day, approaching the Senate building, Julius Caesar collided with a man. He quickly handed him a small scroll and left. It spoke of a planned conspiracy. But the dictator did not read the warning because he was distracted by other people. Chatting with those around him, Guy walked into the Senate. There he sat down on his throne, and was immediately approached by Senator Lucius Tillius Cimber. He began to ask for his brother, who was exiled.

Taking advantage of the fact that the dictator was distracted while talking with Lucius, the conspirators began to surround the throne. When the petitioner was convinced that Caesar was in a tight ring, he pulled him by the toga. This was the signal for an attack.

The conspirators decided in advance that they would kill the tyrant as a whole team in order to bind themselves with mutual responsibility. Therefore, pushing each other, people rushed towards Guy, pulled out daggers and began to strike. He tried to resist with a writing stick, and even scratched several people with it. But the blows rained down. The tyrant wrapped his head in a toga and fell to the floor. And the heated conspirators dealt several more blows to the motionless body.

While the massacre was going on, Caesar saw Brutus among the conspirators and was incredibly surprised at this. He is credited with the phrase: “And you too, my child?” But Plutarch claims that the dictator said nothing and fell silently at the feet of his murderers, which is more likely to be true.

In total, Caesar received 23 puncture wounds. And only one of them turned out to be fatal. The conspirators behaved nervously, hurried, pushed and even injured each other. But be that as it may, the goal of the conspiracy was achieved. The tyrant died and freed the hands of the senators.

However, the murder of Julius Caesar did not bring happiness to the attackers. Ordinary citizens of Rome were deeply outraged by the bloody conspiracy. All this soon resulted in a new Civil War. She destroyed the main conspirators and brought Octavian Augustus into the political arena. It was under him that the Roman Empire was created. As for the murdered dictator, the name of this man has survived centuries and is as well known today as it was 2 thousand years ago.

Brutus was the son of Marcus Junius Brutus and Cato Uticus' half-sister, Servilia. Erroneously considered a descendant of Lucius Junius Brutus, who expelled the last Roman king, Tarquinius the Proud. In fact, the first consul Brutus was a patrician, and Caesar's murderer belonged to a plebeian family, presumably descended from one of the freedmen (just as the plebeian family of the Claudii descended from a freedman of the Claudian patricians). Brutus was adopted by his mother's brother, Quintius Servilius Caepio, and therefore received his name. For the second time he was married to Portia, daughter of Cato Uticus.

Political activity

In 59 BC e. Brutus was falsely accused of plotting against Pompey, but Caesar, by then the lover of Brutus' mother, saw to it that the charges were dropped. Brutus was at first an opponent of Pompey, who killed his father in Gaul, but then sided with him when Pompey defended the cause of the optimates (aristocratic faction) in the civil war. However, after Caesar defeated Pompey at the Battle of Pharsalus (48 BC), Brutus switched sides to Caesar, who received him in a friendly manner and gave him the title in 46 BC. e. in the administration of Cisalpine Gaul. In 44 BC e. Brutus became praetor, after which he was to gain control of Macedonia and even become consul.

Assassination of Caesar

And yet Brutus became the head of the conspiracy against Caesar. He received anonymous demands from various sides, reminding him of his origins from Brutus, the liberator of Rome from royal power, and prompting him to break with Caesar. Finally, Gaius Cassius Longinus attracted him to his side. The example of Brutus then prompted many noble Romans to join the conspiracy against Caesar.

But when Caesar was killed on March 15, 44 BC. e., Brutus and the conspirators failed to captivate the people. Anthony, whose death, together with Caesar, was prevented by Brutus himself, managed, by reading Caesar's will to the people, which provided the people with very significant sums, to arouse rage in the crowd and a thirst for revenge on his murderers.

Fighting against the triumvirs and death

Then Brutus went to Athens and captured Macedonia. Hortensius, who had until then ruled Macedonia, joined him. Owning all of Greece and Macedonia, Brutus became the head of a strong army, with which he defeated in 43 BC. e. Guy Anthony, brother of the triumvir, and took him prisoner. Then he moved to Asia and united with the victorious Cassius, together with whom he received from the Senate supreme power over all the provinces in the East.

In Rome, however, the triumvirs soon triumphed: Mark Antony, Octavian and Lepidus. All the conspirators were convicted, and an army was equipped against Brutus and Cassius. The latter moved back to Europe to repel the triumvirs. They crossed the Dardanelles and massed their army, 17 legions and 17,000 cavalry, on the plains of Philippi in Macedonia, where the triumvirs Antony and Octavian encountered them in the fall of 42 BC. e.. In the first battle fought by Octavian, Brutus prevailed over his troops; but Cassius was defeated by Antony and committed suicide. After about 20 days, Brutus was forced by the demands of his army to give a second battle, in which he suffered a complete defeat. With a few friends, he managed to escape death. Seeing, however, that his cause was lost irrevocably, he threw himself on his sword...

Essays

Only a few fragments of Brutus' speeches have survived; on the contrary, his correspondence with Cicero has been preserved in its entirety and amounts to two volumes. The authenticity of individual letters, however, was disputed, namely by Tanstall (Cambr., 1741 and Lond., 1744), Zumpt (Berlin, 1845) and Meyer (Stuttg., 1881); defenders of their authenticity were: Middleton (London, 1743), Hermann (Gött., 1844-45), Kobe (in “Mnemosyne”, 1879), Gaston Boissier (“Cicéron et ses amis”, Paris, 1865; 7th ed., 1884).