Periodization of the history and culture of Ancient China

The most ancient period – V – III millennium BC.

Shan-Yin period - mid. II millennium BC (XVI – XI centuries BC), I Chinese state

Zhou and Zhanguo periods XI – III centuries. BC.

Qin Dynasty - 221 BC – 206 BC

Han Empire - from 206 BC – Han Dynasty

From the end of the 3rd century AD. e. to midday In the 19th century, the Middle Ages continued in China. The period of Ancient Chinese civilization ended in the 3rd century AD.

China = Middle Kingdom = East and Central Asia appears approximately 6 thousand years ago as the oldest civilization on earth.

Chinese writing became the basis for the writing of the Koreans, Vietnamese, and Japanese.

Chinese great inventions: silk, gunpowder, compass, porcelain, paper, brushes, ink, printing.

Religion and spiritual schools of ancient China

The main religions of ancient China were Confucianism and Taoism.

Confucianism – goes back to the teachings of the Founder Confucius ≈ (551 – 479 BC). He wanted to give authority to ancient traditions. He did not leave behind any written works; his ideas came to us in the late book “Lun Yu”. His theory is the basis for practical life and is completely conservative.

The main virtues to be emulated, from the point of view of Confucianism, were: humanity, honesty, decency, wisdom, loyalty.

They are realized in fundamental relationships between people, and the ruler must set a moral example, and establish order consistently in all areas of life: in his state - his family - his character - his heart - his thoughts, and initially he must come to insight.

Confucius developed a program for organizing concepts, the ideal in which is a noble husband - a sage. Mencius (374 - 289 BC) believed that man is kind by nature, therefore, the basis of all virtues lies in man himself. The highest goal of a ruler should be the welfare and morality of the people.

Since the 11th century, Neo-Confucianism has become the dominant religion in Ancient China. He had a dualistic character: there are two main principles of the world - whether(world mind) and qi(principle of material activity).

At the same time, the doctrine appears Yin Yang, based on the understanding of the “Book of Changes” (“I Ching”). Yang is the masculine principle, light, strong, strong, Yin is the feminine principle, passive, dark, pliable. These are two cosmic principles. And their interaction will explain the appearance and transformation of all things and phenomena on earth. From their interaction five basic elements were created: fire, water, metal, wood, earth.

General order and rules:

Family is the eternal order of relationships in the family established by Heaven

Society

Etiquette is a system of rules and norms of human behavior - ritual

Spiritual life - rules for all spiritual manifestations of life

Art - laws in music, literature and painting

Taoism.

His classic text is the book “Tao de Jin” (circa 5th – 3rd centuries BC). The author is the legendary philosopher Lao Tzu, but his existence has not been proven.

“The Book of the Path (Tao) and the Properties of Nature and Man,” attributed to Lao Tzu.

Tao is nameless and inexplicable, since it is outside the system of linguistic concepts, it is the supreme principle beyond all differences.

Several points of Taoist wisdom.

According to Taoism, true wisdom consists of allowing oneself to be guided by the Tao and giving up selfish activities. The sage acts through inaction: This is not inaction, it is sensitivity to what is happening and the absence of necessary intervention.

“Tao is forever and ever a non-action, and yet nothing remains undone!”

Everything must be kept to a minimum.

The sage lives in simplicity and acts through apparent weakness. It is compared to water: “it is useful to all living things, but, despite all the softness of the water, nothing HARD WILL CAUSE HARM TO IT!” NB! Creative task: how do you understand this ancient Chinese wisdom?

Zhuang Tzu (IV century BC), the second ideologist of Taoism, despised Confucianism for the loss of its originally virtuous simplicity.

Tao can be described only in paradoxical, self-abolishing formulations, for example: Tao is nothing, Tao is everything!

The spirit must give up resistance, and then the wind of Tao will carry it like a leaf... You need to find your Taoist flow and get into it, and then everything in life will work out by itself, automatically. But the main work is to set the right goal.

NB! Creative task: write down the lyrics of V. Vysotsky’s song “Rut” and find the relationship between its idea and Taoism. Mo Tzu (V - IV centuries BC) - the third ideologist of Taoism, who created its new form - Mohism.

The cause of evil is the lack of love for others.:

Tao is everything, Tao is nothing

Path of the Universe

Eternal variability of the world, subject to the laws of nature

Balance is possible thanks to the feminine and masculine principles - yang + yin

Natural laws of the Universe, they cannot be violated, otherwise the harmony of life will be violated

Nature's Way

The path of individual life

The measure of man is the earth, the measure of the earth is the sky, the measure of the sky is Tao, the measure of Tao is itself

Inspiration from the hidden abysses of the universe

Nothingness, emptiness, silence,

Nothing is the abode of the Great Tao

Source of all things =

Manifestation of images of things in the visible world, tearing them out of the void

Rhythm of the Universe

Energy flows

Everything in the universe moves in Space and Time, obeying the rhythm of the Great Tao

Nature

Absolute Spirit

Universal Mind

A mysterious pattern that captures the laws of the universe

Ancient period - V – III thousand BC

Tribes populated the river valleys of China around the 5th – 3rd millennium BC.

The settlements consisted of adobe huts

Agriculture, animal husbandry, crafts developed gradually

Works of art: Yangshao vessels - the first ceramics in Ancient China, extraordinary regularity of forms

Complex geometric designs on vessels of unknown symbolism

Shan-Yin period - XVI – XI centuries. BC.

Shan - Yin period (the name of the period is given by the name of the tribe) was marked by the creation of the first Chinese state in the Yellow River valley.

The first ideas about the universe formed the ancient Chinese cosmology and philosophy of existence, here are its main postulates:

Natural phenomena are only the will of spirits and gods

Deification of all natural phenomena: clouds, rain, wind, thunder and were represented in the images of various animals

The protectors of the living were their deceased ancestors, hence the highly developed cult of ancestors, during which the living served the souls of the dead, looked after the graves, and placed all handicrafts in it

Heaven is the supreme deity of the Universe

Ideas about earth and sky: the earth is square, China is in its center, and the sky is a circle. A semicircular sphere over a square of earth; hence the ancient name of China “Middle Kingdom” and “Celestial Empire”

Sacrifices to heaven were made on round altars outside the settlements; square altars were created right on the ground as small images of the whole earth

The ruler of the state of China was called “wang”, he was also the high priest of the state.

Development of science, technology, architecture and art:

During this period, silk weaving, bronze casting, hieroglyphic writing, and the basics of urban planning appeared.

Bronze casting

Image of animals, birds

Jade, bone, wood carving

Deification of nature and ancestors

Decorative art objects (bronze, jade)

Lacquerware (China only)

Magical vessels for sacrifices, heavy, bronze, with rich relief

The relief included images of birds, dragons, cicadas, bulls, rams, their task was to protect people and crops

The capital is the city of Shan, in the city there is the Palace of the Ruler on a rectangular platform

Underground burials of the nobility were found: two underground chambers of a cruciform shape, their area is 400 m²

Zhou and Zhanguo periods

In the 11th century BC. the state of Shan-Yin was conquered by the tribe Zhou, but by the end of the 7th century. BC. Protracted internecine wars began.

Period V – III centuries. BC. named in Chinese history Zhanguo- this means “Warring Kingdoms”. During this period, vast areas of neighboring territories were annexed to China.

Iron deposits were discovered and iron tools began to appear. Trade developed. Round coins appeared for the first time. Strengthening the role of the state. The growth of cities.

A significant event took place in science: the first educational institution was opened, which was called the “Academy”.

During this period, two main religious teachings, spiritual schools, and two ancient Chinese philosophies emerged and developed - Confucianism and Taoism.

Development of architecture and other arts:

Marble sculptures

Imperial mausoleums

Wall paintings and stone reliefs of buried temples:

Depiction of life scenes, legends, musicians

People's labor in salt mines (relief from Chandu)

Image of a person (carving, casting)

Silk paintings “Girl, Phoenix and Dragon”

Silk fabrics and the Great Silk Road

III centuries BC. - The Great Wall of China began to be built

Walled cities

The main feature of ancient Chinese architecture is the pagoda: a roof with curved corners

Brief chronological table of the history and culture of Ancient China

4 thousand BC – Yangshao culture (4000 – 2400 BC): red pottery, geometric spiral pattern

≈ 2500 BC – the emergence of acupuncture (= acupuncture)

≈ 2400 BC – Longshan culture near the Yellow River (Yellow River)

≈ 2160 BC – the first evidence of observing a solar eclipse

≈ 2000 BC – semi-legendary Xia dynasty

XIX – XVIII centuries BC – the Hittites found their own state

End of the 18th century BC. – era of the Shan-Yin dynasty, until 1025 BC.

Bronze technique

Writing

Ancient Chinese bronze ritual objects

XIV century BC. – construction plan of Anyang, the new capital of the Shang-Yin era

≈ 1025 BC – Zhou dynasty (replaced Shang-Yin)

spread of writing

722 BC – “Spring and Autumn” period, Eastern Zhou (722 – 481)

cities grow - palaces - capitals

≈ 600 BC – ancient Chinese poetry “Shijing” (collection)

481 BC - Warring States period

End of the 4th century BC. – Chinese philosopher Zhuang Tzu – author of a work with his name, the beginning of Taoism

III century BC. - Confucianism (or Menzi - the title of the work), Taoism ("Daodejing" = "Book about the path (Tao) and the properties of nature, man", attributed to Lao Tzu

“Zhuang Tzu” is also a Taoist movement in religion

Han Fei (died 233 BC) - treatise “Han Feizi” - the concept of “law”

Quasi-paper is created - from silk fiber

221 BC – beginning of the reign of the 1st Emperor Qin Shi Huang, unification of China

Construction of the Great Wall of China begins

213 BC - the emperor ordered: to burn all old books as a symbol of the old order

210 BC – life-size painted clay warriors from a burial

≈ 206 d BC – end of the Qin Dynasty, beginning of the Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD)

200 BC

– the capital is moved to Chang-an

165 BC – for the first time, official examinations are taken to recruit government officials

134 BC – Chinese Emperor Wu Di, beginning of the reign of the Mandarins

125 BC – the possibility of trade with India and Iran is open

119 BC – Han Empire – defeats the nomads and takes control of the “Great Silk Road”

80 BC – Sima Qian writes “Historical Notes” - the first prototype of the history of China

23 AD - the beginning of the Eastern (Younger) Han dynasty, the capital - Changtian was renamed Luoyang

40 - uprising in Vietnam against Chinese invaders

48 - the southern Xiongnu - Xiongnu recognize the power of the Han Empire, its territory extends along 2 sides of the Chinese wall

58 - Ming Di - Liu Zhuang became Emperor of China - the territory of the state expands

68 – I Buddhist settlements in China (Loyang = Henan)

105 - invention of paper made from plant fiber by Chinese scientist Cai Lun

123 – Northern Xiongnu defeated by Chinese

190 - the beginning of the reign of the Xian Di dynasty (Liu Xie) - this is the last Chinese emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty

220 - the beginning of the period of internal fragmentation - until 581.

220 - 280 - the era of the Three Kingdoms: the empire breaks up into 3 independent states: north - Wei (capital Luoyang), Cao Pei center - Shu (capital Chengru, Han Liu Bei); the southern part is the capital Wushang, then Nanjing

260 – Chinese Liu Hui discovers the solution to a system of equations and calculates the number ∏ ≈ 3.14159

265 – Sima Yan seizes power in Wei, Shu and establishes a new dynasty: Western Jin

317 - the era of the Southern and Northern Dynasties began (317 - 589), in Egypt - Coptic art was formed, the art of the Monophysites appeared, distinctive from the Hellenistic-Roman

420 - The Western Jin dynasty in southern China is replaced by the Song dynasty ruling Nanjing

325 - Shapu II and the national synod confirm the final text of the Avesta - the sacred book of Mazdaism

479 – The Song Dynasty gives way to the Qi Dynasty.

General conclusion on the culture of Ancient China.

The global significance of ancient Chinese culture lies in its unique harmonious combination of strength and weakness, hardness and softness, social and individual, material and spiritual, active and contemplative, etc.

The symbols of Yin and Yang have become for all times and for all peoples of the earth a saving monad of understanding the unity and struggle of opposites, which formed the basis of European dialectical philosophy.

The tea ceremony of Ancient China for all subsequent turbulent and tragic periods of humanity’s struggle for its existence became forever an outlet and the best way to relax tired people.

Humanity owes the Chinese many technical achievements (compass, seismograph, paper, gunpowder and much more).

Chinese culture is considered traditional. This gave many reasons to believe that she was incapable of scientific and technological progress. However, firstly, scientific and technological progress is an important, but far from the only indicator of the level of cultural development of society. Secondly, if we keep in mind the ability of society to satisfy its everyday needs, ancient Chinese culture in the period between the 1st century. BC. and XY centuries. AD was more effective than Western culture. In ancient Chinese culture, man's contemplative attitude towards nature was encouraged, and this bore fruit: among all the ancient peoples, the Chinese were the greatest naturalists.

And the very way of life of ancient Chinese society is very instructive for modern humanity.

The theory of Taoism and the image of the Great Tao are uniquely capable of connecting a person with his personal cosmos, the universe, the universe, making us feel that we are not alone in the boundless expanses of time and space, extending to us the hand of tenderness of the Great to the small...

NB! Creative assignment: what spiritual personal discoveries did your acquaintance with ancient Chinese culture allow you to make and what does it mean to you personally?

China has a long and almost continuous history, dating back about six thousand years. Written sources, however, indicate a slightly lower age - 3600 years. China gave mankind many inventions, including gunpowder, compass, paper and typesetting printing. Until the 19th century, China was one of the most advanced world states and the main cultural center of East Asia. Later, the country survived centuries of colonial conquest, but was able to once again become a powerful, independent industrial power.

Short review

It is believed that people lived in China 7 million years ago. And the first Chinese dynasty, the Xia, began to rule back in 2700 BC. All subsequent periods are associated with the rule of different dynasties in the country, successively replacing one another. To facilitate the perception of all Chinese history, the following periodization is used, based on traditional Han historiography:

1. Pre-imperial China (Xia, Shang, Zhou - until 221 BC)
2. Imperial China (Qin - Qing)
3. New China (1911 - modern)

First Emperor Shi Huangdi- united China under his rule, dividing the newly formed empire Qin(221-206 BC) into 36 provinces, governed by officials appointed by the emperor. He announced the end of all wars, collected weapons from his subjects and melted them down, building 12 large monuments. He streamlined measures and weights, introduced standard writing of hieroglyphs, and organized a strict bureaucratic management system. During the reign of Shi Huangdi, construction of the Great Wall of China began. A network of roads with a width of 15 m and a total length of 7500 km connected the country.

The second empire in Chinese history to be called Han(206 BC-220 AD), founded by Liu Bang, who came from the middle bureaucracy. This period is considered one of the most important periods in the history of China; the Chinese themselves took their self-name from here (Han).

Epochs Tan(618-907) and Song(960-1127) is usually called the classical period in the history of China.
During the Tang period, a system of state examinations was formed. They contributed to the cultivation of an educated elite, since a candidate who was well versed in the classical texts, regardless of social background, was able to occupy the rank of official. People engaged in the humanities - writers, philosophers, scientists - were people of the privileged class.
The Song period is considered the era of economic and cultural prosperity in China. The number of cities is growing, the urban population continues to grow, Chinese artisans are reaching heights in the manufacture of products from porcelain, silk, lacquer, wood, ivory, etc.

At the beginning of the 13th century, the Mongols, united under the rule of Genghis Khan, invaded China. They were expelled in the middle of the 14th century after a long struggle. One of the leaders of the uprising, the son of a peasant Zhu Yuanzhang, came to power and founded the state. Min(1368-1644)

Dynasty Qing(1644-1911), created by nomadic conquerors from Manchuria, built the last empire, maximizing the territory of the country. By the mid-19th century, China's population had grown to approximately 400 million people, but the management and financial system was extremely inefficient, setting the stage for future problems and crisis. Corruption was widespread, and the ruling elite did not want reform. After a series of defeats in the Opium Wars, China was forced to enter into unequal treaties with the European powers, opening its markets and placing its main ports under foreign control.

The Manchu dynasty was overthrown as a result Xinhai Revolution(1911). The Qing Empire collapsed and the creation of the Chinese Republic was proclaimed. In 1912, with the support of the United States and Japan, the Kuomintang revolutionary party was created. And in 1921, with the support of Russian organizations of the Comintern, the Communist Party of China was created. Since 1927, armed clashes began between the Kuomintang and the CPC, which resulted in a civil war. In the 1930s, Japanese intervention began, interrupting the conflict for some time. After Japan's defeat in 1945, the war between the Kuomintang and the CCP resumed. By 1949, the CCP army had established control over most of the country.

October 1, 1949 was proclaimed formation of the People's Republic of China. Chairman of the Communist Party of China Mao Zedong solemnly announced this from the podium in Tiananmen Square. The next day, the Soviet Union was the first to recognize the PRC and concluded a Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance with it.

The emergence of Chinese civilization

Yangshao culture

This center of the agricultural Neolithic arose in the Yellow River basin approximately in the 6th-5th millennia BC. e. The ancient Chinese Neolithic was characterized by Middle Eastern types of cereals (wheat, barley) and breeds of livestock (cow, sheep, goat), a potter's wheel and other innovations, which by that time were already well known to the west of China. Painted ceramics and the skills of growing grain crops, familiarity with the domestication of livestock (pig), make it possible to connect the Yangshao culture with similar painted ceramic cultures, in particular the Middle East. This is not about influence in the form of mass migration. Since ancient times, the predominant racial type on the ancient Chinese plain was the Mongoloids (inclusions of Caucasoid-Australoid racial types are rare), and this is what distinguishes the ancient Chinese center of civilization.

Bronze Age in China

The beginning of the Bronze Age was recorded by archaeologists from the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. At the end of the Neolithic era, a fairly developed bronze culture appeared in the Longshan-Longshan Neolithic environment of farmers of the Yellow River basin Shang-Yin. It can be assumed that the Bronze Age civilization in China again owes a lot to cultural influences from outside. This is evidenced by the high rate of emergence and flourishing of the Bronze Age: the development of bronze casting, the emergence of writing, the construction of magnificent palaces and the construction of tombs, the art of stone carving, the finishing of utensils, jewelry, and weapons. The connection between civilizations is most convincingly evidenced by Yin war chariots identical to Indo-European ones. Pre-Yin China knew neither horses nor chariots. Thus, Indo-European tribes could have played a certain role in the process of the genesis of Chinese civilization. At the same time, the Yin were also Mongoloids, so again it is difficult to talk about migrations on a significant scale.

Ancient China. Pre-imperial period.

The ancient Chinese historiographical tradition begins the history of China with a description of the reign of five legendary emperors. The time of their rule is perceived as a golden age of wisdom, justice and virtue. Sage Yao handed over his throne to the able and virtuous Shunya, and he - to the great Yuyu, starting from whose reign power began to be inherited. Yu is considered the founder of the first dynasty Xia. Chinese historiographical tradition believes that the Xia dynasty ruled China at the end of the 3rd and beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Its last unvirtuous representative, Jie, lost his authority and therefore lost the moral right to rule the Celestial Empire. He was defeated by the virtuous Cheng Tan who founded a new dynasty Yin.

There is reason to believe that no Xia existed at all. When the first Yin legends were written down, the term Xia denoted the totality of Chinese lands and population. It is possible that the invasion of the Yin into the Yellow River basin over time was interpreted as the replacement of some (Xia) by others (Yin).

The Yin community settled in the Anyang region. A large proto-state led by an all-powerful ruler quickly formed here. The ruler-van was also the high priest. The position became hereditary under the last four rulers. The administration was divided into three main categories - senior administrators and dignitaries, lower administrative officials, and officials responsible for military training and hunting. The van and his entourage had to worry about the harvest, preparing and clearing the fields. Book of Songs Shijing mentions large fields cultivated by groups of peasants under the control of overseers. All handicraft products were also used centrally. A similar model existed in the royal-temple households of Ancient Egypt or Mesopotamia.

The most important source of the Shang-Yin era is fortune telling inscriptions on specially processed lamb shoulders and turtle shells. In total, more than 150 thousand such inscriptions were discovered. Apparently, the Yin lived as a compact group of fellow tribesmen, united by joint ritual and cult practices, sacrifices in honor of their common ancestors, deities and spirits. It is known that the Yin practiced human sacrifices from among their captured neighbors. The ritual of communication with the deceased Vanir and ancestors was important. According to the Yin, the existence of the collective depended on their will and support. Informing their ancestors about the situation and current problems, turning to them with requests, the Yin people wrote down the essence of the matter on bones and performed a fortune-telling ritual.

The Yin pursued an active foreign policy, including wars and expansion of their territories at the expense of their neighbors. The Yin reached their greatest power under Wu Ding. Armed with war chariots and consisting of professional archers and spearmen, the Yin army was a formidable force that kept its neighbors in obedience.

These neighbors included Zhou people, who lived west of Shan-Yin. Their capital was Zongzhou. The Zhou rulers recognized the suzerainty of the Yin Wang. Over time, they managed to strengthen themselves and then create a coalition of tribes, which ultimately defeated Shang-Yin at the decisive Battle of Muye in 1027 BC. e. The new ruler of Ancient China was Wu-wan.

China during the Western Zhou period (1027-771 BC)

The small Zhou tribe, having defeated the Yin, found itself at the head of a large military-political association, the boundaries of which went far beyond the former territory of the Shang-Yin and practically covered almost the entire Yellow River basin. Skilled Yin craftsmen built a new capital for the Zhou people Chengzhou. It became the seat of a significant part of the Zhou administration, as well as the main military center where 8 armies were stationed. The rest of the administration, 6 armies and Van himself with his entire court continued to live in Zongzhou, in the area of ​​​​the former ancestral settlements of the Zhou people. This is where the name of the period described came from (Western Zhou).

During this period, the doctrine of Mandate of Heaven(tian-ming), according to which Heaven gives the mandate to rule the Celestial Empire to a virtuous ruler, thereby depriving the power of an unvirtuous one. Protected by a legitimate idea, the Zhou people were able to establish an effective centralized administration, based on 14 armies of the center in two capitals. Aristocrats with abilities and merits, primarily from among the Zhou and Yin clan nobility, were usually appointed to administrative positions. There is evidence that capable administrators were promoted up the career ladder. An important innovation was the creation of a system of appanages, which were granted for hereditary ownership and management to the relatives and associates of the ruler. The owner of the inheritance relied on a squad of Zhou warriors. At first, the owners of the estates were closely connected with the center and depended on its help and military support. Over the years, however, the situation has changed. The rulers of the destinies, already in the 4th-6th generations, already felt like complete masters of their lands.

The decline of the king's power and the strengthening of his fiefs

The number of original allotments decreased over time. Some of them from the very beginning were larger than their neighbors, which helped them grow faster and defeat their rivals more easily. Others were favorably located, which allowed them to get rich or increase their land at the expense of weaker neighbors. Still others, the outlying ones, boldly expanded their borders through wars with the tribes of the outer belt. The fourth, on the contrary, found themselves squeezed by stronger neighbors and, in an unequal struggle, gradually lost the heritage of their fathers. All this led to the strengthening of several large estates.

One of the rulers of Western Zhou, Xuan-wan tried to carry out a number of reforms aimed at strengthening central power, for example in the field of taxation. However, the reforms encountered resistance from others and, most importantly, turned out to be too late. Son of Xuan Wang, Yu-wan, placed his beloved concubine above his legal wife, the daughter of the ruler of the Shen fief. He, in alliance with neighboring barbarian tribes, invaded Zongzhou and overthrew Yu-wan. After this, Yu-wan's son, Pin-wan, was forced in 771 BC. e. move your residence to the eastern capital, to Loi, which marked the beginning of the Eastern Zhou period. Ping-wang gave the lands in the area of ​​​​the old capital Zongzhou to one of his allies, who created a new inheritance on the basis of these lands Qin- the same one that, 500 years later, united the kingdoms of Zhou China within a single empire.

Zhanguo period (“Warring Kingdoms”, V-III centuries BC)

This is a time of large-scale shifts in all spheres of Chinese life, from productive forces to ideology, from the development of the outskirts to the conduct of wars. During this period, China entered the Iron Age. Beyond their role in manufacturing, iron guns literally revolutionized the military. The chariots were replaced by numerous and well-armed infantry, and then cavalry. Battles took place with the participation of many tens and hundreds of thousands of soldiers, military strategy and tactics developed, which was reflected in treatises on the art of war (Sun Tzu).

The Zhanguo period was a time of coexistence and internecine struggle between the seven largest kingdoms (Wei, Zhao, Han, Qin, Qi, Yan and Chu). The rival kingdoms waged fierce wars among themselves. The map of the country was gradually redrawn, and the most powerful states came to the forefront. Most of them carried out reforms of the legalist type. Such reforms were most fully and radically carried out in the middle of the 4th century. BC. in Qin. They were started by a legalist Shan Yang.

First, communal land use was strictly regulated. Large families had to be divided into small ones. A system of mutual responsibility was created: the courtyards were united into heels and tens, within the framework of which all Qin residents were obliged to monitor each other and be responsible for each other.

Secondly, a new system of social ranks was introduced, which were assigned to any person for his merits, primarily military ones. From a certain level, ranks provided benefits and privileges, including the right to official tenure and income from it. A unique mechanism of expropriation was applied to overly rich owners who benefited from secondary activities, which included crafts and trade. It was possible to avoid trouble if one acquired social rank for considerable money.

In 350 BC. the entire kingdom was divided into districts governed by officials. The system of weights and measures was unified, and peasants were assigned their allotments. The distribution of surpluses was under strict control of the authorities.

Concerned about the rapid growth of Qin power, the other six attempted to form a coalition against him. The entire second half of Zhanguo passed under the sign of intrigue and skillful diplomacy. However, intrigues and complex alliances did not help. The last to fall was the kingdom of Chu and in 221 BC. e. Qin Ying Zheng, the future Emperor Qin Shi Huang completed the unification of China under his rule.

Qin Empire

Ying Zheng took the new title "Qin Shi Huang" ("First Overlord-Emperor of the Qin Dynasty"). The country was turned into a bureaucratic, centralized empire. The state subjected all aspects of people's lives to strict administrative control; all weapons were taken away from the population and poured into bells. Uniform legislation was in force throughout the empire. It was based on a system of guarantees. The death penalty was applied for all kinds of offenses, including minor ones. Often the entire family of the criminal was executed or turned into state slaves.

The territory was divided into 36 administrative districts, in each district civil power was concentrated in the hands of one official, and military power in another. Supervision over them was carried out by a special service of inspectors - trusted representatives of the emperor. The emperor appointed two advisers who were responsible for ensuring that decrees were carried out promptly. The advisers had numerous central departments under their subordination. One of the important ones was the department of Yushi Dafu. The responsibilities of its officials included maintaining the state archive and checking the work of the districts.

Massive work was underway in the country to build roads and canals. This contributed to the development of trade and increased management efficiency. In order for roads to require repairs less often, uniform axles for carts were introduced. Throughout the empire, 700 palaces were built for Qin Shi Huang. The capital Sanyang became one of the most beautiful cities of the empire. During the reign of Qin Shi Huang, the Great Wall of China and a giant tomb for the emperor were built. It housed 6,000 life-size terracotta guardsmen. Construction was carried out at the expense of severe exploitation, taxes for peasants reached 2/3 of the harvest.

Money, units of measure and weight, as well as writing were unified throughout the country. It was ordered to destroy all works of the pre-Qin era so that people would have nowhere to learn about the old times and orders. Hundreds of Confucian scholars were executed for their adherence to antiquity and resistance to reform.

The Qin Dynasty was widely hated, and after the death of Qin Shi Huang in 210 BC. e. Uprisings immediately began throughout the country. In 207 BC. e. rebel troops took the capital and overthrew the son of Qin Shi Huang. However, China from that moment existed as a single state. The subsequent Chinese empires that replaced the Qin borrowed a lot from their predecessor politically and economically. The Qin Empire lasted only 14 years, but in terms of the number of events and the importance of the changes that occurred, this time is an entire era for China.

Fall of Qin

Qin Shi Huang sought to find the secret of immortality, but in 210 BC. e. died unexpectedly at the age of 49. His heir was his youngest son, who ascended the throne under the name Ershi Huangdi (210-207 BC).

In 209 BC. e. A popular uprising began in the country, and imperial troops began to defect to the side of the rebels. One of the armies was led by a minor official, Liu Bang. In 202 BC. e. he unites China under his rule and takes the imperial name-title Gaozu(202-195 BC).

Han Dynasty

Gaozu becomes the founder of the new Han dynasty (206/202 BC - 220 AD).

The system of government was changed. Gaozu gave at least half of the country's territory as hereditary inheritance to his closest associates: the seven most important of them received the titles of Vans. They enjoyed broad powers in their domains. The Vans could independently appoint and dismiss officials, collect taxes and establish duties. In the rest of the country, the administrative apparatus that existed during the Qin dynasty was revived. A number of measures were taken that dramatically improved the situation of the people and encouraged the development of production. Gaozu significantly reduced the land tax (to 1/15 of the harvest). Many categories of the population were exempted from all duties.

The Han Empire reached its greatest prosperity during the reign of the emperor Wu-di(140-87 BC). Wu di carried out reforms aimed at further centralizing the state. The teachings of Confucius became the official ideology. A system of training officials was introduced. District governors had to find and recommend capable young men to the government. Candidates were sent to study at a specially created academy in the capital, whose graduates, after passing exams, were appointed to positions in the government apparatus. All free people had the right to enter the academy, regardless of their rank of nobility.

At the end of the 2nd century. BC e. Han troops make campaigns against the Xiongnu in the north, into Korea, west into East Turkestan and to the borders of modern Vietnam and Myanmar. The territory of the Han Empire increased by almost one third, but as a result it plunged into economic and social crisis. Power was usurped by one of the emperor’s relatives, popular unrest began, the largest of which were the uprisings of the “red-browed” and “green forest”. The peasant armies overthrew the usurper, then fought among themselves.

The winner of this civil strife was Liu Xiu, who proclaimed himself Emperor Guang Wu-ti and founded the Eastern, or Later, Han dynasty (25-220). The capital was moved east to the city of Luoyang. At this time, the Han Empire established permanent trade and diplomatic ties with Parthia and the Roman Empire. In the second half of the I-II centuries. The empire wages almost continuous wars with its neighbors.

The end of the Eastern Han Dynasty was also marked by popular uprisings, the most powerful of which was the Yellow Turban Rebellion, which began in 184 AD. e. In 220 AD BC, after the death of Wu, China splits into three independent kingdoms: Wei, Shu and Wu. This event is conventionally considered the end of the history of ancient China.

History of Ancient China, summary

The first empire of Ancient China, the Qin, lasted only a decade and a half, but it laid a solid socio-economic foundation for the Han empire. The new empire became one of the strongest powers of the ancient world. Its more than four-century existence was an important stage in the development of all of East Asia, coinciding with the eras of the rise and collapse of the slave-owning mode of production. For the national history of China, this was an important stage in the consolidation of the ancient Chinese people. The Zhanguo-Qin-Han era has the same significance for the historical development of China and all of East Asia as the Greco-Roman world did for Europe. Ancient Chinese civilization laid the foundations of a cultural tradition that can be traced further throughout the centuries-old history of China right up to modern and modern times.

Features of the study and periodization of the history of Ancient China

No other people showed more zeal in recording historical events than the Chinese, who began keeping their chronicles at the beginning of the first millennium BC. and subsequently they punctually renewed them dynasty after dynasty.

In Chinese historiography, the use of dynastic periods is common. Each dynasty has its own name, different from the surname of the rulers. At first, ethnonyms (the name of the nationality that founded the state) and toponyms (the names of the appanage domains of the future founders of the dynasties) were used as such names. From the 12th century dynasties are designated by philosophical categorical terms, for example, yuan literally “original”, that is, laying the beginning of true rule, ming - “enlightened”.

Between the dynastic periods lie periods of “time of troubles” - the administrative and territorial fragmentation of the country, as indicated by terminological definitions: “The Age of Warring Kingdoms”, “the era of the Six Dynasties”, “The Three Kingdoms” and so on.

Since ancient times, the traditional Chinese state has been perhaps the classic embodiment of the principle of power-property and centralized redistribution. As long as the peasants had plots, cultivated the land and paid taxes and rent to the treasury, the structure of the Chinese empire was strong. Stability of this kind existed, as a rule, within the dynastic cycle for not too long, most often no more than a century. But as soon as land in significant quantities passed to wealthy landowners, the situation began to change. The treasury did not receive the normal amount of income, this was often compensated by the increased arbitrariness of local authorities. This in turn led to a deepening of the crisis.

History of Ancient China at school - 5th grade

The history of Ancient China in Russian schools is studied in the 5th grade. Lesson objective: To form ideas about Ancient China, to introduce students to the history of Ancient China, its geographical location, to form an idea of ​​the contribution of Chinese culture to world history. The topic of the lesson is new for students, but it plays an important role in studying the “Ancient East” section. Expected results: knowledge of the geographical location, natural conditions of Ancient China, the history of the formation of the Qin state. The ability to show on a map the territory of the Qin Empire, the Great Wall of China and the Great Silk Road. Express judgments about the contribution of the culture of Ancient China to world culture. Characterize the living conditions and occupations of the population, the social system of Ancient China, the position of representatives of different strata. Basic terms and concepts:“The Great Wall of China”, “The Great Silk Road”, Confucius.

The Age of the Three Kingdoms (220-280) and the Jin Empire

After the fall of the second Han dynasty and several years of civil strife, the three most successful commanders came to the fore. Cao Cao dominated in the north, in the Yellow River basin, where in 220 his son Cao Lei proclaimed himself ruler of the state Wei. Liu Bei declared himself ruler of the southwestern part of the country Shu. Sun Quan, became the ruler of the southeastern part of China, the kingdom U. The brief period of the Three Kingdoms led to the formation of two independent states in the hitherto poorly developed south of China.

Already by the middle of the 3rd century. Power in the kingdom of Wei passed to the powerful clan of commander Sima. In 265, he founded a new Jin dynasty here, which soon, in 280, managed to subjugate Shu and Wu, uniting all of China under its rule again, although only for a few decades. From the beginning of the 4th century. nomadic northern tribes, one after another, began to invade Northern China, the Jin Empire ceased to exist, and the period of the Nan Bei Chao, southern and northern dynasties began.

Nan-bei chao (IV-VI centuries)

The conquerors of northern China were peoples who were relatively backward compared to the Chinese. Under the influence of Chinese culture, nomads by the V-VI centuries. became so widespread that by the end of the 6th century. their descendants became ordinary Chinese. Proverb “You can conquer an empire while sitting on a horse, but you cannot rule it while sitting on a horse.”, meant that the influence of Chinese culture sooner or later led to the assimilation and Sinicization of any ethnic group that conquered the country. Moreover, foreigners accounted for only 20% in Northern China; the rest of the population, despite the massive migration of Chinese to the south, was Chinese.

The southern dynasties also replaced each other quite quickly (Song, 420-479; Qi, 479-502; Liang, 502-557; Chen, 557-589; the Later Liang, which coexisted with it, 555-587). The center of Chinese culture was concentrated in the south: outstanding scientists, poets, and thinkers lived here; Buddhism. Already from the 5th century. In the fertile fields of the rice belt, they began to harvest two crops a year, which is still practiced today. In the south, new cities began to be created at a rapid pace, old ones developed and new types of crafts emerged, trade and commodity-money relations began to flourish.

The rise of the Chinese Empire (VI-XIII centuries)

Sui Dynasty (581-618)

In 581, the commander of the Northern Zhou kingdom, Yang Jian, united all of Northern and then Southern China under his rule, proclaiming a new dynasty. The new emperor carried out a number of reforms, trying to strengthen the state and cut the ground from under the feet of the “strong houses”. Each plowman had to have his own field and pay a tax. His son Yan-di resettled 10 thousand rich families from different parts of the country to the capital Luoyang, which he built. In the Luoyang area, luxurious palaces were built, as well as huge granaries, and to transport tax grain from the south, which had already become the main breadbasket of the country, the Grand Canal was dug, connecting the Yangtze with the Yellow River. According to some sources, up to 80 thousand people were employed in maintaining this structure with all its locks and other devices. Yan-di simultaneously carried out several colossal construction projects, tried to conduct an active foreign policy and constantly fought, and as a result the country could not bear the burden. Uprisings broke out, Yan-di was killed.

Tang Dynasty (618-907)

Li Yuan, one of the military leaders and relatives of Yan-di through the female line, proclaimed himself the ruler of the new Tang dynasty. He and his son Li Shi-min (Tai-tsung, 626-649) laid the foundation for the prosperity of the Chinese empire. Land reform and the implementation of the tax system within the framework of allotment land use provided the treasury with a regular flow of income, and the state with the necessary labor force (labor duties). Both contributed to strengthening the infrastructure of the empire - roads, canals, dams, palaces, temples, and entire large cities were built. Crafts and trade flourished, including government crafts, where the best highly qualified craftsmen were usually concentrated, working as a labor service or on top of that for hire. Crafts and trade were under strict control of the state, special officials who, through the heads of tuans and khans (guilds and guilds), strictly regulated every step of city residents.

In Tang times, the empire was divided into 10 provinces (dao), which in turn were divided into regions (zhou) and counties (xian). All officials were appointed from the center and controlled by it. This feature gave China's administrative-bureaucratic system strength and stability. The work of the executive bodies and the entire state system, primarily the apparatus of power and officials, was strictly controlled by the censors-prosecutors of the special chamber of Yushitai, who had great powers, including the right to submit reports to the highest name. The executive power was represented by two chancellors (zaisans or zhichengs) - the left (he was usually considered the eldest) and the right, each of whom was in charge of three of the six departments of the Shanshusheng Chamber, a kind of Council of Ministers. The first group of departments included the departments of ranks (recruitment and appointments throughout the empire), rituals (monitoring compliance with standards of behavior, maintaining public order) and taxes. The second includes the management of military affairs, punishment and public works (implementation of labor duties, construction, including irrigation).

The power of the district chief was very great and therefore was usually controlled most strictly. It was limited both by the term (no more than 3 years in one place with subsequent movement to another) and by the place of service (in no case where the official was from). The empire paid special attention to the important problem of training and principles of staffing officials. In Tang China, this was done at special degree exams in county, provincial and capital centers, under the strict supervision of special commissions sent from outside, and in a closed room and in writing under a motto. To successfully pass the exam, one had to have a good knowledge of the works of the ancients, primarily the classical Confucian canons, and also be able to creatively interpret stories from history, abstractly reason on the topics of philosophical treatises and have literary taste, and be able to write poetry. All this, of course, in a strictly Confucian spirit, in compliance with the appropriate mandatory form. Those who completed the task best (3-5% of the candidate applicants) were awarded the coveted degree and, most importantly, received the right to take the exam for the second degree, and those with two - for the third.

Song Dynasty (960-1279)

This period is also considered the heyday of the Chinese empire in the spheres of economics, culture, and administration. The number, population and prosperity of cities grew. New crafts appeared: the production of porcelain, silk, varnish, wood, ivory, etc. It was at this time that gunpowder and the compass were invented and began to spread widely. Agriculture and agricultural technology achieved great success, productive grain varieties were developed, and the cultivation of Indian cotton began.

However, all this was combined with the onslaught of northern nomadic tribes (Khitans, Tanguts) and the Sung Empire’s unsuccessful attempts to repel this onslaught. China was forced to pay a humiliating tribute, but this did not help and it lost territory after territory, city after city.

In 1127, the Jurchen captured the capital of the Song Empire, Kaifeng, and captured the imperial family. One of the emperor's sons flees to the south, to Hangzhou, which later becomes the capital of the new Southern Song Empire (1127-1280). The advance of the Jurchen army to the south is held back only by the Yangtze River. The border between Jin and the Southern Sung Empire is established along the area between the Yellow and Yangtze rivers.

Against the backdrop of the heyday of the Tang Song, subsequent centuries were already a period, if not always of decline, then at least of stagnation.

Mongols and Yuan dynasty (1280–1368)

Having conquered the peoples of Southern Siberia, neighboring the Mongolian steppe, the army of Genghis Khan in 1210 began a war with the Jurchens and in 1215 already occupied Beijing. It took the Mongols more than 40 years to conquer Southern Song China. In 1280, China fell entirely under Mongol rule, and the Great Khan Kublai Khan became the Chinese emperor of the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1280–1368).

After half a century of war, China's economy fell into disrepair, agriculture and trade were disrupted. Confucian officials were forced to give up their place to the Mongols and people from other parts of Asia. The Chinese were considered third- and fourth-class people (after the Mongols themselves and semu-ren, i.e. people from other countries). However, after a few decades, Confucian officials began to come to the administration again (from 1317 the examination system began to function); the descendants of the first Mongolian rulers, who often took Chinese wives, increasingly turned into ordinary Chinese. However, the usual scenario of assimilation of the invaders did not take place.

After a series of disasters, the most catastrophic of which was the breakthrough of the Yellow River dams in 1334, which claimed hundreds of thousands of lives. Discontent with the Mongols increased sharply in the country. Uprisings began to break out, the participants of which were called “Red Bandages.” The leader of the rebels, Zhu Yuan-chang (1328–1398), eventually took the imperial throne, founding the Ming Dynasty.

China during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)

Like the previous emperors who ascended the throne, Zhu Yuan-chang did a lot to strengthen the central government, starting with agrarian reforms. A fixed taxation with relatively low taxes was introduced, and some categories of households were sometimes exempt from taxes altogether, as had happened before. The service system was universal, but was implemented one by one.

Having successfully expelled the Mongols from the territory of China, the Ming army conducted several successful military campaigns in the south, in the region of Vietnam. The Chinese fleet, led by Zheng He, made several naval expeditions to the countries of Southeast Asia, India and even to the east coast of Africa from 1405 to 1433.

The establishment of trade relations with neighboring countries dates back to the same period. Trade was extremely profitable for foreigners. They presented their goods as “gifts” from the authorities of their country, while the Chinese, perceiving them as a manifestation of tributary trade with the “barbarians,” “gave away”, and the volume and value of imperial awards and grants should have been the same number of times higher than the “tribute” how much the prestige of the Chinese emperor was valued by the Chinese themselves above the prestige of the “tributary rulers.”

The Ming Dynasty lasted for almost three centuries, the last half of which was in conditions of a protracted crisis. Over the course of a century and a half of protracted political struggle at the top for the reforms necessary for the country, the process of ruining the peasants has reached an extreme degree. The next uprising was led by Li Tzu-cheng (1606–1645). In 1644, Li's troops occupied Beijing, and he himself, having finished with the Ming, declared himself emperor. However, he failed to gain a foothold on the throne.

1) XVIII-XII century BC Shang (Yin) era. There are a large number of monuments of material culture, tools made not only of stone and bone, but of copper and bronze. The beginning of the formation of the cult of the Emperor. In the 17th century, the state of Shan was formed (its neighbors called it Yin). Archaeological evidence indicates a stratified society.

2) XVII-V centuries BC Zhou era (we are talking about the eastern and western regions). During this era, on the territory of ancient China there were dozens of independent states at war with each other. There was a strengthening of the clan nobility and the formation of state power. First person of the state – Tsar(or Wang) and his advisors:

a. First Advisor Title – Great Mentor(He was involved in religious affairs).

b. The title of the second adviser is Great Teacher(Public works, irrigation).

c. Third Councilor Title: Grand Patron(Warfare)

Cults were formed:

b. Ancestor cult

c. Emperor cult

d. Cult of nature

3) V-III centuries BC Zhanguo era (era of the warring states). In the Zhanguo era, there were seven large kingdoms, metal money appeared, economic recovery took place:

a. Iron tools

b. Crafts

The centralization of the country was facilitated by:

a. Expanding trade

b. Irrational system

c. Confrontation with nomads

4) 221-207 BC The era of the Qin state. The state of Qin was located on the western borders of China. In the 4th century BC. dignitary Shang Yang spent a very important reforms. In the 3rd century the state Qin defeats Zhou and finally unites in the period 246-210 BC. One of the most powerful emperors ruled - Ying Zheng.

5) 2006 BC – 9 AD First Han Dynasty. After the death of Qin Shi Huangdi, a rebellion broke out in ancient China, as a result of which one of its leaders, Liu Bang, became the emperor of the new Han dynasty.

6) 25 -220 AD Second Han Dynasty.

After 220 AD China splits into three kingdoms - beginning of the Middle Ages.

§2. Major achievements of Chinese culture

1) Ancestor cult and emperor cult

2) Chinese mythology. Myths tell about the sky, the first ancestors - cultural heroes: the emperor, dignitaries, nobles. During the Zhou era, the sky cult(Tian) and the practice of fortune telling.

Yin and Yang - two pioneers who separated from chaos and created the whole world. Yin- this is shady, northern, and Ian– illuminated south. Yin– Feminine, darkness, water, death... In Taoism, these are the concepts that will help explain the whole world. Ian– masculinity, sun, light, life.

Traditionality And stability being are the main priorities of Chinese culture. In the minds of the Chinese, gods embodied natural and cultural objects.

Researching the past of the Celestial Empire is a difficult task. The scale of the accumulated information is amazing: behind the designation of the next stage, a century-long period is revealed, a change of generations, a series of events.

The term “dynasty” is a tribute to tradition. In short: imperial “dynasties” are not dominant families - these are periods of development and formation of a great state.

What year is the history of China calculated from?

Prehistoric China did not have a generally accepted time system. The basic "historical intervals" differed according to the periods of reign of the supreme ruler.

Chinese scientists (not without imperial pathos) claim that the state system is 5000 years old. The history of China is measured from the legendary deeds of Wang Fu Xi, who is considered the mythological father, founder and oldest ruler of the country. If we do not operate with legends and myths, but talk “briefly about the main thing”: there is no documentary evidence of the existence of the state before the establishment of the Shang dynasty. It is from the reign of the Shang (1600-1027 BC) that the history of the PRC begins.

Periodization of Ancient China

Years were counted in the Empire using two methods. Calculation according to the eras of the reign of the next ruler and chronology according to cycles, where the years were united into sixty-year stages.

Tradition considered the origins of all things in five elements. Each sign of the primary element with one of the twelve animals gave the name to the year in the whirlwind of everyday life.

Interesting! Sinology identifies ten dynasties and focuses on periods of simultaneous existence of several ruling houses.

These “moments” of the country’s extensive history are highlighted separately:

• reign of the "six families" (220-589): between the fall of the Han and the rise of the Sui;
• the era of political upheavals, “five houses and ten states” (907-960).

The emergence of the Shan-Yin state

Shan (in some sources Shan-Yin) is the first Chinese state, the existence of which is confirmed by archaeological artifacts.

An ancient legend says: the leader Pan Gen razed the town of Anyang in the middle reaches of the Yellow River and founded a settlement, giving it the name Shan. The name of the settlement spread not only to the “freshly created” state, but also to the entire family of kings.

The result of numerous wars was the enslavement of numerous neighbors by the Shan rulers and the triumphant and grand expansion of the territories of the Empire.

In Shan-Ying there was a calendar, the beginnings of writing and... a huge army armed with bronze swords, excellent bows and war wagons.

Xia Dynasty

Zhou Dynasty

Zhou rule lasted about 800 years. For better analysis and systematization, scholars divide the Zhou into two periods:

• western (1045 BC - 770 BC) - the clan ruled the entire country;
• eastern (770 BC - 256 BC) - Van gradually loses the primacy of power, the territory of the country turns into a “patchwork quilt” of individual states.

The eastern stage is divided into the “spring and autumn chronicles”, when in the vastness of the country there were many independent fiefdoms (subordinate to the central government) and the period of discord Zhanguo (“Warring States”) when the Zhou were overthrown from the throne.

During Zhanguo's time, the country experienced major changes:

• increasing urbanization;
• the spread of iron tools and, as a result, increased productivity;
• restructuring of army structures;
• development of commodity-money, market relations;
• mass settlement of little-developed regions.

All this against the backdrop of acute political instability and large-scale battles. Relentless wars for Power led to the collapse of the ruling house. The ruler of Zhou lost his heavenly mandate. The most powerful state, Qin, with its ruler Shi Huang, won the “war against everyone.”

In 221, the founder of the dynasty united dozens of small fiefdoms into a single country, demarcated a huge territory into provinces and “placed the sovereign’s husband on the board” in each. The country was systematically transformed into a state strictly controlled from a single center.

The emperor announced the end of all civil strife, took away all weapons from the appanage princes and, having melted them down, ordered the casting of twelve large monuments of peace and prosperity.

The state invaded all areas of life:

• standardization of the metric system;
• approval of the canon of writing;
• carrying out monetary and judicial reforms;
• the formation of a clearly structured hierarchy of bureaucrats.

Interesting! Qin was a time of grandiose construction projects: the construction of the Great Wall of China, the construction of the emperor's tomb (with the famous terracotta army) and the majestic Elan Palace.

The entire empire is covered in road construction (the official length is 7,500 kilometers).

The main reason for the short reign of the dynasty, historians say, was the opposition (at the level of the Emperor) to the ideas of Confucianism and the philosophy of Legalism. Legalism (“the school of lawyers”) preached strict adherence to the letter of the law and extremely harsh punishments for any liberties and offenses. It was bloodthirsty cruelty that destroyed the ruling dynasty. Qin Shi Huangdi died in 210 BC.

Han and Xin

The new ruler of the empire, Ershi Huang, was a weak-willed man. The head of the imperial chancellery, Zhao Gao, quickly “crushed” the weak-willed Wang. The country was shaken by riots against the gray cardinal.

In 207 BC, the Emperor committed ritual suicide. Rebel leader Liu Bang won the race for power and founded the Han Dynasty, ruling the country (with a short break) until 220 (longer than other royal dynasties).

Sinologists divide the reign into the early (Western stage) and later Han (with a short period of loss of power in the middle of the reign).

The ascension to the throne of the Han Dynasty initiated numerous changes in the life of the country, which allowed society to “close ranks” and calm down. Bloodthirsty legalism was replaced by restored Confucianism. Taxation was reduced for peasants, and the bureaucratic apparatus underwent serious purges. Life in the Middle Kingdom began to return to its former course of peace and prosperity. But the warlike neighbors of the Huns became more active on the borders. In an effort to avoid unnecessary bloodshed, ruler Liu Bang concluded a peace agreement with the aggressors. The nomads agreed to retreat in exchange for huge annual payments (tribute).

The first head of the family, Liu Bang, died in 195 BC. e. Over the following years, the Empire slowly slipped into decline. The Western Han died out bloodlessly. After the death of Lord Ping-di, the throne peacefully passed to Wang Man. Paying tribute to tradition, a new, short-lived Xin dynasty was created.

The founder of the ruling house, Xin, tried to reform the country, bring some sense to the slave owners, and rein in the top officials. The provinces were overwhelmed by chaos, bloody riots, and uprisings. Wang Mang failed, was deposed and executed.

In 25, the second era of Han rule began. A distant relative of the former kings, the young Guan Wu-di, was brought to power.

Eastern Han is famous for enthroning child emperors. Power-hungry regents and gray cardinals wasted their lives, pushing the dynasty to the brink of the abyss. In 184, the Yellow Turban rebellion rocked the empire.

The riots were pacified by the army. The generals who came into force divided the empire into three parts. The reign of Han ended and the Three Kingdoms began.

The bloody confrontation between the former generals accelerated the collapse of the Empire. The Jin era began (265–316).

The nomads conquered the entire north of the country and moved the capital from Luoyang to the south. Emperor Ximya Yan carried out land use reforms, which embittered the owners of large land holdings. The invaders “tore away” entire provinces and huge cities from the country, forced peasants to master the cultivation of rice necessary for the nomads, and settled river valleys with clans.

Buddhism, which came from India, strengthened in the country: monasteries and temples were built everywhere.

Sui

In late-sixth-century Northern Zhou, power was usurped by Chinese high officials and warlords and sinicized Turkic chieftains with a common leader, Yang Jian.

The empire was oppressed by fragmentation. On a wave of complete popular approval, the “Yan comrades” united the country. In 581, Yang Jian ascended the throne under the "avatar" of Wendi and the motto Sui. Three hundred years of disunity ended and the Sui era began.

In a very short period of rule, the Sui house managed to completely rebuild the protective wall, lay the Imperial Canal and build a majestic palace in the next capital of the state.

Interesting! The dynasty united China after four centuries of disunity.

The leaders preserved the integrity of the country, strengthened the borders, and consolidated the population.

Li Yuan founded the Tang state, which lasted from 618 to 907. The founder's heir, Chief Li Shimin, suppressed all popular revolts, executed the separatists, and announced a new imperial economic and political strategy. The Celestial Empire was experiencing a period of greatest power: economic ties were being established with other states, agricultural crops were developing (rice, tea, cotton), and cities and settlements were being restored from the ruins.

The history of the ruling dynasty was cut short by a “conspiracy of military governors.” The leader of the conspirators, Huang Chao, destroyed Tang in 901 and once again fragmented the empire into separate fiefdoms.

Evidence of the existence of the state

Historical research in 1928 documented the existence of a forerunner of Chinese statehood as early as 1600 BC.

Excavations in the vicinity of the Xiaotun settlement (northern Henan province) created a real sensation among modern sinologists. The ruins of a huge, ancient city, dwellings, workshops of artisans, religious buildings, an imperial palace and three hundred tombs (four imperial tombs).

Excavations confirmed the existence of the state: the hierarchy of society (in addition to the graves of officials and merchants, many “poor” burials were discovered), the flourishing of crafts, religions and the undisputed power of the emperor, a ruler with a “heavenly mandate.”

Natural conditions of that time

China is made up of mountains, plateaus and river valleys. The western part of the country has the greatest highlands in the world with a sharply continental climate. The east of the state is the beds of rivers flowing to the sea (all trade routes are concentrated here, the Great Silk Road starts here). The East is famous for its mild climate and varied vegetation.

Prehistoric climate and natural conditions differed from the modern state of affairs. The north of the country was covered with forest, green areas stabilized the weather and facilitated construction.

Modern researchers learn about protected forests only from numerous images, legends and myths.

Population

The community of the Yin and Zhou people (first millennium BC) gave birth to the Chinese ethnic group. Neighbors, speakers of Paleo-Asian (in the north) and Austroasiatic (in the southeast) dialects, participated in the formation of the population.

The East, North and North-West of the country were inhabited by Chinese clans (Shang, Xia, Zhou). The South and South-West belonged to closely related peoples, speakers of Sino-Tibetan dialects. The Northeast and West belonged to the Mongols and Turkic entities.

What did they believe?

The religions of the Empire were not personalized. In China, temples dedicated to a specific deity were not erected; priestly duties were performed by civil servants.

The ancient Chinese had three main religions (more like religious and philosophical movements): Buddhism that came from India, the teaching of the Great Path, Taoism, and the insights of Kung Fu Tzu - Confucianism.

Modern Sinology claims: after the collapse of the Han Dynasty, an epochal transformation took place in the Empire: Antiquity was replaced by the medieval stage. The history of the country at this time consists of a grandiose series of events: frequent changes of ruling houses, long-term rule of conquerors, numerous wars, riots, uprisings.

The imperial transition to the Middle Ages took place quietly, without being “destroyed to the ground” as was the case in Europe. The Chinese, who avoid changes, have shown wisdom and prudence here too. Everything was done slowly and gradually: China in the Middle Ages quietly said goodbye to slave-owning traditions, carried out spiritual and religious transformations, carried out a restructuring of government structures and, most importantly, a revaluation of moral foundations.

Periods of the Imperial Middle Ages

China in the Middle (“Dark”) Ages experienced a succession of several dynasties:

• III-VI centuries - time of troubles (invasion of nomads, Three Kingdoms) legacy of the collapse of the Han;
• 589-618 - Sui rule;
• 618-907 - Tang reign;
• 907-960 - five ruling houses and ten states;
• 960-1279 - Song rule;
• 1279-1368 - Yuan rule (Mongols);
• 1368-1644 - Ming rule;
• 1644-1911 - Qing reign.

Traditions and legends

The great people mixed primitive folk beliefs, the rationality of Confucius, the rituals and mysticism of Taoism with the excess spirituality of Buddhism. The Empire gave birth to a mythology for every day, for all occasions.

The history of ancient civilization goes back several thousand years. A reverent care for antiquities, legends and traditions is inherent in the Chinese of all times. Mythological heritage is carefully collected, systematized and widely regarded as a national treasure.

Myths, legends and the very history of ancient China reflect the worldview of society and the Chinese idea of ​​the structure of the world.

Conclusion

Periodization of the History of Ancient China: a series of ups and downs, circling in a spiral, but gradually soaring upward. The great empire steadfastly overcame natural disasters, the aggression of nomads, numerous uprisings and rebellions... and steadily rose from the ashes, expanded its borders, assimilated invaders and was imbued with foreign culture, becoming better, stronger and more powerful.