What flies in space 100 to 1. Virtual excursion “Spacecraft

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The current speed record in space has stood for 46 years. The correspondent wondered when he would be beaten.

We humans are obsessed with speed. So, only in the last few months it became known that students in Germany set a speed record for an electric car, and the US Air Force plans to improve hypersonic aircraft so that they reach speeds five times the speed of sound, i.e. over 6100 km/h.

Such planes will not have a crew, but not because people cannot move at such high speeds. In fact, people have already moved at speeds that are several times faster than the speed of sound.

However, is there a limit beyond which our rapidly rushing bodies will no longer be able to withstand the overload?

The current speed record is shared equally by three astronauts who participated in the Apollo 10 space mission - Tom Stafford, John Young and Eugene Cernan.

In 1969, when astronauts circled the Moon and returned back, the capsule they were in reached a speed that on Earth would be 39.897 km/h.

“I think that a hundred years ago we could hardly imagine that a person could move in space at a speed of almost 40 thousand kilometers per hour,” says Jim Bray of the aerospace concern Lockheed Martin.

Bray is the director of the habitable module project for the promising Orion spacecraft, which is being developed Space Agency USA NASA.

According to the developers, spaceship Orion is multi-purpose and partly reusable and should carry astronauts into low Earth orbit. It is very possible that with its help it will be possible to break the speed record set for a person 46 years ago.

The new super-heavy rocket, part of the Space Launch System, is scheduled to make its first manned flight in 2021. This will be a flyby of an asteroid located in lunar orbit.

The average person can withstand about five Gs of force before passing out.

Then months-long expeditions to Mars should follow. Now, according to the designers, the usual maximum speed of Orion should be approximately 32 thousand km/h. However, the speed achieved by Apollo 10 can be surpassed even if the basic configuration of the Orion spacecraft is maintained.

"Orion is designed to fly to a variety of targets throughout its lifespan," says Bray. "It could be much faster than what we're currently planning."

But even Orion will not represent the peak of human speed potential. “There is essentially no limit to the speed at which we can travel other than the speed of light,” says Bray.

The speed of light is one billion km/hour. Is there any hope that we will be able to bridge the gap between 40 thousand km/h and these values?

Surprisingly, speed as a vector quantity indicating the speed of movement and direction of movement is not a problem for people in physical sense, while it is relatively constant and directed in one direction.

Consequently, people - theoretically - can move in space only slightly slower than the "speed limit of the universe", i.e. speed of light.

Illustration copyright NASA Image caption How will a person feel in a ship flying at near-light speed?

But even if we overcome the significant technological hurdles associated with high-speed spacecraft, our fragile, mostly water bodies will face new dangers associated with the effects of high speed.

Only imaginary dangers may arise if people are able to move faster than the speed of light thanks to the use of loopholes in modern physics or through discoveries that break the mold.

How to withstand overload

However, if we intend to travel at speeds over 40 thousand km/h, we will have to reach it and then slow down, slowly and with patience.

Rapid acceleration and equally rapid deceleration pose a mortal danger to the human body. This is evidenced by the severity of injuries resulting from car accidents, in which the speed drops from several tens of kilometers per hour to zero.

What is the reason for this? In that property of the Universe, which is called inertia or ability physical body, having mass, resist changes in its state of rest or motion in the absence or compensation of external influences.

This idea is formulated in Newton's first law, which states: "Every body continues to be maintained in its state of rest or uniform and rectilinear motion until and unless it is compelled by applied forces to change that state."

We humans are able to endure enormous overloads without serious injury, although only for a few moments.

“Staying at rest and moving at a constant speed is normal for the human body,” explains Bray. “We should rather be concerned about the state of a person at the moment of acceleration.”

About a century ago, the development of rugged airplanes that could maneuver at speed led pilots to report strange symptoms caused by changes in speed and direction of flight. These symptoms included temporary loss of vision and a feeling of either heaviness or weightlessness.

The reason is the g-forces, measured in units of G, which is the ratio of linear acceleration to acceleration free fall on the surface of the Earth under the influence of attraction or gravity. These units reflect the effect of gravity acceleration on the mass of, for example, a human body.

An overload of 1 G is equal to the weight of a body that is in the gravitational field of the Earth and is attracted to the center of the planet at a speed of 9.8 m/sec (at sea level).

G-forces experienced vertically from head to toe or vice versa are truly bad news for pilots and passengers.

At negative overloads, i.e. slowing down, blood rushes from the toes to the head, a feeling of oversaturation occurs, as when doing a handstand.

Illustration copyright SPL Image caption In order to understand how many Gs astronauts can withstand, they are trained in a centrifuge

"Red veil" (the feeling a person experiences when blood rushes to the head) occurs when the blood-swollen, translucent lower eyelids rise and cover the pupils of the eyes.

And, conversely, during acceleration or positive g-forces, blood flows from the head to the feet, the eyes and brain begin to lack oxygen as blood accumulates in the lower extremities.

At first, vision becomes foggy, i.e. loss of color vision occurs and what is called a “gray veil” rolls in, then complete loss of vision or “black veil” occurs, but the person remains conscious.

Excessive overload leads to complete loss of consciousness. This condition is called overload syncope. Many pilots died because a “black veil” fell over their eyes and they crashed.

The average person can withstand about five Gs of force before losing consciousness.

Pilots, wearing special anti-g suits and trained to tense and relax their torso muscles in a special way to keep the blood flowing from the head, are able to control the plane at about nine Gs.

Upon reaching a stable cruising speed of 26,000 km/h in orbit, astronauts experience speed no more than passengers on commercial flights

“For short periods of time, the human body can withstand much greater g-forces than nine Gs,” says Jeff Swiatek, executive director of the Aerospace Medical Association, based in Alexandria, Va. “But the ability to withstand high g-forces over long periods of time is very few".

We humans are able to endure enormous overloads without serious injury, although only for a few moments.

The short-term endurance record was set by US Air Force Captain Eli Beeding Jr. at Holloman Air Force Base in New Mexico. In 1958, when braking on a special sled with a rocket engine, after accelerating to 55 km/h in 0.1 second, he experienced an overload of 82.3 G.

This result was recorded by an accelerometer attached to his chest. Beeding also suffered a “black cloud” over his eyes, but he escaped with only bruises during this remarkable display of human endurance. True, after the race he spent three days in the hospital.

And now into space

Astronauts, depending on the means of transportation, also experienced fairly high overloads - from three to five G - during takeoffs and when returning to the dense layers of the atmosphere, respectively.

These overloads are tolerated relatively easily, thanks to the clever idea of ​​​​fastening space travelers to seats in a lying position facing the direction of flight.

Once they reach a stable cruising speed of 26,000 km/h in orbit, astronauts feel no more speed than passengers on commercial flights.

If overloads do not pose a problem for long expeditions on the Orion spacecraft, then with small space rocks - micrometeorites - everything is more complicated.

Illustration copyright NASA Image caption To protect against micrometeorites, Orion will need some kind of space armor

These particles, the size of a grain of rice, can reach impressive yet destructive speeds of up to 300 thousand km/h. To ensure the integrity of the ship and the safety of its crew, Orion is equipped with an outer protective layer, the thickness of which varies from 18 to 30 cm.

In addition, additional shielding shields are provided, and ingenious placement of equipment inside the ship is also used.

“To avoid losing flight systems that are vital to the entire spacecraft, we must accurately calculate the approach angles of micrometeorites,” says Jim Bray.

Rest assured: micrometeorites are not the only obstacle to space missions, during which high speeds of human flight in vacuum will play an increasingly important role.

During the expedition to Mars, other problems will have to be solved. practical problems, for example, to supply the crew with food and counteract the increased risk of cancer due to exposure to human body cosmic radiation.

Reducing travel time will reduce the severity of such problems, so speed of travel will become increasingly desirable.

Next generation spaceflight

This need for speed will throw new obstacles in the way of space travelers.

NASA's new spacecraft, which threaten to break Apollo 10's speed record, will still rely on time-tested chemical systems rocket engines used since the first space flights. But these systems have severe speed limitations due to the release of small amounts of energy per unit of fuel.

The most preferred, although elusive, source of energy for a fast spacecraft is antimatter, the counterpart and antipode of ordinary matter

Therefore, in order to significantly increase the speed of flight for people going to Mars and beyond, scientists recognize that completely new approaches are needed.

"The systems we have today are quite capable of getting us there," says Bray, "but we would all like to witness a revolution in engines."

Eric Davis, a senior research physicist at the Institute for Advanced Study in Austin, Texas, and a six-year participant in NASA's Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program research project, completed in 2002, identified the three most promising means, from the point of view of traditional physics, that can help humanity achieve speeds reasonably sufficient for interplanetary travel.

In short, we're talking about about the phenomena of energy release during the fission of matter, thermonuclear fusion and annihilation of antimatter.

The first method involves fission of atoms and is used in commercial nuclear reactors.

The second, thermonuclear fusion, is the creation of heavier atoms from simple atoms - this kind of reaction powers the Sun. This is a technology that fascinates, but is difficult to grasp; it's "always 50 years away" - and that's how it always will be, as the industry's old motto goes.

"These are very advanced technologies," says Davis, "but they are based on traditional physics and have been firmly established since the dawn of the Atomic Age." According to optimistic estimates, propulsion systems, based on the concepts of atomic fission and thermonuclear fusion, in theory, are capable of accelerating a ship to 10% of the speed of light, i.e. up to a very respectable 100 million km/h.

Illustration copyright US Air Force Image caption Flying at supersonic speed is no longer a problem for humans. Another thing is the speed of light, or at least close to it...

The most preferred, although difficult to achieve, source of energy for a fast spacecraft is antimatter, the counterpart and antipode of ordinary matter.

When two types of matter come into contact, they destroy each other, resulting in the release of pure energy.

Technologies that make it possible to produce and store – so far extremely insignificant – amounts of antimatter exist today.

At the same time, the production of antimatter in useful quantities will require new special capabilities of the next generation, and engineering will have to enter a competitive race to create an appropriate spacecraft.

But, as Davis says, a lot great ideas is already being worked out on the drawing boards.

Spacecraft powered by antimatter energy will be able to accelerate for months or even years and reach greater percentages of the speed of light.

At the same time, overloads on board will remain acceptable for the ship's inhabitants.

At the same time, such fantastic new speeds will be fraught with other dangers for the human body.

Energy city

At speeds of several hundred million kilometers per hour, any speck of dust in space, from dispersed hydrogen atoms to micrometeorites, inevitably becomes a high-energy bullet capable of piercing the hull of a ship.

"When you move at very high speeds, that means that the particles coming towards you are moving at the same speeds," says Arthur Edelstein.

Together with his late father, William Edelstein, a professor of radiology at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, he worked on scientific work, which examined the effects of cosmic hydrogen atoms (on people and equipment) during ultrafast space travel in space.

The hydrogen will begin to decompose into subatomic particles, which will penetrate into the ship and expose both crew and equipment to radiation.

The Alcubierre engine will propel you like a surfer riding a wave Eric Davis, Research Physicist

At 95% of the speed of light, exposure to such radiation would mean almost instant death.

The spaceship will heat up to melting temperatures that no imaginable material can resist, and the water contained in the crew members' bodies will immediately boil.

“These are all extremely vexing problems,” Edelstein observes with grim humor.

He and his father roughly calculated that to create a hypothetical magnetic shielding system that could protect the ship and its occupants from deadly hydrogen rain, the starship could travel at a speed not exceeding half the speed of light. Then the people on board have a chance to survive.

Mark Millis, problem physicist forward motion, and former director of NASA's Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program, warns that this potential speed limit for space travel remains a problem for the distant future.

“Based on the physical knowledge accumulated to date, we can say that it will be extremely difficult to reach speeds above 10% of the speed of light,” says Millis. “We are not in danger yet. A simple analogy: why worry that we might drown if We haven't even gotten into the water yet."

Faster than light?

If we assume that we have, so to speak, learned to swim, will we then be able to master gliding through cosmic time - to develop this analogy further - and fly at superluminal speeds?

The hypothesis of an innate ability to survive in a superluminal environment, although dubious, is not without certain glimpses of educated enlightenment in the pitch darkness.

One such intriguing means of travel is based on technologies similar to those used in the "warp drive" or "warp drive" from the Star Trek series.

The principle of operation of this power plant, also known as the “Alcubierre engine” * (named after the Mexican theoretical physicist Miguel Alcubierre), is that it allows the ship to compress normal space-time in front of it, as described by Albert Einstein, and expand it behind myself.

Illustration copyright NASA Image caption The current speed record is held by three Apollo 10 astronauts - Tom Stafford, John Young and Eugene Cernan.

Essentially, the ship moves in a certain volume of space-time, a kind of “curvature bubble” that moves faster than the speed of light.

Thus, the ship remains motionless in normal space-time in this "bubble", without being subject to deformation and avoiding violations of the universal limit of the speed of light.

“Instead of floating through the water of normal spacetime,” says Davis, “the Alcubierre drive will carry you like a surfer riding a surfboard along the crest of a wave.”

There is also a certain catch here. To implement this idea, an exotic form of matter is needed that has negative mass to compress and expand space-time.

“Physics doesn’t say anything against negative mass,” says Davis, “but there are no examples of it, and we’ve never seen it in nature.”

There is another catch. In a paper published in 2012, researchers from the University of Sydney suggested that the "warp bubble" would accumulate high-energy cosmic particles as it inevitably began to interact with the contents of the Universe.

Some particles will penetrate inside the bubble itself and pump the ship with radiation.

Trapped at sub-light speeds?

Are we really doomed to be stuck at sub-light speeds due to our delicate biology?!

This is not so much about setting a new world (galactic?) speed record for humans, but about the prospect of transforming humanity into an interstellar society.

At half the speed of light - and this is the limit that, according to Edelstein's research, our body can withstand - a round trip to the nearest star would take more than 16 years.

(Time dilation effects, which would cause the spaceship crew to experience less time in their coordinate system than for the people remaining on Earth in their coordinate system, would not have dramatic consequences at half the speed of light.)

Mark Millis is hopeful. Considering that humanity has invented G-suits and micrometeor protection that allow humans to travel safely in the great blue and star-studded black of space, he is confident that we can find ways to survive whatever speed limits we reach in the future.

“The same technologies that can help us achieve incredible new travel speeds,” Millis reflects, “will provide us with new, as yet unknown capabilities for protecting crews.”

Translator's Notes:

*Miguel Alcubierre came up with the idea for his bubble in 1994. And in 1995, Russian theoretical physicist Sergei Krasnikov proposed the concept of a device for space travel faster than the speed of light. The idea was called the “Krasnikov pipe”.

This is an artificial curvature of space-time according to the principle of the so-called wormhole. Hypothetically, the ship would move in a straight line from Earth to a given star through curved space-time, passing through other dimensions.

According to Krasnikov's theory, the space traveler will return back at the same time when he set off.

Incredible facts

More than 50 years ago April 12, 1961 Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first man in space, beginning the era of human space flight. The Vostok-1 launch vehicle with Yuri Gagarin on board took off from the Baikonur Cosmodrome at 9:07 Moscow time.

Reaching speeds unprecedented for human flight at the time, the spacecraft escaped Earth's gravitational pull and entered orbit around our planet, orbiting once before re-entering the atmosphere and landing on Soviet soil.

Here are 5 interesting facts about this historic mission:

1. How long was Gagarin in space?

The entire mission lasted 108 minutes, and the flight around the Earth at a speed of 28,260 km/h took less than an hour and a half. During this time, Vostok 1 completed a not-quite-circular orbit at a maximum altitude of 327 km, before slowing to the point where the capsule detached into the atmosphere for a ballistic return.

2. What kind of device was Vostok-1?

Vostok 1 was a spherical capsule that was designed to eliminate changes in the center of gravity. Thus, the ship had to provide comfort for a crew of one, regardless of direction. But what it was not designed for was landing with a person on board.

Unlike later Russian spacecraft such as the modern Soyuz, Vostok 1 was not equipped with a motor to slow it down as it headed towards Earth, and so Gagarin had to eject before reaching Earth at an altitude of approximately 7 km.

3. What prevented earlier missions from reaching orbit?

In one word we can say - speed. To escape the gravitational pull of the Earth, the ship needed to reach a speed of 28,260 km/h, or about 8 km/s. Before Vostok-1, no rocket was powerful enough to travel that fast. The cannonball-shaped Vostok-1 capsule helped the rocket and spacecraft achieve the required speed.

4. How was Vostok tested before Gagarin’s mission?

A few weeks before the flight, the prototype of the ship on which Gagarin set off, Vostok 3KA-2, completed its flight, carrying a mannequin the size of a man, who was named Ivan Ivanovich, and a dog, Zvezdochka. Ivan was sold at Sotheby's in 1993, and the capsule was sold last year at the same auction for $2.88 million.

5. What happened before the words “Let’s go”?

Gagarin is best known for his phrase “Let's go!”, which he said when Vostok broke away from the Earth. But last year, recordings of Gagarin's last words before his first flight appeared. This data is from the on-board tape recorder, where Gagarin recorded his thoughts during the flight. Before the well-known words “Let’s go,” an interesting dialogue with Sergei Korolev was recorded on the transcript:

Korolev: There's lunch, dinner and breakfast in the tube packing.

Gagarin: I see.

Korolev: Got it?

Gagarin: Got it.

Korolev: Sausage, dragee and jam for tea.

Gagarin: Yeah.

Korolev: Got it?

Gagarin: Got it.

Korolev: Here.

Gagarin: Got it.

Korolev: 63 pieces, you'll be fat.

Gagarin: Ho-ho.

Korolev: When you arrive today, you’ll eat everything right away.

Gagarin: No, the main thing is that there is sausage to snack on the moonshine.

Everyone laughs.

Korolev: It’s a pest, but he writes down everything, you bastard. Hehe.

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I wouldn't say it's scary there. You are a professional and adapt to your work, so you have no time to think about fear. I was not afraid either at the start or on the descent - our pulse and blood pressure are constantly recorded. In general, after a while you feel at home at the station. But there is a delicate moment when you have to go into outer space. I really don't want to go out there.

It's like your first parachute jump. Here in front of you opened door and height 800 meters. As long as you’re sitting on a plane and there seems to be some kind of solid ground underneath you, it’s not scary. And then you have to step into the void. Conquer human nature, the instinct of self-preservation. The same feeling, only much stronger, when you go into outer space.

Before leaving, you put on a spacesuit, release the pressure in the airlock chamber, but you are still inside the station, which flies at a speed of 28 thousand kilometers per hour in orbit, but this is your home. And so you open the hatch - you open it manually - and there is darkness, an abyss.

When you're on the shadow side, you can't see anything underneath you. And you understand that below there are hundreds of kilometers of abyss, darkness, darkness, and from the illuminated habitable station you need to go to where there is nothing.

At the same time, you are in a spacesuit, and this is not a business suit, it is uncomfortable. He is tough, and this toughness must be overcome physically. You move only on your hands, your legs hang like ballast. In addition, visibility deteriorates. And you need to move along the station. And you understand that if you unhook, then death is inevitable. It’s enough to miss by two centimeters, one millimeter may not be enough for you - and you’ll forever drift next to the station, but there’s nothing to push off from, and no one will help you.

But even this you get used to. When you swim out to sunny side, the planets, our native one, become visible blue earth, it becomes calmer, even if she is thousands of kilometers away from you.

About which ones are hired as astronauts
Any citizen of Russia who meets certain requirements can become an astronaut. This was only the first, Gagarin’s, recruitment of military pilots, then they also began to take engineers and representatives of other specialties. Now you can apply to become an astronaut if you have any higher education, at least philological. And then people are selected according to the standard: they check their health, conduct psychological tests... In the last set, for example, there is only one pilot.

But not everyone ends up flying into space; according to statistics, about 40-50% of those who have completed training. The candidate is constantly preparing, but it is not a fact that the flight will eventually take place.

The minimum training time is five years: a year and a half of general space training, then a year and a half of training in a group - this is not yet a crew, another year and a half of training in the crew with which you will fly. But on average, much more time passes before the first flight - for some ten years, for others longer. Therefore, there are practically no young and unmarried astronauts. People usually come to the training center at the age of about 30, usually married.

The astronaut must study the International space station, ship, flight dynamics, flight theory, ballistics... Our tasks in orbit also include filming, editing and sending footage from the station to Earth. Therefore, astronauts also master camera work. And, of course, the requirements for maintaining physical fitness are constant, like those of athletes.

About health
We joke: cosmonauts are selected based on their health, and then they ask them whether they are smart. The health problem is not even about surviving overloads; it is not as difficult as is commonly believed; now even unprepared people fly into space as tourists.

But tourists still fly for a week, and a professional cosmonaut spends many months in orbit. And we work there. It was the tourist who was fastened to the seat on takeoff - and that’s all, his task is to survive. And the astronaut must work, regardless of overloads: maintain communication with the Earth, and be ready to take control in case of failures - in general, he must control everything.

Medical selection for cosmonauts is now, as before, very difficult. We took it at the Seventh Scientific Test Hospital of the Air Force in Sokolniki and called this place “Gestapo”. Because they scan you through and through, they force you to drink something, they inject you with something, they rip something out.

Then it was fashionable to remove tonsils, say. They didn’t hurt me at all, but they told me that I needed to cut them out. And when you go through the selection process, it’s more expensive for you to contradict doctors.

Although some had it much worse. Many pilots were simply afraid to become cosmonauts, because many of them were written off from flight work after a medical examination. That is, you don’t fly into space, and you are forbidden to fly on an airplane.

About the first flight
You prepare for it for a long time, you are a professional, you can do everything, but you have never truly experienced the feeling of weightlessness.

Everything happens very quickly: pre-flight excitement, then strong vibration, acceleration, overloads and then - time! You're in space. The engines turn off - and there is complete silence. And at the same time the entire crew floats up, that is, you are fastened with seat belts, but your body is already weightless. That's when the feeling of euphoria sets in. Outside the window - the brightest colors. There are no halftones in space, everything there is saturated, very contrasting.

You immediately want to feel everything, spin in the air, succumb to the feeling of joy, but when you are a crew member, first of all you have to work. A lot of things happen at the same time: you need to monitor how the antennas open, check the tightness, and so on. And only after you are convinced that everything is in order, you can take off the spacesuit and truly enjoy weightlessness - tumble.

Again, tumbling is dangerous. I remember that the experienced cosmonauts began to move very smoothly, and we, the beginners, were spinning and spinning. And then the vestibular apparatus goes crazy. And you understand that you need to be careful with him, because attacks of nausea may begin.

About smells
It was you on Earth who made it to the toilet, and even if you didn’t make it, it’s okay. And there, if you missed, all this will fly inside in the atmosphere. And you will need to collect it with a special vacuum cleaner. But you can’t pick up odors with a vacuum cleaner. But the atmosphere is the same, and it’s deteriorating.

The smells at the station constantly accumulate, so that when you first arrive there you don’t feel very comfortable. We also play sports there, but you can’t open the window, you can’t ventilate it.

But a person gets used to smells very quickly. So you can’t say that you feel discomfort all the time in orbit. Only the first time, when you open the ship’s hatch and sail into the station. Although just a few months ago the time from launch to docking was 34 hours, so the atmosphere on the ship itself had time to fill with different smells and not much difference was felt. Now you only fly for six hours, so there is more or less fresh air left in the ship.

About weightlessness
The first few days it’s difficult to sleep: my head doesn’t feel any support, it’s very unusual. Some people tie their head to a sleeping bag. No things can be left unsecured: they will fly away. But after a week you completely get used to weightlessness and live as normal, developing a daily routine: how much to sleep, when to eat.

In zero gravity you don’t use your legs at all; some muscles atrophy, despite the fact that you train on special machines every day. Therefore, returning to Earth is much more difficult than flying away; overload is more difficult to bear.

And then the first time on Earth you still can’t get used to the fact that you have to bear the weight of your body. There he pushed off with his finger and flew. There is no need to transfer objects to a friend; if you throw an object, it will fly. What did some people sin after spending six months in space? A feast, someone asks to pass something, a glass, for example. Well, the astronaut throws the glass across the table.

About the International Space Station
The station, like the spacecraft, consists of modules. These compartments are four meters in diameter and no more than 15 meters in length. Each astronaut has his own corner: you come at night, tie your sleeping bag, and swim there yourself. There is usually a laptop and a radio floating nearby so that if anything happens, they can quickly wake you up.