Introduction
The concept of subject of labor
Periodization of the development of the subject of labor in domestic psychology
Periodization of the development of the subject of labor in foreign psychology
Conclusion
List of sources used
Introduction
For many years in Russian psychology little attention was paid to the problem of professional status, development, and activity of a person as a professional. However, work is one of the most important aspects of human life. With the help of work, a person solves not only material problems, but also issues of self-realization, personal growth, creativity, communication, and learns about his abilities and capabilities.
Unfortunately, for many years, issues of professional self-determination and growth were dealt with by people far from psychology. But it is psychology that allows us to find the answer to these questions.
B. M. Teplov wrote: “Psychology makes it possible to understand oneself... And knowing oneself is necessary for self-education... in order to consciously choose a specialty, a job in which one can bring the most benefit to the Motherland and receive the most satisfaction.”
Over the past century, the understanding of the mechanism of human adaptation to professional activity has changed. If initially in the “subject - object of labor” system the tasks of selecting standard or “ideal” performers were set, but gradually the solution to the problem of adaptation began to include the search for patterns of a professional career, professional self-determination, and the life path of a person as a subject of labor.
The range of tasks of labor psychology increasingly includes the study of the patterns of functioning of the worker not only as an individual, as an impersonal subject, but also as a person. The vector of studying man as an individual is increasingly being identified - in the present, still in relation to individual professions. Currently, all psychologists recognize the problematic ways in which a person becomes a subject of labor, as a professional.
In this work, we tried to consider the concept of “subject of labor”, the main stages of development of the subject of labor, periodization of the development of the subject of labor in domestic and foreign psychology.
1. The concept of subject of labor
The concept of “subject of labor” emphasizes the role of a person as an initiator of activity, a founder, a creator in his relations with those opposing him: objects of the objective and social environment, the internal (mental) and external world. This understanding corresponds to the interpretation of the psyche as an active principle.
The activity of the mental reflection of reality finds expression in the formation and construction of a person’s work activity:
action systems
· external and internal funds
conditions
· individual style
The mental reflection of reality is manifested in the fact that a person, having characteristic stable internal conditions of activity (individuality), does not simply follow the prevailing combination of circumstances, but transforms:
· circumstances
· yourself
· your relationships with other people
· way of social life.
The object here is the “receiver” of influences (if it is a social object, then in turn it is an active object), the subject is their initiator in the “subject-object” system.
Each subject of labor, a professional, has individual characteristics, therefore each person:
Strives to make maximum use of his qualities that affect productivity;
In various ways overcomes those qualities that hinder achievement;
He works with satisfaction and effectively when he has developed his own, inherent “handwriting” - an individual style.
According to E.A. Klimov, “the higher the skill and professionalism of a person, the less similar he is to other workers (also with a high level of skill).”
The condition for the effective influence of the subject on the object is the orientation of the former in the latter (the property of the psyche, as is known, is the mapping, modeling of the object). Therefore, one of the main directions of development in question is the acquisition by a person of an increasingly precise and broad cognitive orientation in what turns out to be the role of the environment in relation to consciousness (nature, a person’s own corporeality, society as an organization of people with its certain laws, artificial habitat, including technology, information flows). Thanks to speech and communication with his own kind, a person can use not only his personal experience, but also the experience of all humanity.
In the context of labor psychology, special importance is attached to the development of a person’s orientation in the world of professions. One of the directions of human development as a subject of labor is the formation of orientation, in particular labor, professional (development of interests in the world of work, people of work, its goals and meanings, tools, means, processes, objects, results, in the system of labor positions in society , development of the need for productive socially valuable activities, corresponding beliefs and other motives). Without the formation of personality orientation, conditions for the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities are not created.
Another direction of human development as a subject of labor is the assimilation of socially developed methods of action and the use of tools, means of activity (including internal means, and means of interpersonal interaction - verbal and non-verbal).
Evgeny Aleksandrovich Klimov outlines some other directions of human development as a subject of labor:
Formation of a system of stable personal qualities that create the possibility of successfully performing activities “here we mean what in psychology is designated as abilities (primarily functional capabilities in the field of activity and self-regulation).”
Formation of an individual style of activity (improving the knowledge of the subject of labor about himself and the formation of individually unique ways of solving typical life problems, taking into account not only external, but also internal conditions.
2. Periodization of the development of the subject of labor in domestic psychology
There are different periodizations of human development as a subject of labor. One of the most famous in Russian psychology is periodization proposed by E.A. Klimov.
Pre-professional development
1. The stage of pre-game (from birth to 3 years), when the functions of perception, movement, speech, the simplest rules of behavior and moral assessments are mastered, which become the basis for further development and introduction of a person to work.
2. Stage of play (from 3 to 6-8 years), when the child masters the “basic meanings of human activity, as well as gets acquainted with specific professions (playing driver, doctor, salesman, teacher, etc.). According to D.B. Elkonin “game is the child of labor” and the very emergence of children’s role-playing games occurred when the child could no longer directly master the work of adults, when the historical division and complication of labor took place.
3. The stage of mastering educational activities (from 6-8 to 11-12 years), when the functions of self-control, introspection, the ability to plan one’s activities, etc. intensively develop. It is especially important when a child independently plans his time when doing homework, overcoming the desire to take a walk and relax after school.
4. The optant stage of “option” (conscious preparation for “life”, for work, planning, designing a professional life path; from the Latin “optatio” - desire, election).
Option period (from 11-12 to 14-18 years). This stage of preparation for life, for work, conscious and responsible planning and choice of a professional path; Accordingly, a person who is in a situation of professional self-determination is called an optant. The paradox of this stage lies in the fact that an adult, for example an unemployed person, may well find himself in the “optant” situation.
The optant stage ends with the formation of a mental new formation specific to it in the structure of the subject of activity (in his self-awareness): a realistic idea of a certain referent professional community into which he includes himself in the future.
Development during the period of professional training and further development of a professional
5. The adept stage is the professional training that most school graduates undergo. The age period covered by the stage of professional training in different cases ranges from 15-18 to 16-23 years.
6. Adapter stage - entry into the profession after completion of vocational training, lasting from several months to 2-3 years.
7. The internal stage is entry into the profession as a full-fledged colleague, capable of stably working at a normal level. This is the stage about which E.A. Klimov says: “the subject entered the profession quite definitely, both in self-awareness and in the consciousness of others.”
8. Master stage - the worker is able to solve both simple and the most difficult professional tasks. He is characterized by either special qualities, or universalism, a broad orientation in the professional field, perhaps he combines the first and second. The subject of labor acquired his own specific individual style of activity. Usually he has formal indicators of qualifications.
Biological age can affect the amount of energy and potential of an employee, which is effectively compensated by organizational skills, experience and professional qualities.
10. The mentor stage is the highest level of work of any specialist. An authoritative master of his craft in any profession acquires like-minded people who adopt experience, imitators, followers, students (regardless of the corresponding official statuses). The employee becomes not just an excellent professional in his field, but also a Teacher who is able to pass on his experience to students. Thus, the highest level of development of any specialist is the pedagogical level.
By using the word “subject”, we emphasize the role of a person as an initiator of activity, a founder, a creator in his relations to objects of the objective and social environment, internal (mental) and external worlds opposing him. This understanding corresponds to the interpretation of the psyche as an active principle.
A person’s active construction of his work activity - its goals, systems of action, external and internal means, conditions, individual style - is a particular expression of the general property of the activity of the mental reflection of reality. Let us recall that ignoring this property, or even more so various kinds of “encroachment” on it, expressed in attempts to extremely regulate the manifestations of the subjective factor of labor according to the same principles by which it is customary to treat technical means (limiting the degrees of freedom of action, techniques, prescribing to different people the same pattern of behavior and actions as a way of allegedly optimal management of the “human factor”), does not correspond to the objective laws of the psyche and moral norms as specifically human regulators of activity, and therefore cannot lead to the achievement of high quality work (its productivity, error-free actions), and especially the personal development of a person, development in the direction of high professionalism.
The mental reflection of reality is active and manifests itself in the fact that a person, characterized by certain stable internal conditions of activity (unique in each individual case, the qualitative certainty of personal qualities - individuality), does not simply follow the prevailing combination of circumstances. He transforms these circumstances, and himself, and his relationships with other people, and these people, and the way of social life. The object is the “receiver” of influences (and if it is a social object, a person, then in turn it is an active object), the subject is their initiator in the “subject-object” system.
Needless to say, active influence on an object is preceded by a process of mental design of the course of this influence and its results. But in the conditions of modern culture, characterized, in particular, by a very fractional division of labor, situations often arise when the functions of constructing the concept of work activity, designing its technical means and environmental conditions are assigned to some people, and the functions of execution are assigned to others. In other words, integral labor activity undergoes destruction, a kind of forced disintegration. This obliges those responsible for the optimal functioning of the “human factor” of production to take care of the “restoration” of the goal-setting functions taken away from the worker-performer, building a plan at least in the form of processes of understanding the goal in connection with a specific situation, building systems of intermediate goals, thinking methods of action, etc. Without this, the “subjective machine” will not be able to function fully. It is necessary to specially create, even if seemingly “excessive” from a purely technological, production point of view, conditions so that the human performer still has the possibility of some independent efforts of thought, searches and discoveries. Let us explain this with an example (according to T. B. Klimina.
Workers assemble electric motors for a fan. In this case, each must install four relatively large parts (rotor, stator, two shields) and six small ones (bushings, washers), install and tighten two fastening bolts with an electric impact wrench, and perform auxiliary operations (lubricating the product, running in and stamping). During a shift, each worker assembles 135 - 140 engines. The work is purely performative and extremely monotonous. Using a specially developed technique, the psychologist stimulated the female workers to mentally analyze their movements, actions and compare them with each other’s actions. In particular, attention was paid to the coordination of movements, distribution of the load “across the arms,” simultaneity, sequence of movements, “running” of the hand with the part, etc. As a result, this saturation of monotonous work with intellectual content led to increased labor productivity, increased job satisfaction, and newcomers, after completing their apprenticeship, began to more successfully master activities and fulfill the norm of experienced workers.
Treating a person as a subject of labor presupposes a respectful attitude, in particular, to his persistent individual characteristics. There are people who are fast and even hasty, and there are people who are cautious and slow, prone, for example, to painstaking work. There are those who perform the most delicate and complex work if they are not interfered with (and the obstacle here may simply be the frequent appearance of “boss” nearby, etc.), and at the same time they quickly get lost, demobilized if they start to be rushed or even just standing around They are silently “over their souls”, “gazing” near their workplace.
Each person tends to “play on the strings that he has” - he makes the most of his valuable qualities (leading to the success of his activities) and in different ways overcomes those qualities that hinder this success. For example, a “living”, active person, in conditions of monotonous, boring work for him, begins to artificially “amuse himself” (hums, whistles, makes seemingly unnecessary routes, movements), otherwise he is “drawn to sleep.” This is reality and cannot be ignored. A slow person more often makes control inspections of products and equipment than is perhaps required by standard instructions. But this is important for him: he gains confidence, frees himself from anxiety, from fears that there will be a need for “jerks” in work, which he finds difficult to cope with (unlike, say, an active person, who is not too hampered by “emergency” regime for correcting mistakes made, etc.). Everyone works with satisfaction and well only when he has developed his own “handwriting” - an individual style in work and when this style is not prevented from realizing himself, “being himself.” The higher the skill and professionalism of a person, the less similar he is to other workers (also with a high level of skill). It is necessary to respect the “weirdness” in an employee, and not try to erase it, break it for the sake of the quasi-aesthetics of uniformity, which, admittedly, “pleases the soul” of some managers with their existing technical, “technocratic” stereotypes of thinking (the cult of “standard” in everything, including psychic reality, where this cult is inappropriate). Sometimes these stereotypes are little realized, unconscious in a way, and a person implements them not out of “evil intent,” but simply because nothing else comes to his mind (“The cancer stands out crookedly, but doesn’t know otherwise”). If in engineering, technology, standards, strict “tolerances” (the limits of permissible variation in the characteristics of an object) are a blessing, then with regard to the human factor of production, a similar issue requires, in any specific case, very special consideration.
Before a person becomes a subject of labor activity, he undergoes a long-term, multi-stage and complexly determined process of his physical and spiritual development. The human child is born one of the most helpless creatures on Earth; in the third year of development, it utters its famous “I myself!”, “I myself!”, and one and a half, two or three decades after that it becomes a powerful generator of socially important acts that transform reality, a subject of productive professional activity. This amazing course of development once again obliges us to have a very special, special attitude towards the already formed and emerging subject of labor and at the same time raises many questions;
What are the main directions and stages of this development? What are its main engines, factors, signs? How to influence him and how to ensure his self-regulation, useful creative “autonomy”? What is the structure of the subject of labor as a complex systemic organization of the psyche? Let us dwell here only on certain issues.
The most important condition for the effective influence of the subject on the object is the orientation of the former in the latter (the most important property of the psyche, as is known, is the mapping, modeling of the object). Therefore, one of the main directions of development in question is the acquisition by a person of an increasingly precise and broad cognitive orientation in what turns out to be the role of the environment in relation to consciousness (nature, a person’s own corporeality, society as an organization of people with its certain laws, norms, artificial habitat, including technology, information flows). At the same time, as is known, thanks to speech and communication with others like himself, a person can use not only his personal experience, but also the experience of all humanity - of all peoples and times.
In the context of labor psychology, the development of a person’s orientation in the world of professions (starting from development of knowledge, ideas of preschoolers about the work of adults, ending with the development of the most complex modern external means of activity and the creation of internal means of activity as a condition for the highest professional skill, professionalism and, consequently, the highest value of a given person for society). At the same time, this is a type of knowledge about the phenomena of social life, i.e., a link in worldview.
Man is a self-regulating system. At the same time, as we remember, the most important mental regulators of his activity are needs, interests, ideals, ideological beliefs, in a word, the orientation of the individual. This is also a kind of reflection of reality, providing not situational, but strategic (“supra-situational”) activity. In this regard, we note another direction in the development of man as a subject of labor - the formation of an orientation, in particular labor, professional (the development of interests in the world of work, people of work, its goals and meanings, tools, means, processes, objects, results, the system of labor positions in society, development of the need for productive socially valuable activities, corresponding beliefs and other motives). Without the formation of an individual’s orientation, internal conditions for the assimilation of knowledge, skills, and abilities are not created (not to mention the fact that, as is clear, beliefs related to the field of work are included in the system-forming link of an individual’s worldview).
One of the directions of human development as a subject of labor is the assimilation (and improvement in the quality of one’s acquisitions) of socially developed methods of action and the use of tools, means of activity (including both internal means and means of interpersonal interaction - verbal and non-verbal). Instead of teeth, claws, muscular strength and in addition to his intellectual capabilities, a person builds, uses, improves tools, machines, machines, instruments, devices, artificial intelligence tools, automata and complex automatic control systems for production (in the broad sense of the word) processes, limitlessly expanding his cognitive and executive capabilities.
And orientation in the environment, and the functions of personality orientation, and executive operations presuppose the development of certain personal psychological qualities and abilities. So, for example, in order for orientation in the environment to be successful and direction to be definite, it is necessary that both the images of objects and general rules are firmly held in the head and not distorted; it is necessary that a person can mentally operate with these images and their elements; It is necessary that a person can, while holding a general rule in his mind, mentally compare it with particular cases. For carrying out execution operations, for example, the ability to accurately assess space, time, behavior and reactions of other people is important; What is important, say, is restraint, patience, self-control, a certain level of motor (psychomotor, motor, as they sometimes say) culture - the development of motor functions, etc. In a word, behind every operation of orientation, execution, act of self-government, motivation there are requirements for the corresponding qualities , stable characteristics of a person (similar to such characteristics of machines as “power”, “strength”, “speed”, etc.).
In connection with the above, one of the directions of human development as a subject of labor is the formation of a system of stable personal qualities that create the opportunity to successfully perform activities. Of course, orientation, direction, and mastery of methods of action also create the conditions for success and are also the subjective property of a person and, in this sense, his personal qualities. But here we mean what in psychology is referred to as abilities (primarily functional capabilities in the field of activity and self-regulation).
An important direction in the development of a person as a subject of labor is the improvement of his knowledge about himself and the formation of individually unique ways of solving typical life problems, taking into account not only external, but also internal, individually unique conditions for each - the formation of an individual style of work.
Questions and topics for reflection and development
1. How to logically reconcile the characteristics of a subject with the principle of causality (determinism) in psychology?
2. “Independence of the subject” is a nice idea, but isn’t it a myth?
3. If the subject is “autonomous,” then what remains for science to do?
Topic 1. Subject's autonomy and industrial conflicts.
Topic 2. Free will in work.
Topic 3. Zones of manifestation of subject independence in different types of professions.
The subject of activity is the carrier of activity, he forms a plan (goals), plans activities, selects means, and conditions for activity. In work, a person cannot always be such a full-fledged subject.
A person as a subject of labor can be studied at different levels:
At the level deeds as a unit of activity that a person sets for himself;
At the level actions as processes aimed at achieving goals;
At the level operations as ways of carrying out actions;
Conscious elements of action – macronutrients– amenable to conscious control (there may be independently set goals when the employee controls the direction of his attention and consciousness meaningfully, consciously);
- microelements actions are difficult to consciously control.
Activity level. One of the tasks of psychological analysis of activity is to find out the motivating reasons why it is carried out, or the motives of behavior. Motive is associated with activity as a complex system.
There is a widespread belief that the term “motivation” refers to manifestations of varying duration and strength, which are actualized under the influence of the characteristics of the situation and external conditions, prompting a person to act in a certain direction. Typical features of a situation that motivates activity are intensity, unusualness, and novelty of stimulation. The term motive denote motivations that explain individual psychological differences between people in the course of activities under identical conditions.
Figure 26. - Structure of the main components of a person as a subject of labor.
The following types of motives are distinguished:
The desire to achieve success;
Avoiding failure;
Humiliation (submission, masochism, self-flagellation);
Affiliation (the desire to establish equal friendly relations);
Aggression (the desire to harm another);
Autonomy (need for privacy);
Overcoming difficulties (the desire to overcome obstacles);
Self-justification;
Dominance (desire for power);
Demonstrativeness (artistry, narcissism);
Avoidance of danger and others.
Action level . The main subject of study in psychological activity theory is the level of action. According to S. L. Rubinstein, the task of the psychological study of activity is precisely to develop a genuine psychology of action, without turning action and activity into psychological formations.
Action is one of the defining components of human activity, which is formed under the influence of a conscious result, or goal. The structure of action includes not only reactive and executive elements, but also elements of expression, sensitivity, memory, anticipation and evaluation. In general, the action consists of three parts: indicative, executive and controlling.
There are several reasons for distinguishing types of actions. Based on the form of mental reflection, sensory, perceptual, mnemonic and other types of actions are distinguished. According to their correspondence to different types of activities, gaming, educational, labor and other activities are distinguished. Based on the degree of mastery of an action, a distinction is made between external and internal actions. The actions enshrine the historical experience of humanity, the transmission of which is carried out in the process of communication between a child and an adult, as well as between two or more adults.
Operation level. An operation is one of the components of an activity, determined by the conditions for performing the action. An operation is a way of performing an action. The same operation can be included in the structure of different actions. For example, you can memorize poetry in preparation for a literature lesson (when performing an educational action) or to train your memory (when performing a mnemonic action). In the same way, the same action can be performed by different operations: often, to prepare for a responsible speech, the speaker uses the method of memorizing the text, but sometimes he uses mnemonic means - the placement method, the keyword method and other methods. Operations are formed in two ways: through imitation and through automation of actions. Unlike actions, operations are little conscious.
Introduction
The concept of subject of labor
Periodization of the development of the subject of labor in domestic psychology
Periodization of the development of the subject of labor in foreign psychology
Conclusion
List of sources used
Introduction
For many years in Russian psychology little attention was paid to the problem of professional status, development, and activity of a person as a professional. However, work is one of the most important aspects of human life. With the help of work, a person solves not only material problems, but also issues of self-realization, personal growth, creativity, communication, and learns about his abilities and capabilities.
Unfortunately, for many years, issues of professional self-determination and growth were dealt with by people far from psychology. But it is psychology that allows us to find the answer to these questions.
B. M. Teplov wrote: “Psychology makes it possible to understand oneself... And knowing oneself is necessary for self-education... in order to consciously choose a specialty, a job in which one can bring the most benefit to the Motherland and receive the most satisfaction.”
Over the past century, the understanding of the mechanism of human adaptation to professional activity has changed. If initially in the “subject - object of labor” system the tasks of selecting standard or “ideal” performers were set, but gradually the solution to the problem of adaptation began to include the search for patterns of a professional career, professional self-determination, and the life path of a person as a subject of labor.
The range of tasks of labor psychology increasingly includes the study of the patterns of functioning of the worker not only as an individual, as an impersonal subject, but also as a person. The vector of studying man as an individual is increasingly being identified - in the present, still in relation to individual professions. Currently, all psychologists recognize the problematic ways in which a person becomes a subject of labor, as a professional.
In this work, we tried to consider the concept of “subject of labor”, the main stages of development of the subject of labor, periodization of the development of the subject of labor in domestic and foreign psychology.
1. The concept of subject of labor
The concept of “subject of labor” emphasizes the role of a person as an initiator of activity, a founder, a creator in his relations with those opposing him: objects of the objective and social environment, the internal (mental) and external world. This understanding corresponds to the interpretation of the psyche as an active principle.
The activity of the mental reflection of reality finds expression in the formation and construction of a person’s work activity:
action systems
· external and internal funds
conditions
· individual style
The mental reflection of reality is manifested in the fact that a person, having characteristic stable internal conditions of activity (individuality), does not simply follow the prevailing combination of circumstances, but transforms:
· circumstances
· yourself
· your relationships with other people
· way of social life.
The object here is the “receiver” of influences (if it is a social object, then in turn it is an active object), the subject is their initiator in the “subject-object” system.
Each subject of labor, a professional, has individual characteristics, therefore each person:
Strives to make maximum use of his qualities that affect productivity;
In various ways overcomes those qualities that hinder achievement;
He works with satisfaction and effectively when he has developed his own, inherent “handwriting” - an individual style.
According to E.A. Klimov, “the higher the skill and professionalism of a person, the less similar he is to other workers (also with a high level of skill).”
The condition for the effective influence of the subject on the object is the orientation of the former in the latter (the property of the psyche, as is known, is the mapping, modeling of the object). Therefore, one of the main directions of development in question is the acquisition by a person of an increasingly precise and broad cognitive orientation in what turns out to be the role of the environment in relation to consciousness (nature, a person’s own corporeality, society as an organization of people with its certain laws, artificial habitat, including technology, information flows). Thanks to speech and communication with his own kind, a person can use not only his personal experience, but also the experience of all humanity.
In the context of labor psychology, special importance is attached to the development of a person’s orientation in the world of professions. One of the directions of human development as a subject of labor is the formation of orientation, in particular labor, professional (development of interests in the world of work, people of work, its goals and meanings, tools, means, processes, objects, results, in the system of labor positions in society , development of the need for productive socially valuable activities, corresponding beliefs and other motives). Without the formation of personality orientation, conditions for the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities are not created.
Another direction of human development as a subject of labor is the assimilation of socially developed methods of action and the use of tools, means of activity (including internal means, and means of interpersonal interaction - verbal and non-verbal).
Evgeny Aleksandrovich Klimov outlines some other directions of human development as a subject of labor:
Formation of a system of stable personal qualities that create the possibility of successfully performing activities “here we mean what in psychology is designated as abilities (primarily functional capabilities in the field of activity and self-regulation).”
Formation of an individual style of activity (improving the knowledge of the subject of labor about himself and the formation of individually unique ways of solving typical life problems, taking into account not only external, but also internal conditions.
2. Periodization of the development of the subject of labor in domestic psychology
There are different periodizations of human development as a subject of labor. One of the most famous in Russian psychology is periodization proposed by E.A. Klimov.
Pre-professional development
1. The stage of pre-game (from birth to 3 years), when the functions of perception, movement, speech, the simplest rules of behavior and moral assessments are mastered, which become the basis for further development and introduction of a person to work.
2. Stage of play (from 3 to 6-8 years), when the child masters the “basic meanings of human activity, as well as gets acquainted with specific professions (playing driver, doctor, salesman, teacher, etc.). According to D.B. Elkonin “game is the child of labor” and the very emergence of children’s role-playing games occurred when the child could no longer directly master the work of adults, when the historical division and complication of labor took place.
3. The stage of mastering educational activities (from 6-8 to 11-12 years), when the functions of self-control, introspection, the ability to plan one’s activities, etc. intensively develop. It is especially important when a child independently plans his time when doing homework, overcoming the desire to take a walk and relax after school.
4. The optant stage of “option” (conscious preparation for “life”, for work, planning, designing a professional life path; from the Latin “optatio” - desire, election).
Option period (from 11-12 to 14-18 years). This stage of preparation for life, for work, conscious and responsible planning and choice of a professional path; Accordingly, a person who is in a situation of professional self-determination is called an optant. The paradox of this stage lies in the fact that an adult, for example an unemployed person, may well find himself in the “optant” situation.
The optant stage ends with the formation of a mental new formation specific to it in the structure of the subject of activity (in his self-awareness): a realistic idea of a certain referent professional community into which he includes himself in the future.
Development during the period of professional training and further development of a professional
5. The adept stage is the professional training that most school graduates undergo. The age period covered by the stage of professional training in different cases ranges from 15-18 to 16-23 years.
6. Adapter stage - entry into the profession after completion of vocational training, lasting from several months to 2-3 years.
7. The internal stage is entry into the profession as a full-fledged colleague, capable of stably working at a normal level. This is the stage about which E.A. Klimov says: “the subject entered the profession quite definitely, both in self-awareness and in the consciousness of others.”
8. Master stage - the worker is able to solve both simple and the most difficult professional tasks. He is characterized by either special qualities, or universalism, a broad orientation in the professional field, perhaps he combines the first and second. The subject of labor acquired his own specific individual style of activity. Usually he has formal indicators of qualifications.
Biological age can affect the amount of energy and potential of an employee, which is effectively compensated by organizational skills, experience and professional qualities.
10. The mentor stage is the highest level of work of any specialist. An authoritative master of his craft in any profession acquires like-minded people who adopt experience, imitators, followers, students (regardless of the corresponding official statuses). The employee becomes not just an excellent professional in his field, but also a Teacher who is able to pass on his experience to students. Thus, the highest level of development of any specialist is the pedagogical level.
A.K. Markova identifies the following levels of professionalism:
pre-professionalism (a person works, but does not have the full set of qualities of a real professional);
professionalism (a professional person, i.e. he works stably and does everything that is required of him);
super-professionalism (creativity, personal development, what is called “acme” - the pinnacle of professional achievements);
unprofessionalism, pseudo-professionalism (outwardly quite active activity, but at the same time the person either produces a “defect” in his work, or he himself degrades as a person);
post-professionalism (a person may turn out to be a “professional in the past”, “ex-professional”, or may turn out to be an adviser, teacher, mentor for other specialists).
A.K. Markova identifies more specific stages of mastering the profession:
1) adaptation of a person to the profession;
2) self-actualization of a person in the profession (adaptation to the profession - “development of an individual professional norm”, a “bar” for self-realization, which the employee subsequently tries to raise);
3) harmonization of a person with a profession (close to the level of “mastery” - according to E.A. Klimov);
4) transformation, enrichment of a person’s profession. This is the level of creativity;
5) the stage of mastering fluency in several professions. The specialist goes beyond the scope of formal activities and increasingly becomes what E.A. Klimov calls a “mentor”;
6) the stage of creative self-determination of oneself as an individual. He assumes that a professional in his work strives to realize his main life idea and finds opportunities and strength for this.
According to A.K. Markova, the fourth, fifth and sixth are stages of super professionalism.
3. Periodization of the development of the subject of labor in foreign psychology
In the West, the periodization of the American psychologist Donald Super is well known, including the following stages:
The growth stage (from birth to 14 years) when basic interests and abilities develop.
The stage of exploring one’s strengths and aspirations - testing one’s strengths in various types of work and educational activities (from 14 to 25 years old).
Trial stage (25-30 years). A person “tests” himself as a full-fledged specialist, capable of “competing” with more experienced workers.
Stabilization stage (from 30 to 44 years) - establishing oneself as a reliable and successful specialist. It assumes further professional education and strengthening of one’s position in society.
Stage of maintaining, maintaining achieved positions (from 45 to 64 years). A person at this stage strives to create a stable professional and social position.
Stage of decline, care, decrease in professional and social activity (from 65 years and over).
Differences in the classifications of different authors are explained not only by the discrepancy in theoretical and methodological views, but also by the peculiarities of the socio-economic and spiritual development of society, since in modern Western society not only life expectancy is increasing, but also the period of childhood and adolescence are lengthening. Society gives teenagers time to choose a profession, to receive a more serious education, and to generally understand the meaning of their future professional activity.
So, for example, the Dutch psychologist B. Livehud calls the age from 21 to 28 years, the so-called “twenties”, the first phase of adulthood. “A young man wants to prove himself in different situations in order to study himself and his abilities... The worst thing that can happen to a person in this phase of his life is to be forced to do the same job for ten years without having the opportunity to study under this is something new,” notes B. Livehud.
And Adler believed that even in childhood, a child forms a “life plan” (as the main direction of his future life). At first it is a very simple plan (more of a way of life). Later, a “outlook on life” is formed (as a draft version, which “gradually takes shape into a coherent scheme.”) By the age of 5-6, the child develops a “life style.” If you work with a child “smartly”, then even after 5-6 years he will be able to change and improve his life style. But if he doesn’t work, then his idea of his future life may seem to be “stuck” in its development.
According to E. Bern, even in childhood, the foundations for “life scenarios” are laid, which can be quite difficult to overcome in adulthood. These scenarios often do not allow a person to live a truly interesting and extraordinary life, i.e. his own life, forcing him to “play” other people's games.
When examining the lines of human development, distortions in the various lines (components) of this development are often discovered. It is known, for example, that a person matures very quickly as an organism (physical component), quite quickly he masters the intellectual component, but the situation with the moral, civil component is much more complicated. An immoral professional is especially dangerous. For professionals, such imbalances often result in professional crises and professional destruction.
Conclusion
The concept of the subject of labor is a fundamental category of psychology. This category reflects a person’s ability to act consciously, actively, purposefully, on the basis of a mental reflection of the objective world.
The subject of labor can be a specific person or a social group. In order to become a subject of labor it is necessary
Achieving a high level of development of abilities and other professionally important personality traits
Adequate reflection of the object of labor
Job satisfaction
Development of a self-regulation system
Assimilation of socially developed methods of activity
Development of self-esteem skills, feelings of self-affirmation and self-esteem.
Labor activity is not a simple consequence of the calendar age of a developing person. It arises and develops as a certain systemic quality of a person in a certain human environment. This general pattern begins to be revealed already in the preschool ontogenesis of a person as a subject of labor.
There are different periodizations of human development as a subject of labor. The most popular in Russian psychology is the periodization proposed by E.A. Klimov, which consists of 10 stages. In the West, one of the most famous is the periodization of the American psychologist Donald Super.
The differences in the classifications of different authors are explained not only by the discrepancy in theoretical and methodological views, but also by the peculiarities of the socio-economic and spiritual development of society, since in modern Western society not only life expectancy is increasing, but also the period of childhood and adolescence are lengthening.
List of sources used
1. Adler. Understand human nature. St. Petersburg, 1997.
2. Klimov E. A. Introduction to labor psychology. M., 1998.
3. Klimov E. A. Psychology of a professional. - M., 1996.
4. Markova A.K. Psychology of professionalism. M., 1996.
5. Pryazhnikov E. Yu. Psychology of labor and human dignity. M., 2001.
6. Teplov B. M. Psychology. Textbook for high school. M., 1953.
7. Tolochek V. A. Modern psychology of work. St. Petersburg, 2005.
8. Erickson E. Childhood and society. St. Petersburg, 2000.
9. Elkonin D. B. Psychology of the game. M., 1978.
The so-called “labor market” is, as E.A. emphasizes. Klimov, is not a market for free manipulation of soulless objects. Every person in a situation of choosing or changing a profession, in a situation where he must master a new unusual activity, is a conscious subject of choice [Klimov, 1996, p. 103]. Subject (from Latin subjectum - subject) is a person with consciousness and will, capable of acting purposefully. Using the word “subject”, they emphasize the role of a person as an initiator of activity. The subject of professional activity can be an individual (or a group of people called a collective subject of labor), which is the source of knowledge and transformation of reality. Therefore, individual and group professionalism are distinguished. In addition, in relation to social communities that unite professionals and professional teams, we can talk about the professionalism (or lack thereof) of the social community. The subject is characterized by the active construction of his work activity - its goals, systems of action, external and internal means, conditions, individual style, etc.
However, not every person manifests himself as a subject of activity, self-improvement, development, just as not every group can become a collective subject. A natural question arises: what kind of person should be considered a subject??
Understanding a person as subject activities(according to B.G. Ananyev) includes three main components: 1) consciousness as a reflection of reality; 2) activity as a transformation of reality; 3) creativity as the creation of something new and original. Thus, the subject of activity is considered as an integral concept in which a synthesis of the requirements of activity and the capabilities, aspirations, abilities, and activity of the individual is carried out.
Comparing the characteristics of the subject with the subject, tasks and means of engineering activity discussed earlier in paragraph 1.1, we see that an engineer, by definition and in essence, is obliged to prove himself as a subject of activity. And a person with an engineering degree, but working according to the principle - “I worked a shift, and what happens tomorrow, I don’t care”, or “I have a boss, let him be responsible for everything”, avoiding responsibility and initiative - does not show his subjectivity . The forecast for the development of such a specialist as a professional can hardly be called optimistic.
The most important condition for the effective influence of the subject on the object is the orientation of the first (subject) in the second (object). Therefore, the most important direction in the development of a subject is the acquisition by a person of an increasingly precise and broad orientation in what appears to be the environment in relation to him (technical reality, social environment, information flows, etc.).
Considering the properties of a person as a subject not only of activity, but also of life in general, psychologists associate them with the presence of a contradiction between personality(her motives, abilities, needs) and the demands placed on her society, - two realities that do not correspond to each other. An active, purposeful person who can be considered as a subject of life - allows this is a contradiction, trying to find a consensus that is optimal for her own self. Resolution of this contradiction is possible in two ways. The first way is sacrificing freedom, individuality in favor devices(adaptation) of a person to the requirements of society. The second way is by choosing independence and sacrificing social approval, benefits, etc. The nature, severity of this contradiction and the method of its resolution depend, naturally, on the extent to which individual rights are recognized in a given society, and on the extent to which the individual himself is endowed with a “reflex of freedom,” individuality, and talent.
A person’s inability and failure to resolve the contradiction between personality traits and the demands of society lead to degradation, destruction, and deformation of the personality. If a personality loses its subjective position(independently and actively fit into the system of society), then it ceases to be a subject of life and becomes object of manipulation. If a person optimal decides this contradiction is happening personal development in the sense of its improvement, maturity, manifestation of its subjective qualities.
Based on the above, in the future we will proceed from the following definition: subject- this is a person who independently develops a way to resolve the contradiction between personality traits and the requirements of society, and the method he develops is characterized by a constructive solution to the existing contradiction.
Considering a person as subject of life path, initiator of the activity, K.A. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya identifies two main forms of activity - initiative And responsibility[Abulkhanova, 1991].
Responsibility is defined as the task that a person sets for himself when carrying out an activity - to maintain a level of a certain quality of its implementation that meets the claims of the person for a certain time and in the presence of unforeseen difficulties. Responsibility is voluntary, i.e. internally accepted, implementation of rules, requirements, etc.
Initiative is a person’s ability to take independent active action and characterizes a personality trait. maintain oneself as a subject own life. Otherwise, with insufficient development of this property, a person turns into a passive observer. Initiative is a person’s ability to stay ahead of external requirements, realizing his activity in the intellectual or practical spheres. It is expressed in certain endeavors, proposals with which a person speaks.
There are three main reasons for the lack of initiative:
1) Lack of formation of this personality quality at early stages of life. (The reasons for this may be different, including a lack of communication with the mother in early childhood, a dependent, suppressed position in the family, etc.). In this case, the employee does not show initiative, therefore he doubts his ability to implement it organizationally and practically.
2) The influence of socio-psychological conditions. The personality itself suppressed initiative at the stage of its emergence, knowing in advance that it will not be accepted and approved by others. (The reasons include the organization of school groups, which instructs its members to “keep your head down!” Thus, the group blocks the initiative of its individual members). As a result, the employee suppresses his initiative, assuming that the socio-psychological environment will not support him.
3) Lack of necessary skills and abilities personality (organizational abilities, socio-psychological qualities, ability to implement initiative) with a high degree of responsibility. In this case, the employee blocks their initiative as a result internal personal contradictions. One of them is the contradiction between showing initiative And sense of responsibility: the desire to take initiative is suppressed by the consciousness of responsibility for its implementation. “The sword of Damocles”, expressed in the form of a famous saying: “Initiative is punishable by responsibility for its implementation.”
If an employee strives to realize his initiative, without taking responsibility, then external demands are perceived by him as forced and unexpected. This leads to emotional discomfort of the individual, dissatisfaction with activities and, ultimately, to the loss of initiatives. Increased initiative in lack of responsibility for its consequences indicates low self-control and infantilism of the individual.
Thus, the manifestation initiatives And responsibility are necessary conditions for professionalism. An indicator of responsibility is that a person relies on his own strengths, acts in accordance with the requirements for himself, i.e. regardless of external control. Responsibility is voluntary acceptance of necessity, so it itself becomes the basis for putting forward initiatives.
Executive the employee will do exactly as much as he is instructed to do, as prescribed by the instructions. He may miss a very important link, citing the fact that it was not indicated in the instructions or orders of the manager. Responsible a person takes upon himself the solution of the problem as a whole, and not its individual links. He knows what he is doing and foresees the consequences of his actions. You don't need control over him, you can rely on him. It should also be borne in mind that the micromanaging inherent in bureaucratic structures destroys personal responsibility.
In socio-psychological terms they talk about a sense of subjectivity. A developed sense of subjectivity allows a person to be the master of his own destiny.
Thus, the property of a person’s subjectivity, as well as a person’s awareness of his subjectivity, is a necessary condition for the formation and development of a professional. At the same time, awareness of one’s subjectivity, individuality, and uniqueness naturally requires the recognition of these qualities in another person. To understand what is hidden behind the so-called “human factor”, not to cut it “with the same brush”, but to see the creative individuality in your colleagues and subordinates, to help manifest it in their activities is the task of managers of any rank. It is no coincidence that specialists in management psychology from Germany cite the words as the epigraph of their book: “Leading means leading employees to success and self-realization” and convincingly demonstrate the correctness of the words: “Be humane - it brings profit” [Siegert, Lang, 1990].
There is a point of view according to which the fluctuations observed at different stages of history in the assessment of the significance of the “subjective factor” in the corresponding ideological and social attitudes ultimately contribute to the evolution homo sapiens. At the same time, the emphasis is on primacy of personality And individuality done, as a rule, at moments of historical crises society, when the task of finding new ways of developing society becomes especially important [Mitkin, 1997].
Individual style of activity of the subject of labor. The term “individual activity style” (IAS) is used to understand the relationship between the objective requirements of activity and personality traits. Depending on the objective requirements of activity, the same personality traits are expressed in different styles. An individual style of activity (in work, study, sports) is a system of skills, techniques, and methods of solving the problem of a particular activity characteristic of a given person, ensuring its more or less successful implementation.
According to E.A. Klimov, the individual style of activity of an emerging professional is “a relatively stable individually unique organization of activity (primarily its techniques and methods), resulting from a person’s efforts to best achieve goals in given external and internal conditions” [Klimov, 1997, p. 90]. Speaking about “relative stability”, the author means that the style can change and be adjusted.
The complex of individual characteristics of a person can only partially satisfy the requirements of any type of activity. Therefore, a person consciously or spontaneously mobilizes his valuable qualities for a given type of work, while at the same time compensating for or somehow overcoming those that hinder the achievement of the goal. As a result, an individual style of activity is created - a unique version of the typical working methods for a given person in typical conditions.
The point of view of K.M. is widely represented in the professional literature. Gurevich, according to which three types of professions are distinguished:
I. Professions where every healthy person can achieve socially acceptable effective activity;
II. Professions in which not every person can achieve the desired effect;
III. Professions that, by their nature, require achievement of the highest levels of skill.
Type III professions make specific demands on a person’s individual characteristics, which in some cases may be genetically determined. Most professions do not impose such stringent requirements on the subject of activity (type I) or allow, through the inclusion of compensation mechanisms and the development of ISD, to correct the lack of certain professionally important qualities (type II professions). This concept is based on the following premises:
1) there are persistent, practically untrainable psychological qualities that are significant for the success of activity;
2) different methods are possible, but equivalent in the final version of adaptation to the conditions of professional activity;
3) there are ample opportunities to overcome the weak expression of individual abilities through their exercise or compensation through other abilities or methods of work;
4) the formation of abilities must be carried out taking into account the individual uniqueness of the individual.
Thus, ISD can be considered as a way of adapting carriers of various individual typological qualities to working conditions. So, for example, when the requirements for the pace of activity change, a person with a mobile type of nervous system successfully solves problems by using his quickness, the ability to easily speed up actions and move from one state to another. Under the same objective conditions, a person of an inert type uses completely different means. He can save himself from the need to quickly respond to signals due to forethought and increased attention to preventive measures. In the process of his work, a tendency to systematicity, thoroughness in work, etc. is developed.
The individual style of activity of any individual cannot be taken as a universal, “ideal model”. Imposing it “in the order of sharing experience” on others (for example, encouraging an inert performer to work in the style of a dynamic one) can lead to the fact that the tasks of the activity become impossible for him.
The attitude of a manager at any level towards a subordinate as a subject of labor presupposes a respectful attitude towards him, in particular towards his persistent individual characteristics [Klimov, 1997, p. 161-162].
There are people who are fast and even hasty, and there are people who are cautious and slow, prone to painstaking work. There are those who perform the most delicate and complex work if they are not interfered with (and the obstacle here could be, for example, simply the frequent appearance of “boss” nearby), and at the same time they quickly get lost, demobilized if they start to be rushed or even just standing around they have “over their souls”, “gazing” near their workplace.
Every person, as E.A. emphasizes. Klimov, is inclined to “play on the strings that he has” [Klimov, 1997, p. 161], - makes the most of his valuable qualities (leading to the success of his activities) and in various ways overcomes those qualities that hinder this success.
For example, a “living”, active person in a monotonous, boring for him work begins to artificially “cheer” himself (hums, whistles, makes seemingly unnecessary movements), otherwise he is drawn to sleep. And, on the contrary, a slow person makes control inspections of equipment more often than required by the instructions. But this is important for him: he gains confidence, freeing himself from fears that there will be a need for “jerks” in work, which he finds difficult to cope with (unlike an active person, who is not too difficult by the “emergency” regime to correct mistakes made) .
All this relates to psychic reality, and it cannot be ignored. Moreover, it has been noted that the higher the level of skill and professionalism of a person, the less similar he is to other workers (also with a high level of skill). You need to respect the “weirdness” in an employee, and not try to erase it, break it for the sake of some uniformity.
The most important prerequisite for the formation of ISD in the process of learning professional activities is to find the optimal balance between the general requirements for the formation of skills and the manifestation of individual differences in students. The following options for implementing this condition are possible:
1) supplementing the general instructions for all trainees, which allow them to navigate the task, with individualized recommendations;
2) individualization of control over the activities of students;
3) individualization of tasks given to students.
Concluding the paragraph about man as a subject of life and work, let us recall that we all live in society, and society is, first of all, a community of “doers” of something useful. And it is productive labor that acts as the basis for the life of a healthy society. Labor, not the market, which is only a form of organization of production and exchange. From a humanistic point of view, economic freedom is not anarchy or permissiveness, not criminal lawlessness. On the contrary, it is mutual responsibility to each other, it is loyalty to duty, it is tolerance, decency, and a focus on cooperation. Without observing these elementary principles, it is impossible to gain freedom - in creativity, in self-realization as an individual. It is impossible to become a professional in the highest sense of the word without having a professional worldview, professional ideals, professional dignity, and respect for your colleagues.
In conclusion, we once again focus the attention of future specialists on the fact that the only guarantee of progressive professional development is the activity of the person himself.
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