Practical functions of bjd. Basic concepts of BJD

As noted above, the dangers of the technosphere are largely anthropogenic. Their occurrence is based on human activity aimed at the formation and transformation of the flows of matter, energy and information in the process of life. By examining and modifying these streams, you can limit their size to acceptable values. If this is not possible, then life becomes dangerous.

The world of dangers in the technosphere is constantly growing, and methods and means of protection against them are created and improved with a significant delay. The severity of security problems was almost always assessed by the result of the impact of negative factors - the number of victims, loss of quality of the biosphere components, material damage. Protective measures formulated on this basis have turned out to be untimely, insufficient and, as a result, insufficiently effective. A striking example of the above is the environmental boom that began in the 70s with a thirty-year delay, which to this day in many countries, including Russia, has not gained the necessary strength.
Assessing the consequences of the impact of negative factors on the final result is the grossest miscalculation of mankind, which led to huge victims and the crisis of the biosphere.
Where is the exit? He is obvious. The solution of life safety problems must be carried out on scientific basis.
Science is the development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about reality.
In the near future, humanity must learn to predict negative impacts and ensure the safety of decisions made at the stage of their development, and to protect against existing negative factors, create and actively use protective equipment and measures, limiting the areas of action and levels of negative factors in every possible way.
The implementation of goals and objectives in the system of "human life safety" is a priority and should be developed on a scientific basis.
The science of life safety explores the world of dangers operating in the human environment, develops systems and methods for protecting a person from dangers. In the modern sense, life safety studies the dangers of the industrial, domestic and urban environment both in everyday life and in the event of emergencies of man-made and natural origin. The implementation of the goals and objectives of life safety includes the following main stages scientific activity:
– identification and description of the impact zones of technosphere hazards and its individual elements (enterprises, machines, devices, etc.);
– development and implementation of the most effective systems and methods of protection against hazards;
– formation of systems for monitoring hazards and managing the state of safety of the technosphere;
- development and implementation of measures to eliminate the consequences of the manifestation of hazards;
– organization of education of the population in the basics of safety and training of specialists in life safety.
The main task of the science of life safety is a preventive analysis of the sources and causes of hazards, forecasting and assessing their impact in space and time.
The modern theoretical base of the BJD should contain at least:
– methods for analyzing hazards generated by elements of the technosphere;
– the basics of a comprehensive description of negative factors in space and time, taking into account the possibility of their combined impact on a person in the technosphere;
- the basis for the formation of initial indicators of environmental friendliness for newly created or recommended elements of the technosphere, taking into account its state;
- the basics of managing the safety indicators of the technosphere based on the monitoring of hazards and the application of the most effective measures and means of protection;
– the basis for the formation of safety requirements for operators technical systems and the population of the technosphere.
When determining the main practical functions of the BDZ, it is necessary to take into account the historical sequence of the occurrence of negative impacts, the formation of their zones of action and protective measures. For a long time, the negative factors of the technosphere had the main impact on a person only in the sphere of production, forcing him to develop safety measures. The need for more complete human protection in industrial areas has led to labor protection. Today, the negative impact of the technosphere has expanded to the limit, when the objects of protection are also people in the urban space and housing, the biosphere adjacent to industrial zones.
It is easy to see that in almost all cases of manifestation of hazards, the sources of impact are the elements of the technosphere with their emissions, discharges, solid waste, energy fields and radiation. The identity of the sources of influence in all zones of the technosphere inevitably requires the formation of common approaches and solutions in such areas of protective activity as labor safety, life safety and environmental protection. All this is achieved by the implementation of the main functions of the Belarusian Railways. These include:
- description of the living space by its zoning according to the values of negative factors based on the examination of the sources of negative impacts, their relative location and mode of operation, as well as taking into account the climatic, geographical and other features of the region or zone of activity;
– formation of safety and environmental requirements for sources of negative factors
– assignment of maximum allowable emissions (MAE), discharges (MPD), energy impacts (MAI), acceptable risk, etc.;
– organization of monitoring of the state of the habitat and inspection control of sources of negative impacts;
– development and use of means of ecobioprotection;
– implementation of measures to eliminate the consequences of accidents and other emergencies;
- training the population in the basics of safety and training of specialists at all levels and forms of activity to implement the requirements of safety and environmental friendliness.
Not all functions of the BDZ are now equally developed and put into practice. There are certain developments in the field of creation and application of means of ecobioprotection, in the formation of safety and environmental requirements for the most significant sources of negative impacts, in the organization of monitoring the state of the environment in industrial and urban conditions. However, only in recent times the foundations for the examination of sources of negative impacts, the foundations for preventive analysis of negative impacts and their monitoring in the technosphere have appeared and are being formed.
The main areas of practical activity in the field of BJD are the prevention of causes and prevention

9Quantification(in relation to risk) it is the ratio of the number of certain adverse consequences to their possible for a certain period. When determining the risk, it is necessary to indicate to: consequences, I.e. answer the question: the risk of what?

Formal risk is the frequency with which those other events may occur. I. But in essence, rn-interterms has f

a significant difference, because, in relation to problems, it is safe

The possible number of adverse consequences has to be said with a certain degree of conventionality.

To consider other aspects of risk issues, paccMnTT-.-,- examples.

Difference risk is individual and social:

Ying divi dual risk characterizes the danger of a species for an individual;

Social (group) risk is a risk for a group of people.

Social risk - the relationship between the frequency of events and the number of affected people.

The perception of risk and danger by society is subjective. expressed in the fact that people usually react sharply to rare events. accompanied by a large number of human casualties.

Quantificationrisk

There are 4 main methodological approaches to codefinition

Engineering - this method is based on statistics, on ra: frequencies, on a probabilistic safety analysis and building a hazard tree;

The essence of the concept of acceptable or tolerable risk lies in the society's aversion to such a low level of security that society accepts in this moment time. Acceptable risk is a set of hazard realizations that combines technical, nomic, environmental and social aspects and represents the th trade-off between safety and capability.

There are ways to achieve it for a given period of time with an increase

At the risk of technical, natural and environmental safety, but the risk in the social sphere may increase

1011 Risk management

How to increase the level of security?

This is the main question of the theory and practice of security. Obviously,

that for this purpose, funds can be spent in three areas:

Improvement of technical systems and objects;

Staff training;

Emergency liquidation.

economic methods of risk management include insurance; monetary compensation for damages; risk payments, etc. Experts consider it expedient to legally introduce risk quotas.

Risk management is based on cost comparison methodology

benefits from risk reduction.

Hazard Study Sequence:

Stage I - Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA). Step 1. Identify sources of danger.

Step 2. Determine the parts of the system that can cause these hazards.

Step 3. Introduce limitations on the analysis, i.e. exclude hazards that will not be studied.

11 A necessary and obligatory condition for effective human production activity is the provision of normal meteorological conditions, i.e. microclimate. With favorable combinations of microclimate parameters, a person experiences a state of thermal comfort, which is an important condition for high labor productivity and disease prevention.

The industrial microclimate is understood as the climate of a limited area, a space with appropriate meteorological parameters of the atmosphere, where a person carries out professional labor activity.
The peculiarity of the industrial microclimate lies in the fact that it is formed under the influence of the local climate, i.e. the external atmosphere, and under the influence of a purposeful change in these parameters (heating, ventilation). In some cases, the influence of these factors significantly changes physical properties ambient air, creating specific meteorological conditions in the workplace, which is especially acute in enclosed spaces. In this regard, the following types of microclimate are distinguished:

monotonous (its parameters change little during a work shift (weaving, sewing workshops, shoe production, mechanical engineering, etc.));

dynamic (rapid and significant change in microclimate parameters (steel-smelting, foundry shops, etc.)).

The vast majority of workers perform their work under various combinations of meteorological elements that make up the microclimate: high (or low) air temperatures alternating with normal; high or low humidity; with a significant intensity of infrared radiation (or, conversely, with radiative cooling); with high or low air movement. in addition, a significant number of workers are employed in outdoor work (construction, geology, agriculture, etc.), in unheated premises (construction, manufacturing of large-sized products in engineering, storage, elevators, etc.), freezers ( food and processing industry). All these possible combinations of microclimate parameters have a different effect on heat exchange and the thermal state of a person, his well-being, working capacity and state of health, and can be conditionally reduced to three types: comfortable (neutral); heating; cooling12 Heat transfer in the human body and the reasons for its violation Air as a medium human environment when working in rooms and cabins of operators, it must remove from it the heat generated as a result of the vital activity of the body. Different technological processes proceed under different meteorological conditions.

The amount of heat released by the body depends on many factors and, in particular, on the physical state of human health, the severity and intensity of labor and age. In a calm state, as a result of normal metabolism, a healthy person loses approximately 114.6 J / s into the surrounding air at a body temperature of about 37 °C. At normal indoor temperature and relative humidity, a person at rest loses approximately 45 g/h of moisture. Part of it leaves with exhaled air, part evaporates from the outer skin. The body spends about 58 J/s to evaporate this amount of moisture. The remaining 86 J / s given by a person. at rest are transmitted by convection and radiation (radiation) to the surrounding air and surfaces. In a room where the temperature of the air and surfaces is 200°C, the convection output is about 25% of the total heat output, or approximately 28.7 J/s, and about 57.3 J/s is given off by radiation.

The quantitative ratio of heat production (chemical thermoregulation) and heat transfer (phyaic thermoregulation) is determined by the heat balance ratio. If the input and output of heat are not balanced, heat accumulates in the body, which can lead to heat stroke or, conversely, to hypothermia.

Heat transfer does not change within the air temperature range of 15-25 °C.

The most favorable temperature in the workshop in summer is 18 250 (,

in winter - 17 ... 22 OS.

Thermoregulation depends not only on unconditioned stimuli - heat, cold, air velocity and humidity, but also on a number of conditioned stimuli - muscle activity.

13axioms
Axiom 1. Technogenic dangers exist if the daily flows of matter, energy and information in the technosphere exceed the threshold values.
Threshold or maximum permissible values of hazards are established from the condition of maintaining the functional and structural integrity of man and the natural environment. Compliance with the maximum allowable values of flows creates safe conditions for human life in the living space and eliminates the negative impact of the technosphere on natural environment.
Axiom 2. The elements of the technosphere are the sources of technogenic hazards.
Hazards arise when there are defects and other malfunctions in technical systems, when technical systems are used incorrectly, and also because of the presence of waste that accompanies the operation of technical systems. Technical malfunctions and violations of the modes of use of technical systems lead, as a rule, to the occurrence of traumatic situations, and the release of waste (emissions into the atmosphere, effluents into the hydrosphere, the entry of solid substances into earth's surface, energy radiation and fields) is accompanied by the formation of harmful effects on humans, the natural environment and elements of the technosphere.
Axiom 3. Technogenic hazards operate in space and time.
Traumatic effects act, as a rule, for a short time and spontaneously in a limited space. They arise during accidents and catastrophes, during explosions and sudden destruction of buildings and structures. The zones of influence of such negative impacts are, as a rule, limited, although their influence may also spread over large areas, for example, in the event of an accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant.
Harmful impacts are characterized by long-term or periodic negative impact on humans, the natural environment and elements of the technosphere. Spatial zones of harmful effects vary widely from working and living areas to the size of the entire earth's space. The latter include the impact of emissions of greenhouse and ozone-depleting gases, the release of radioactive substances into the atmosphere, etc.
Axiom 4. Technogenic hazards have a negative impact on humans, the natural environment and elements of the technosphere at the same time.
A person and the technosphere surrounding him, being in a continuous material, energy and information exchange, form a constantly operating spatial system "man - technosphere". At the same time, there is also a system "technosphere - natural environment" (Fig. 0.5). Technogenic hazards do not act selectively, they negatively affect all components of the aforementioned systems at the same time, if the latter are in the zone of influence of hazards.
Axiom 5. Technogenic hazards worsen people's health, lead to injuries, material losses and degradation of the natural environment.
The impact of traumatic factors leads to injuries or death of people, often accompanied by focal destruction of the natural environment and the technosphere. The impact of such factors is characterized by significant material losses.
The impact of harmful factors, as a rule, is long-term, it has a negative impact on the health of people, leads to occupational or regional diseases. Influencing the natural environment, harmful factors lead to the degradation of representatives of flora and fauna, change the composition of the components of the biosphere.
At high concentrations of harmful substances or at high energy flows, harmful factors, by the nature of their impact, can approach traumatic effects. So, for example, high concentrations of toxic substances in the air, water, food can cause poisoning.
Axiom 6. Protection from technogenic hazards is achieved by improving the sources of danger, increasing the distance between the source of danger and the object of protection, and applying protective measures.
It is possible to reduce the flows of substances, energies or information in the zone of human activity by reducing these flows at the exit from the source of danger (or by increasing the distance from the source to the person). If this is not practicable, then protective measures must be applied: protective equipment, organizational measures, etc.
Axiom 7. The competence of people in the world of dangers and ways to protect against them - necessary condition achievement of life safety.
A wide and growing range of technogenic hazards, the lack of natural defense mechanisms against them, all this requires a person to acquire skills in detecting hazards and applying protective equipment. This is achievable only as a result of training and gaining experience at all stages of education and practical activity of a person. First stage training in life safety issues should coincide with the period of preschool education, and the final one - with the period of advanced training and retraining of personnel in all sectors of the economy.
It follows from the foregoing that the world of technogenic hazards is quite cognizable and that a person has enough means and methods of protection against technogenic hazards. The existence of man-made hazards and their high significance in modern society are caused by insufficient attention of a person to the problem of technogenic safety, propensity to risk and neglect of danger. This is largely due to the limited knowledge of a person about the world of dangers and the negative consequences of their manifestation.
In principle, the impact of harmful technogenic factors can be completely eliminated by man; the impact of technogenic traumatic factors is limited by the acceptable risk due to the improvement of sources of danger and the use of protective equipment; exposure to natural hazards may be limited by preventive and protective measures.

14 Group, severe and fatal accidents with

are investigated within 15 days by a commission consisting of the state labor inspector, representatives of the employer, on the executive power of the constituent entity of the Russian Federation and a trade union or authorized body by employees, and in addition to an act in the form H- "of each victim, a special investigation report is drawn up. The state labor protection inspector writes your conclusion.

A correctly executed act in the form of H-1, as well as the listed documents, are one of the main mothers that are considered when determining the amount of compensation by the employer for the harm caused to the victim, establishing the category of disability, the amount of insurance payments, proceedings.

If, during the investigation of an accident that occurred by the insured, it is established that its occurrence or an increase in the harm caused to health was caused by the rude negligence of the victim, then, taking into account the conclusion of the trade union committee or the authorized body of the insured, the commission determines the degree of guilt (in the procedure In this case, the amount of insurance payments is reduced accordingly, more than 25%.

15 Certification involves the assessment of working conditions in the workplace in order to identify hazardous or harmful production factors, as well as the implementation of measures to bring these factors in line with state regulatory requirements for labor protection. It includes:

Hygienic assessment of working conditions;

Safety assessment;

Assessment of the provision of workers with personal protective equipment (PPE).

For example, take the workplace of a PC operator. In the process of work, the following dangerous and harmful production factors act on the operator:

Increased level of electromagnetic radiation;

Increased brightness of the light image;

Reduced or increased indicators of the microclimate of the working area;

Increased level of static electricity;

Monotony of work;

Strain of vision and attention;

Intellectual and emotional stress;

A number of other factors.

Certification is aimed at identifying specific adverse factors and creating harmless and safe working conditions in the workplace. If during the certification it turns out that the actual values of hazardous or harmful factors exceed the norms and requirements for injury safety, and the provision of workers with personal protective equipment does not meet the standards, then the working conditions are classified as harmful or dangerous.

All workplaces of the organization are subject to certification. The terms of certification are set by the organization independently, taking into account the conditions and nature of work, but at least once every 5 years

the regime of work and rest of employees in accordance with labor legislation and other regulatory legal acts containing labor law norms.

In accordance with Articles 92 and 109 of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation, for certain types of work, employees are provided with special paid breaks for rest and heating during working hours and a shorter working day.

16 Carrying out attestation of workplaces is determined by the Regulation "On the procedure for attestation of workplaces under the terms of labor of the Ministry of Labor of Russia and includes:" a hygienic assessment of existing conditions and the nature of work; an assessment of the safety of workplaces;

According to the results of instrumental measurements of the level of harmful factors at the workplace, the class of working conditions (safe, harmful, dangerous) and the degree (1, 2, 3, 4 degrees) of harmful working conditions are determined according to hygienic criteria (see section).

According to the results of the examination of the workplace for the conformity of equipment, tools, training and instruction facilities required by regulatory and legal acts, the class of working conditions of injury prevention (optimal, permissible, dangerous) is determined.

According to the results of studies of the nature of labor, labor is determined by the degree of severity (light, moderate, severe degrees) and intensity (optimal, permissible, stress of three degrees) of the labor process.

The results of the assessments are documented in acts and minutes

the established form. Certification is carried out specially created

an attestation commission, which draws up the results of its work with a general protocol for attestation of workplaces in terms of working conditions, to which all certification materials and an action plan for improving working conditions are attached. The main conclusion based on the results of the certification of each workplace is the conclusion that the workplace has been certified or certified for compliance with labor protection requirements.

The action plan includes a list of necessary measures to be taken at the enterprise, in the subdivision to improve working conditions and labor protection. The action plan is submitted to the management of the enterprise for approval. The conclusions of the attestation commission may contain additional proposals (on re-certification, suspension of work at individual jobs or liquidation of individual jobs, on improving the organization of work, improving working conditions, etc.).

The results of certification can be used for: planning and implementation of measures for the protection and working conditions;

justification for the provision of benefits and compensation for work (additional payments to the tariff scale, the issuance of milk and preventive nutrition, the duration of the working week and holidays, pension benefits, work and rest schedules, periodic

17 DUST AND her influence on the human body~. The next factor to be considered will be / DUST - the smallest "_ ~ th particles that can be in the air for some time in "_:s::s:nom state~

finely divided particles of solids formed during __ """" h, THAT technological processes, capable of a long time

._""-"-" . ~""I'm in the air in suspension, usually called.~II:IIIO.:r natural PBIL~

izvodtvennoy dust is called suspended in the air, ;::=~o settling solid particles ranging in size from several tens of mk.m. Many types of industrial dust are._~;n.. i.e. a dispersed system in which the dispersed medium is "IE ~ and the dispersed phase is solid particles.

particle size (Dispatching distinguish I see the dust more than 1 O micron, micro-speed "s ~ - from, 25 to 1 O micron, "~": ":! W! Microscopic - less than 0.25 microns7

According to the generally accepted ~ class ~ fication, all types of production are divided into a organic, inorganic_and~stant. in its turn, D tsyana IThiLnatural o (wood, Ei ~:: in: JLЯ, linen, woolen, etc.. and suit ss~nogo(plastic dust,

resins, etc.) origin, and second- on metal.-=~:;.a-th, zinc, aluminum, etc. and mineral (quartz, ._~~::n2LYa, asbestos, etc.) dust. To (§ "mixed~m B~ ardor refer __ ~ -. - coal dust containing particles of coal, quartz and silicates, and

fumes generated in chemical industries.

The specificity of the qualitative composition of dust predetermines

11I.1I::I:HOCTb And the nature of its action on the human body. certain !e"S:ae has the shape and consistency of dust particles, which in 1118!";r.e;;ryJ,OH least depend on the nature of the source material.

Thus, long and soft dust particles are easily sit down on the lining of the upper respiratory tract and may st at least illioy

Unfavorable exposure to dust can cause diseases. Usually "1I!"!I~rr special physical ~(pneumoconiosis, allergic diseases) -! L ~~4_:;~~e~s~k~i~e (chronic respiratory diseases, dust lesions.

di occupational specific dust diseases take place t nн eumacanoses - diseases.3eGK~ is based on the development of sclerotic and related other ""CII:::..&;-it., due to the deposition of various kinds of dust and. :r-..,....~"MI by its interaction with the lung tissue.

azl personal~moconiosis most danger

.~:iz.:::.yet silicosis, associated with prolonged breathing honey I eat dust, _:: E!~Y free silicon dioxide (Su). Silicosis is a slowly chronic process that usually develops. "1EIv:::i3QlЯ air with silicon dust. However, in some cases, a more rapid onset and course of this disease, a relatively short period (2-4 years), the process reaches _r-o:,_ .. terminal stage.

Water dust can also have a harmful effect on the respiratory tract. It has been established that as a result of many years of 3 conditions, significant dusting of the air occurs. At high concentrations of dust, there is a pronounced atrophy of the ovi, especially the lower ones, as well as dryness and atrophy of the mucosa of the upper respiratory tract.

Production dust can! Dink into leather and so

sebaceous and sweat glands. in some cases, it may develop an inflammatory process. The possibility of ulcerative dermatitis and eczema occurring when the skin is exposed to chromium-alkaline salts, arsenic, copper, lime, soda and chemicals is not excluded.

e The action of dust on the eyes causes the appearance of conjunctiva. An anesthetic effect of the metal and tobacco cornea of the eye is noted. from-for injuries

dust particles

18 Natural ventilation, that is, ventilation with a natural impulse, is characterized by the fact that the air exchange with it occurs due to heat and wind. pressure. This ventilation can be unorganized and organized.

Unorganized, or unregulated, natural ventilation of premises [infiltration] is carried out through leaky structures (windows, doors), as well as through the pores of walls and partitions. Air exchange with such ventilation is caused by two factors; temperature difference between outside and inside air (difference between the density of outside and inside air), which causes air to move, i.e. cold air entering the room will displace warm air, and the movement of outside air (with wind) acting on the building.

Under the action of the wind, a reduced pressure is created on the leeward side of the building, as a result of which polluted air is sucked from the room, and fresh air will enter the room from the windward side of the building under the pressure of the wind and the vacuum that occurred after the exhaustion of the polluted air inside the building.

Organized, or regulated, natural ventilation is carried out by aeration or deflectors. The removal of polluted air from the premises and the supply of outdoor air into it with natural organized ventilation can be carried out through openings made in walls and coatings, OR through special air ducts. In the first case, ventilation is called channelless, and in

An example of a ductless natural valve is aeration, and a duct is ventilation with a deflector. During aeration, the natural exchange of air in buildings occurs - through windows and skylights using thermal and wind-

About pressure in hot shops and only wind pressure in cold shops, where

no excess heat generation. For this purpose, in the light openings, he and the lanterns arrange opening transoms (Fig. 8.1). By tearing off the transoms to varying degrees and in a certain place, it is possible to control the direction and speed of air movement in the room, and, consequently, the air exchange.

When arranging aeration in a room, it must be taken into account that in areas with harmful emissions, the air supply must be organized so as not to interfere with the natural removal of gases through the lanterns. In addition, the wind rose should be taken into account in order to prevent the introduction of harmful emissions into the workshop from closely located enterprises, as well as from their buildings and premises,

assuming ventilated buildings on the windward side. Transom control should be mechanized and easily carried out from below, inside and outside the premises. The air entering the working area must have a temperature that meets sanitary and hygienic requirements.

19 respiratory organs (gas masks, respirators, masks, a power respirator for electric welding, a protective hood, patoron filters). organs of vision (goggles, masks, welding shields). The goggles have clear polycarbonate lenses that are anti-fog and scratch-resistant and offer 99.9% UV protection.

20 Classification of ventilation systems Ventilation - organized air exchange, which ensures the removal of air polluted by excess heat and harmful substances from the room and thereby normalizes the air environment in the room.

1 According to the principle of organizing air exchange

2 By way of air supply

2.1 Natural

wind pressure;

Thermal head

2.2 Mechanical

supply;

exhaust;

Supply and exhaust

2.3 Mixed

natural + mechanical

3 According to the principle of organizing air exchange

3.1 General exchange

3.2 Local

21 Noise, being a random combination of sounds of different intensity and frequency, by the nature of occurrence it can be mechanical, hydroaerodynamic and electromagnetic.

Mechanical noise is caused by impact processes, friction of components and parts.

Hydroaerodynamic noise occurs during the movement of liquids or gases, and electromagnetic - during the operation of electrical machines and installations.

Noise propagating in the air is called air, and in solids (structures) - structural.

To evaluate measurements of sound intensity and its parameters such as sound pressure, power, a relative logarithmic unit is introduced, called the sound pressure level, or intensity level, measured in dimensionless "units of bels:

Noise, being a general biological irritant, not only affects the human hearing organs, but can also cause disorders of the cardiovascular and nervous systems, the digestive tract, and also contribute to the occurrence of hypertension. In addition, noise is one of the reasons for the rapid fatigue of workers, which can lead to an accident.

Intense noise during daily exposure leads to the occurrence of an occupational disease - hearing loss, which is expressed in a gradual loss of hearing acuity.

Ultrasound represents mechanical vibrations of an elastic medium, which have the same physical nature as sound, but differ in a higher frequency exceeding the accepted upper limit of audibility - over 20 kHz, although at high intensities (120 ... 145 dB) sounds of a higher frequency can also be audible .

The ultrasonic frequency range is subdivided into low-frequency oscillations (from 1.12 . 104 to 1.0 105 Hz), propagating

22. Industrial noise

Noise is a chaotic combination of various cost and.2!!Y-JCOB" is able to show an adverse effect on a person's op, interfering with his work and rest, Source shu ma is any process that causes a local change in pressure

mechanical vibrations in solid, liquid and gaseous media

fl ~action of him H~ gaN!: the man's zm is mainly connected with the use of new, high-performance~ equipment~vaniJ!. mechanization and automation of labor processes: the transition to high speeds during the operation of machines, mechanisms, various machine tools and assemblies.

Noise sources can be engines, pumps, turbine compressors, pneumatic and electric tools, etc. crushers, machine tools, centrifuges, bunkers and other installations having

23. mechanical ventilation Mechanical ventilation is mechanical ventilation. It can be general exchange and local (local). nic general ventilation can be ductless

24Vibration- this is a complex oscillatory process that occurs when the center of gravity of a body or system of bodies periodically shifts from the equilibrium position, as well as when the shape of the body that it had in a static position periodically changes. Vibration occurs during the operation of machines and mechanisms, tools that have unbalanced rotating or reciprocating

patelny movement knots and details. ""

The main parameters characterizing the vibration are: displacement amplitude (the largest deviation of the point from the equilibrium position) BUT, m; oscillation speed V, m/s; oscillation acceleration W, m / s 2; oscillation period T, with; oscillation frequency J, HZ. Vibrations of a non-sinusoidal nature can always be represented as a sum of sinusoidal components using a Fourier expansion. For vibration studies, the entire vibration frequency range (just like for noise) is divided into octave ranges. The geometric mean values of the frequencies at which the vibration is examined are as follows: 2, 4, 8, 16, 31, 50, 63, 125, 250, 500, 1000, 2000 Hz. Considering that the absolute values of the parameters characterizing vibration vary widely, in practice the concepts of parameter levels are used.

Level of vibrational speed, acceleration, dB-,.

According to the method of transmission to a person, vibrations are divided into general, transmitted through the supporting surfaces to the body of a seated or

standing person, and local, transmitted through the hands of a person.

Systematic exposure to local vibration causes vibration disease (neuritis) with disability. This disease occurs gradually, causing joint pain, finger cramps, and vasospasm.

General vibration has an adverse effect on the nervous and cardiovascular systems, causes a violation of the musculoskeletal system, the gastrointestinal tract.

Vibration affecting a person is normalized separately. for each established direction, taking into account, in addition, with a general vibration its category, and with a local one - the time of the actual impact.

25 vibration-proof mittens or gloves, as well as pads or plates equipped with hand mounts. These media - 7 "5e should be used when working with manual mechanized, electric and pneumatic tools.

26 lighting. Vision plays an extremely important role in human life.

More than 90% of all information about the world around a person receives through vision. The widespread use of vision to control the operation of equipment, control technological processes, perform a wide variety of types of work requires the creation of a certain

ny lighting conditions. .

Rational production lighting provides technological visual comfort, prevents the development of visual and general fatigue, eliminates occupational eye diseases, increases productivity and improves the quality of work, and reduces the risk of injury.

The causes of eye damage may be a violation of technology or non-compliance with established requirements and safety rules, neglect of the use of personal protective equipment (non-use), the use of imperfect or faulty personal protective equipment.

Properly arranged artificial lighting, compliance with the rules and the use of personal protective equipment can increase labor productivity, eliminate fatigue, visual damage and injuries.

27 Daylight

in accordance with sanitary norms and rules, production, storage, household and administrative-office premises must have natural lighting. He is not satisfied in rooms where the photochemical effect of natural light is contraindicated for technological and other reasons.

Natural lighting systems. In accordance with SNiP 23-05-95, natural lighting can be side (one- or two-sided), overhead, combined and combined (Fig. 10.1).

Lateral daylight- this is the natural illumination of the room with light entering through the light openings in the outer walls of the building. With one-sided side lighting (Fig. 10.1, a) the KEO value is normalized, the coefficient of natural lighting (minimum illumination standards for rooms) at a point located at a distance of 1 m from the wall, that is, the most distant from the light openings at the intersection of the vertical plane of the characteristic section of the room and the conditional working surface (or floor).

With two-sided side lighting (Fig. 10.1.6), the minimum KEO value is normalized at a point in the middle of the room at the intersection of the vertical plane of the characteristic section of the room and the conditional working surface (or floor).

Top natural light- this is the natural illumination of the room with light penetrating through the light openings in the roof of the building and lanterns (Fig. 10.1, c, d), as well as through light openings in places of height differences of adjacent buildings. At the top or at the top and side natural lighting, the average KEO value is normalized at points located at the intersection of the vertical plane of the characteristic section of the room and the conditional working surface (or floor).

It is allowed to divide the room into zones with side lighting (zones adjacent to external walls with windows) and zones with overhead lighting; normalization and calculation of natural lighting in each zone is carried out independently. This takes into account the nature of visual work.

Conditional working surface - a conventionally accepted horizontal surface (table, workbench, piece of equipment or product on which work is performed) located at a height of 0.8 m from the floor, Combined natural lighting characterized by the presence of side (one- or two-sided) and top lighting.

Combined lighting- this is lighting in which natural and artificial light is used simultaneously during daylight hours. At the same time, natural lighting, which is insufficient according to the conditions of visual work, is constantly supplemented by artificial lighting that meets the special requirements of SNiP for the design of artificial lighting with insufficient natural lighting.

The norms for the minimum illumination of premises are determined by the coefficient of natural illumination (KEO), which is the ratio of natural illumination created at some point on a given plane inside the premises by sky light (directly or after reflections) to the simultaneous value of

28 Artificial lighting

Artificial lighting is arranged in the premises of industrial, domestic and auxiliary buildings of industrial enterprises, as well as in places of work in open spaces (territories of industrial enterprises, upper and lower warehouses, stations). It is used in cases where there is not enough natural light in the room, or it is absent, or is contraindicated for technological reasons.

Classification of artificial lighting. Artificial lighting is divided into working, emergency, evacuation (emergency lighting for the evacuation of people), security.

Device task lighting mandatory in all premises and on illuminated areas, streets and sites to ensure normal operation, the passage of people and traffic during the absence or lack of natural light.

Emergency lighting to continue work (in premises or places of outdoor work) should be provided if the shutdown of working lighting and the associated violation of the normal maintenance of equipment and mechanisms can cause the following: explosion, fire, poisoning of people; long-term disruption of the technological process; disruption of the operation of such facilities as power stations, radio transmission and communication nodes, control rooms, water supply pumping units, premises of fire stations on duty and heating points; control points for water supply, sewerage, heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems for industrial premises in which work stoppage is unacceptable; injuries in crowded places; violation of normal patient care in operating units, offices emergency care, resuscitation, at the reception points of medical institutions, maternity wards of hospitals; violation of the regime in children's institutions.

The lowest illumination of working surfaces that require maintenance during emergency operation should be 5% of the illumination normalized for working lighting with a general lighting system, but not less than 2 lux for gas discharge lamps and more than 10 lux for incandescent lamps (permitted only with appropriate justifications).

Evacuation (emergency) lighting in premises or in places where work is performed outside buildings, the following should be provided:

in places dangerous for the passage of people; in the aisles and on the stairs serving for the evacuation of people with the number of evacuees more than 50 people, on the stairwells of residential buildings with a height of six floors or more;

in industrial premises with people constantly working in them, where the exit of people from the premises in case of emergency shutdown of working lighting is associated with the risk of injury due to the continued operation of production equipment;

in the premises of public buildings and auxiliary buildings of industrial enterprises, where more than 100 people can be at the same time. Evacuation lighting should provide the following minimum illumination, lux: on the floor of the main passages (or on the ground) and on the steps of stairs - 0.5; indoors - 0.5; in open areas - 0.2.

In public and auxiliary buildings, exits from premises where more than 100 people can be at the same time, as well as exits from industrial premises without natural light, where more than 50 people can be at the same time, or having an area of more than 150 m 2, should be marked with light indicators, from emergency lighting networks.

security lighting(in the absence of special technical means of protection) should be provided along the borders of territories protected at night. The illumination should be 0.5 lux at ground level in the horizontal plane and at 0.5 m from the ground on one side of the vertical plane perpendicular to the boundary line.

For emergency and evacuation lighting, incandescent lamps should be used, and fluorescent lamps - in rooms with a minimum air temperature of at least 10 ° C and provided that the lamps are powered in all modes with alternating current with a lamp voltage of at least 90% of the nominal value. The use of DRL, DRI and xenon lamps for emergency and evacuation lighting is not allowed.

Emergency lighting fixtures to continue working and evacuate people from buildings without natural light, as well as fixtures to continue working in buildings with natural light, should be connected to an independent power source or switched to it automatically when the working lighting is suddenly turned off. Emergency lighting fixtures for evacuating people from buildings with natural light must be connected to a network that is independent of the working lighting network, starting from the substation switchboard

29. Light sources and fixtures

Sources of light. For artificial lighting, incandescent lamps are used; a combination of several types of lamps and fluorescent lamps - daylight lamps LD, white light lamps LB, cold-white light lamps LHB, warm-white light lamps LTB; lamps with improved color rendering LDC, which are low-pressure gas-discharge tubes and high-pressure mercury lamps (HPR).

Fluorescent lamps characterized by high luminous efficacy, approaching in its spectrum to natural daylight. They are 3 ... 3.5 times more economical than incandescent lamps. Fluorescent lamps are mainly used: 1) indoors,

where it is necessary to distinguish between color shades (LDC, LD and LHB 2) in rooms where it is necessary to create especially favorable conditions "" for the work of the eyes (rooms with intense and precise visual work, a training room, etc.); 3) in production. premises that do not have natural light and are intended for permanent residence of people (LTB); 4) for architectural artistic lighting.

LB lamps are used in cases where a clear difference in colors is not required.

mercury lamps DRL is used along with fluorescent lamps in industrial premises. The delimitation of the area of \u200b\u200buse in these premises of DRL lamps and fluorescent lamps is determined by technical and economic calculations of ADMISSIBILITY. the use of DRL lamps under the conditions of the stroboscopic effect The stroboscopic effect is a phenomenon of distortion of the visual perception of rotating, moving or changing objects in flickering light, which occurs when the frequency characteristics of the movement of objects coincide and the change in the light flux over time in lighting installations (in the form of gas-discharge light sources, powered by alternating current). DRL lamps are most often preferred for high installation heights and difficult access to lamps during maintenance.

The use of DRL lamps for evacuation emergency lighting is prohibited. In emergency lighting, to continue working, DRL lamps are allowed if there is an evacuation emergency lighting made by other light sources that provide short-term (up to 15 minutes) continuation of work when the working lighting is turned off.

Lamps. An open light bulb can cause fatigue, blurred vision, dazzle, fire and explosion. To illuminate the premises and open areas of enterprises, lamps are used, enclosed in special fittings of various types (Fig. 10.2), called a lamp. Luminaires are designed to redistribute the luminous flux of the lamp in the required direction with the least light loss to protect the eyes of workers from blinding brightness, protect lamps from pollution, mechanical damage, flammable and explosive gases, vapors and dust, and in some cases to change the spectral composition of the light source.

For emergency lighting, luminaires must be used that differ from the working lighting luminaires by type or size, or by special signs applied to them. Luminaires are characterized by efficiency, protective angle "at(Fig. 10.3) and light distribution curve.

30 Regulatory content of harmful substances and microclimate.

In the presence of harmful substances, their concentration is regulated by the value of the maximum permissible concentration (MAC).

MAC = [mg/m3]

GOST 12.1.005-88 SSBT General sanitary and hygienic requirements for air slave. zones.

MPC in the air of the working area - such a concentration of harmful substances, which during the 8-hour slave. day or work days of a different duration, but not more than 41 hours per week, does not cause deviations in the state of health of workers, and also does not affect the present and future generation.

The content of harmful substances in the air of populated areas is regulated in accordance with SN 245-71.

PDKSS (average daily) - such a concentration that does not cause deviations in direct or indirect exposure to a person in the air locality for an arbitrarily long breath.

MPCMR (max one-time) - such a concentration that does not cause reflex reactions from the human body (smell, change in light sensitivity, bioelectrical activity of the brain, etc.)

These values are determined for »1203 substances, for the rest of the SHEL (approximately safe exposure level) for a period of »3 years.

In accordance with GOST 12.1.007-76, all harmful substances are divided into 4 classes according to the MPC value:

I class< 0,1 мг/м3 - чрезвычайно- опасные вредные вещества;

Class II 0.1 - 1 mg/m3 - highly hazardous

III class 1 - 10 mg/m3 - moderately hazardous

Class IV > 10 mg/m3 - slightly hazardous

Summation effect - when several well-defined substances are in the air, they have the property of enhancing each other's action.

In order to evaluate the effect of substances with a summation effect, the formula is used:

С1/MPC1 + С2/MPC2 + … +СN/MPCN, where

C1, C2 ... CN - actual concentrations of harmful substances in the air

MPC1 ... MPCN - the values of their maximum allowable

31Security principles. The French philosopher Helvetius, who lived in the 18th century, wrote: “Knowledge of certain principles easily compensates for ignorance of certain facts” (Op. Mind).

Principles(lat. Principium - beginning, basis) of security on the basis of their implementation are conditionally divided into 4 classes: orienting, technical, managerial, organizational.

Orienting principles are fundamental ideas that determine the direction of the search for safe solutions and serve as a methodological and information base. These include the principles of consistency, destruction, elimination and reduction of danger, information, classification, regulation, replacement of the operator.

Technical principles are aimed at the direct prevention of the action of hazardous factors, they are based on the use of physical laws. These include the principles of protection by distance, shielding, strength, weak link, inaccessibility, blocking, sealing, compression, evacuation, duplication, etc.

managerial call the principles that determine the relationship and relationships between the individual stages and stages of the security process. These include the principles of planning, control, management, feedback, efficiency, recruitment, responsibility, and incentives.

Organizational principles implement provisions scientific organization labor. These include the principles of ergonomics, time protection, rational organization labor, compensation, incompatibility, etc.

Security principles form a system, at the same time, each principle has a relative independence. Depending on the specific conditions, the same principles are implemented in different ways.

Security methods. Method - it is a way, a way to achieve a goal based on the knowledge of general laws. Ensuring security is achieved by three main methods: Method A stands in the spatial or temporal separation of the homo- and noxosphere.

Homosphere- the space (work area) where a person is in the process of the activity under consideration.

Noxosphere- a space in which hazards constantly exist or periodically arise.

Method A should ensure the impossibility of combining the homosphere and noxosphere. This is achieved by means remote control, automation, robotization, organization, etc.

Method B consists in normalizing the noxosphere by eliminating dangers. This is a set of measures that protect a person from noise, gas, dust, the risk of injury, etc.

Method B includes techniques and means aimed at adapting a person to the appropriate environment and increasing his security. This method implements the possibilities of professional selection, training, psychological impact, personal protective equipment, etc. In real conditions, a combination of these methods is implemented.

Security tools. Security equipment is divided into collective protection equipment (SKZ) and individual protection equipment (PPE). Security means are a constructive, organizational, material embodiment, a concrete implementation of principles and methods.

Principles, methods, means are the logical stages of ensuring security. Their choice depends on the specific conditions of activity, the level of danger, cost and other criteria.

32 Harmful production factor- a production factor, the impact of which on a worker, under certain conditions, leads to a disease or a decrease in working capacity.

Hazardous production factor- a production factor, the impact of which on a worker, under certain conditions, leads to injury or other sudden deterioration in health.

A harmful production factor, depending on the intensity and duration of exposure, can become dangerous.

1. Theoretical basis and practical functions BJD

The concept of "life safety" is very multifaceted and means, among other things, the science of the safe interaction of a person with the technosphere, and in a broader sense - with the environment. In other words, traditionally in this scientific direction considered mainly local the system of vital activity as forming a kind of security foundation for a system of a higher level, the so-called global system of vital activity. Accordingly, it is possible to single out the space of local life safety, which is part of a more general space of global life safety.

In addition, speaking of local life safety, it should be taken into account that recently there has also been a tendency to generalize the consideration of life safety as a complex system property that requires the use of a systematic approach to the problem of security of political, entrepreneurial, informational and other types of activities that are not so much man-made, how much social character.

Risk is the ratio of certain realized hazards (injury, occupational disease, death of a person at work) to the possible number for a certain period of time.

To analyze the state of labor protection in production, individual, social and technical risks can be distinguished.

Individual risk characterizes the danger of a certain type for an individual. Social risk (group risk) is the risk of danger for a certain group of people (including those united on a professional basis).

Technical risk expresses the probability of accidents during the operation of machinery and equipment, the implementation of technological processes, the operation of industrial buildings.

Thus, reducing the number of negative production factors, i.e. by reducing the base of the pyramid, the number of accidents can be proportionately reduced. Therefore, the main strategy in reducing the production risk is presented as a scrupulous identification of negative factors of the labor production process and the systematic exclusion of these factors at all stages of the labor process and at all stages. life cycle elements of the production environment. First of all, the factors that are the causes of accidents at work are determined and, if possible, completely excluded.

The solution of life safety problems must be carried out on a scientific basis.

Science is the development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about reality.

In the near future, humanity must learn to predict negative impacts and ensure the safety of decisions made at the stage of their development, and to protect against existing negative factors, create and actively use protective equipment and measures, limiting the areas of action and levels of negative factors in every possible way.

The implementation of goals and objectives in the system of "human life safety" is a priority and should be developed on a scientific basis.

The science of life safety explores the world of dangers operating in the human environment, develops systems and methods for protecting a person from dangers. In the modern sense, life safety studies the dangers of the industrial, domestic and urban environment both in everyday life and in the event of emergencies of man-made and natural origin. The implementation of the goals and objectives of life safety includes the following main stages of scientific activity:

Identification and description of the impact zones of the hazards of the technosphere and its individual elements (enterprises, machines, devices, etc.);

Development and implementation of the most effective systems and methods of protection against hazards;

Formation of systems for monitoring hazards and managing the state of safety of the technosphere;

Development and implementation of measures to eliminate the consequences of
hazard phenomena;

Organization of training of the population in the basics of security and
training of life safety specialists.

The main task of the science of life safety is a preventive analysis of the sources and causes of hazards, forecasting and assessing their impact in space and time.

The modern theoretical base of the BJD should contain at least:

Methods for analyzing hazards generated by elements of the technosphere;

Fundamentals of a comprehensive description of negative factors in space and time, taking into account the possibility of their combined impact on a person in the technosphere;

Fundamentals of the formation of initial indicators of environmental friendliness to
newly created or recommended elements of the technosphere, taking into account its state;

Fundamentals of managing the safety indicators of the technosphere at
basis for monitoring hazards and applying the most effective
measures and means of protection;

Fundamentals of the formation of requirements for the safety of activities to the operators of technical systems and the population of the technosphere.

In almost all cases of manifestation of hazards, the sources of impact are the elements of the technosphere with their emissions, discharges, solid waste, energy fields and radiation. The identity of the sources of influence in all zones of the technosphere inevitably requires the formation of common approaches and solutions in such areas of protective activity as labor safety, life safety and environmental protection. All this is achieved by the implementation of the main functions of the Belarusian Railways. These include:

Description of the living space by its zoning according to the values of negative factors based on the examination of the sources of negative impacts, their relative location and mode of operation, as well as taking into account the climatic, geographical and other features of the region or zone of activity;

Formation of safety and environmental requirements for
sources of negative factors - the appointment of maximum allowable emissions (MAP), discharges (MPD), energy impacts (MAI), acceptable risk, etc.;

Organization of monitoring of the state of the habitat and inspection control of sources of negative impacts;

Development and use of means of ecobioprotection;

Implementation of measures to eliminate the consequences of accidents and other emergencies;

Education of the population in the basics of BJD and training of specialists

all levels and forms of activity to the implementation of safety and environmental requirements.

Not all functions of the BDZ are now equally developed and put into practice. There are certain developments in the field of creation and application of means of ecobioprotection, in the formation of safety and environmental requirements for the most significant sources of negative impacts, in the organization of monitoring the state of the environment in industrial and urban conditions. At the same time, it is only recently that the foundations for the examination of the sources of negative impacts, the foundations for the preventive analysis of negative impacts and their monitoring in the technosphere have appeared and are being formed.

The main areas of practical activity in the field of HR are the prevention of the causes and the prevention of the conditions for the occurrence of dangerous situations.

An analysis of real situations, events and factors already today makes it possible to formulate a number of axioms of the science of life safety in the technosphere.

So, the world of technogenic hazards is quite cognizable and that a person has enough means and methods of protection against technogenic hazards. The existence of technogenic hazards and their high significance in modern society are due to the insufficient attention of a person to the problem of technogenic safety, the propensity to take risks and neglect the danger. This is largely due to the limited knowledge of a person about the world of dangers and the negative consequences of their manifestation.

In principle, the impact of harmful technogenic factors can be completely eliminated by man; the impact of technogenic traumatic factors is limited by the acceptable risk due to the improvement of sources of danger and the use of protective equipment; exposure to natural hazards may be limited by preventive and protective measures.

2. Occupational diseases and their distribution in Russia

Occupational disease is a disease caused by exposure to harmful working conditions. The term "occupational disease" has a legislative and insurance value. The list of occupational diseases is approved by law. Clinical manifestations of occupational diseases often do not have specific symptoms, and only information about the working conditions of the sick person allows us to establish that the identified pathology belongs to the category of occupational diseases. Only some of them are characterized by a special symptom complex due to peculiar radiological, functional, hematological and biochemical changes.

There is no generally accepted classification of occupational diseases. The classification according to the etiological principle has received the greatest recognition.

Based on this, five groups of occupational diseases caused by exposure were identified:

■ chemical factors - acute and chronic intoxications, as well as their consequences, occurring with isolated or combined damage to various organs and systems;

■ dust - pneumoconiosis, metalconiosis, pneumoconiosis of electric welders and gas cutters, grinders, sanders, etc.;

■ physical factors - vibration disease, diseases associated with exposure to contact ultrasound, hearing loss by the type of cochlear neuritis (noise disease, diseases associated with exposure to electromagnetic radiation and scattered laser radiation), radiation sickness, diseases associated with changes in atmospheric pressure (decompression sickness, acute hypoxia), diseases that occur under adverse meteorological conditions (overheating, convulsive illness, vegetative-sensitive polyneuritis);

■ overvoltage - diseases of peripheral nerves and muscles, diseases of the musculoskeletal system, coordinating neurosis (writing spasm, other forms of functional dyskinesia), diseases of the vocal apparatus and the organ of vision (asthenopia and myopia);

Outside this etiological systematics are occupational allergic diseases (conjunctivitis, diseases of the upper respiratory tract, bronchial asthma, dermatitis, eczema) and oncological diseases (tumors of the skin, bladder, liver, cancer of the upper respiratory tract).

There are also acute and chronic occupational diseases. Acute occupational disease occurs after a single (during no more than one work shift) exposure to harmful occupational factors, chronic - after repeated and prolonged exposure to harmful production factors. A disease in which two or more people fell ill (suffered) at the same time is called a group occupational disease.

The consequence of the unsatisfactory state of conditions and labor protection at work is the occupational morbidity of workers.

At the same time, occupational morbidity statistics do not reflect the true situation, since the detection of occupational pathology is incomplete and occurs at the late stages of the development of the disease.

One of the bottlenecks in the field of detection of occupational morbidity is the conduct of preventive medical examinations. Serious shortcomings in their organization and the poor quality of medical examinations, associated primarily with the lack of diagnostic equipment in medical institutions, lead to underdiagnosis of patients with occupational pathology. On average in the Russian Federation for last years during periodic medical examinations, only 56% to 64% of occupational diseases are detected from all identified cases.

Work on the organization of preventive medical examinations in the sphere of small and medium-sized businesses is especially weak. Identification of occupational diseases occurs mainly when patients turn to medical institutions.

Also, the incomplete identification and registration of patients with occupational pathology is due to the imperfection of labor protection legislation, the lack of legal and economic sanctions for concealing occupational diseases.

The largest number of occupational diseases is registered in organizations with a private form of ownership, while about 96% of the total number of occupational diseases (poisonings) are chronic diseases (poisonings), resulting in a limitation of professional suitability and ability to work.

The main causes of chronic occupational diseases in 2008, as in previous years, were: imperfection of technological processes (41.8%), design flaws in labor tools (29.9%), imperfection of workplaces (5.3%), imperfection sanitary installations (5.3%), lack of PPE (1.6%).

The largest share, as in previous years, falls on diseases associated with exposure to physical factors (37.7%), industrial aerosols (29.2%), physically strenuous labor (16.4%), etc.

Occupational pathology was most often registered among workers in the following professions: driver of a heavy vehicle, mining worker, milker, crusher, drilling rig operator, excavator operator, machine operator, medical worker, cutter, refractory worker, smelter, sinker, presser, repairman, miner, electric and gas welder, electrolyzer, electrician, etc.

The sectoral structure of occupational morbidity includes the following main sectors: industrial production, agriculture, healthcare, construction, transport and communications.

Occupational morbidity in the Russian Federation directly depends on the state of working conditions in various sectors of the economy in the regions of the Russian Federation.

Changing the working conditions of workers in the most dangerous sectors of the economy in terms of the occurrence of occupational diseases and occupational poisoning in various regions of the Russian Federation will make it possible to purposefully influence the level of occupational morbidity in the country.

Reducing the level of occupational morbidity in the Russian Federation can be achieved primarily through the introduction of new equipment, new technologies, increasing the responsibility of employers for the implementation of legislative and other regulatory legal acts on labor protection, improving the material and technical base of medical institutions and improving the skills of their staff , increasing the responsibility of each employee for the implementation of the rules and norms of labor protection.

Bibliographic list

1. Life safety. Under total ed. ST. Belova. - M .: Higher. school, 2003. -448 p.

2. Grafkina M.V. Occupational safety and industrial safety: textbook. - M .: TK Velby, Publishing House Prospekt, 2007. - 424 p.

3. Ivanyukov M.I., Alekseev V.S. Fundamentals of life safety. - M.: Publishing house: Dashkov i K, 2008. - 240 p.

4. Lobachev A.I. Life safety: Textbook for universities. – M: Higher education, 2008. - 367 p.

5. Petrova, A.V. Labor protection at work and in the educational process: Tutorial/ A.V. Petrova, A.D. Koroshchenko, R.I. Aizman. - Novosibirsk: Sib. univ. publishing house, 2008. - 189 p.

6. Solomin V.P., Mikhailov L.A., Gubanov V.M. Life safety. - M.: Publishing house: Academia, 2008. - 272 p.

7. Frolov A.V. Life safety. Occupational Safety and Health. - M.: Publisher: Phoenix, 2008. - 750 p.

8. Hwang P.A., Hwang T.A. Fundamentals of life safety. - M.: Publisher: Phoenix, 2008. - 381 p.

1. Theoretical foundations and practical functions of the safety of life

1. Theoretical foundations and practical functions of the BJD

developing a kind of security foundation for a higher-level system, the so-called global system of life. Accordingly, it is possible to single out the space of local life safety, which is part of a more general space of global life safety.

Risk is the ratio of certain realized hazards (injury, occupational disease, death of a person at work) to the possible number for a certain period of time.

To analyze the state of labor protection in production, individual, social and technical risks can be distinguished.

Technical risk expresses the probability of accidents during the operation of machinery and equipment, the implementation of technological processes, the operation of industrial buildings.

Thus, reducing the number of negative production factors, i.e. by reducing the base of the pyramid, the number of accidents can be proportionately reduced. Consequently, the main strategy in reducing production risk is presented as a scrupulous identification of negative factors of the labor production process and the systematic exclusion of these factors at all stages of the labor process and at all stages of the life cycle of elements of the production environment. First of all, the factors that are the causes of accidents at work are determined and, if possible, completely excluded.

The solution of life safety problems must be carried out on a scientific basis.

Science is the development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about reality.

The implementation of goals and objectives in the system of "human life safety" is a priority and should be developed on a scientific basis.

Identification and description of the impact zones of the hazards of the technosphere and its individual elements (enterprises, machines, devices, etc.);

Development and implementation of the most effective systems and methods of protection against hazards;

Formation of systems for monitoring hazards and managing the state of safety of the technosphere;

Development and implementation of measures to eliminate the consequences of the manifestation of hazards;

Organization of education of the population in the basics of safety and training of specialists in life safety.

The main task of the science of life safety is a preventive analysis of the sources and causes of hazards, forecasting and assessing their impact in space and time.

The modern theoretical base of the BJD should contain at least:

Methods for analyzing hazards generated by elements of the technosphere;

Fundamentals of a comprehensive description of negative factors in space and time, taking into account the possibility of their combined impact on a person in the technosphere;

Fundamentals of the formation of initial indicators of environmental friendliness for newly created or recommended elements of the technosphere, taking into account its state;

Fundamentals of managing safety indicators of the technosphere based on monitoring hazards and applying the most effective measures and means of protection;

Fundamentals of the formation of requirements for the safety of activities to the operators of technical systems and the population of the technosphere.

Formation of safety and environmental requirements for sources of negative factors - the appointment of maximum allowable emissions (MAP), discharges (MPD), energy impacts (MAI), acceptable risk, etc.;

Organization of monitoring of the state of the habitat and inspection control of sources of negative impacts;

Development and use of means of ecobioprotection;

Implementation of measures to eliminate the consequences of accidents and other emergencies;

Education of the population in the basics of BJD and training of specialists

When determining the main practical functions of the BDZ, it is necessary to take into account the historical sequence of the occurrence of negative impacts, the formation of their zones of action and protective measures. For a long time, the negative factors of the technosphere had the main impact on a person only in the sphere of production, forcing him to develop safety measures. The need for more complete human protection in industrial areas has led to labor protection. Today, the negative impact of the technosphere has expanded to the limit, when the objects of protection are also people in the urban space and housing, the biosphere adjacent to industrial zones. It is easy to see that in almost all cases of manifestation of hazards, the sources of impact are the elements of the technosphere with their emissions, discharges, solid waste, energy fields and radiation. The identity of the sources of influence in all zones of the technosphere inevitably requires the formation of common approaches and solutions in such areas of protective activity as labor safety, life safety and environmental protection.

All this is achieved by the implementation of the main functions of the Belarusian Railways. These include: 1) description of the living space by its zoning according to the values of negative factors based on the examination of the sources of negative impacts, their mutual location and mode of operation, as well as taking into account the climatic, geographical and other features of the region or zone of activity; 2) formation of safety and environmental requirements for sources of negative factors; 3) appointment of maximum allowable emissions (MAE), discharges (MPD), energy impacts (MAI), acceptable risk, etc.; 4) organization of monitoring of the state of the habitat and inspection control of sources of negative impacts; 5) development and use of ecobioprotection means; 6) implementation of measures to eliminate the consequences of accidents and other emergencies; 7) education of the population in the basics of safety and training of specialists at all levels and forms of activity to implement the requirements of safety and environmental friendliness.

The main areas of practical activity in the field of HR are the prevention of the causes and the prevention of the conditions for the occurrence of dangerous situations.

An analysis of real situations, events and factors already today makes it possible to formulate a number of axioms of the science of life safety in the technosphere. These include:

Axiom 1. Technogenic dangers exist if the daily flows of matter, energy and information in the technosphere exceed the threshold values.

Threshold or maximum permissible values of hazards are established from the condition of maintaining the functional and structural integrity of man and the natural environment. Compliance with the maximum allowable values of flows creates safe conditions for human life in the living space and eliminates the negative impact of the technosphere on the natural environment.

Axiom 2. The elements of the technosphere are the sources of technogenic hazards.

Hazards arise when there are defects and other malfunctions in technical systems, when technical systems are used incorrectly, and also because of the presence of waste that accompanies the operation of technical systems. Technical malfunctions and violations of the modes of use of technical systems lead, as a rule, to the occurrence of traumatic situations, and the release of waste (emissions into the atmosphere, effluents into the hydrosphere, the entry of solid substances onto the earth's surface, energy radiation and fields) is accompanied by the formation of harmful effects on humans, natural environment and elements of the technosphere.

Axiom 3. Technogenic hazards operate in space and time.

Traumatic effects act, as a rule, for a short time and spontaneously in a limited space. They arise during accidents and catastrophes, during explosions and sudden destruction of buildings and structures. The zones of influence of such negative impacts are, as a rule, limited, although their influence may also spread over large areas, for example, in the event of an accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. Harmful impacts are characterized by long-term or periodic negative impact on humans, the natural environment and elements of the technosphere. Spatial zones of harmful effects vary widely from working and living areas to the size of the entire earth's space. The latter include the impact of emissions of greenhouse and ozone-depleting gases, the release of radioactive substances into the atmosphere, etc.

Axiom 4. Technogenic hazards have a negative impact on humans, the natural environment and elements of the technosphere at the same time.

Man and the surrounding technosphere, being in continuous material, energy and information exchange, form a permanent spatial system "man - technosphere". At the same time, there is also a system of "technosphere - natural environment". Technogenic hazards do not act selectively, they negatively affect all components of the aforementioned systems at the same time, if the latter are in the zone of influence of hazards.

Axiom 5. Technogenic hazards worsen people's health, lead to injuries, material losses and degradation of the natural environment.

The impact of traumatic factors leads to injuries or death of people, often accompanied by focal destruction of the natural environment and the technosphere. The impact of such factors is characterized by significant material losses. The impact of harmful factors, as a rule, is long-term, it has a negative impact on the health of people, leads to occupational or regional diseases. Influencing the natural environment, harmful factors lead to the degradation of representatives of flora and fauna, change the composition of the components of the biosphere. At high concentrations of harmful substances or at high energy flows, harmful factors, by the nature of their impact, can approach traumatic effects. So, for example, high concentrations of toxic substances in the air, water, food can cause poisoning.

Axiom 6. Protection from technogenic hazards is achieved by improving the sources of danger, increasing the distance between the source of danger and the object of protection, and applying protective measures.

It is possible to reduce the flows of substances, energies or information in the zone of human activity by reducing these flows at the exit from the source of danger (or by increasing the distance from the source to the person). If this is not practicable, then protective measures must be applied: protective equipment, organizational measures, etc.

Axiom 7. The competence of people in the world of dangers and ways to protect themselves from them is a necessary condition for achieving life safety.

A wide and growing range of technogenic hazards, the lack of natural defense mechanisms against them, all this requires a person to acquire skills in detecting hazards and applying protective equipment. This is achievable only as a result of training and gaining experience at all stages of education and practical activity of a person. The initial stage of training in life safety issues should coincide with the period of preschool education, and the final stage - with the period of advanced training and retraining of personnel in all sectors of the economy.

It follows from the foregoing that the world of technogenic hazards is quite cognizable and that a person has enough means and methods of protection against technogenic hazards. The existence of technogenic hazards and their high significance in modern society are due to the insufficient attention of a person to the problem of technogenic safety, the propensity to take risks and neglect the danger. This is largely due to the limited knowledge of a person about the world of dangers and the negative consequences of their manifestation.

BJD is the science of preserving human health and safety in everyday life, production and emergency situations. Her goals :

achievement of accident-free situations;

injury prevention;

maintaining health;

increase in working capacity;

improving the quality of work.

In the course of achieving these goals, decides the following tasks:

identification of negative environmental impacts;

protection from dangers or their prevention;

elimination of the consequences of hazards;

creation of a comfortable state of the human environment.

Stages of scientific activity:

Identification and description of zones of influence of the technosphere and its individual elements;

development and implementation of effective systems and methods of protection against hazards;

formation of systems for monitoring hazards and managing the state of safety of the technosphere;

development and implementation of measures to eliminate the consequences of the manifestation of hazards;

organization of training of the population in the basics of security and training of specialists in the life safety.

Functions of practical activity:

Description of living space according to the values of negative factors, taking into account climatic, geographical features region or zone of activity;

setting maximum allowable emissions, discharges, concentrations, etc.;

organization of condition control and inspection control of hazard sources;

development and use of means of ecobioprotection;

implementation of measures to eliminate the consequences of accidents and other emergencies.

organizing training of the population in the basics of security and training of specialists at all levels on security issues.

6. The role and tasks of executives in ensuring life safety.

The production manager is responsible for:

Provide optimal (permissible) conditions for the work of employees subordinate to him.

Identify traumatic and harmful factors associated with the production process.

Ensure the use and proper operation of protective equipment for workers and the environment.

Constantly (periodically) monitor the conditions of activity, the level of impact of traumatic and harmful factors on workers.

Organize instruction or training of employees in safe methods of activity.

Personally observe safety rules and monitor their observance by subordinates.

In the event of accidents, organize rescue of people, localization of fire, impact electric current, chemical and other hazardous effects.

7. Functions and structure of the nervous system.

Functions:

interacts with the environment;

unites the organs and systems of the body into a single whole and coordinates their activity;

carries out mental activity (sensations, perception, thinking)

The nervous system is conditionally divided into two parts: somatic (controlling the muscles of the skeleton and some internal organs - tongue, larynx, pharynx), vegetative (innervating all the muscles of the skin, blood vessels, organs).

The nervous system is divided into central (spinal cord and brain) and peripheral (nerve roots, nodes, plexuses, peripheral nerve endings) departments. The central and peripheral parts of the nervous system contain elements of the somatic and vegetative parts, thereby achieving unity nervous system.

The structural and functional unit of the nervous system is the nerve cell ( neuron ). The main properties of nerve fibers are excitability and conduction . Carrying out excitation along the fiber is possible only in the case of its anatomical integrity and normal physiological state. Excitation is also not carried out when squeezing, cessation of blood supply, with severe cooling, poisoning with poisons or drugs, when using certain medicinal substances (novocaine)

The place of transmission of nerve excitation from one nerve cell to another, or from a nerve cell to a muscle or glandular cell, is called synapse. Synapses provide unilateral conduction of excitation.

Nerves that conduct excitation from the central nervous system to the working organs - descending, centrifugal or motor . Nerves that transmit excitation from organs and parts of the body to the central nervous system - ascending, centripetal or sensitive. Motor nerves end with motor endings - effectors , sensory nerves with sensory endings receptors .

Receptors - specialized nerve cells that have selective sensitivity to the effects of certain factors.

The functions of the nervous system are carried out according to the mechanism reflex (the reaction of the body to irritation from the external or internal environment, carried out through the mediation of the central nervous system).

The basis of any reflex is the activity of a system of neurons connected to each other, forming the so-called reflex arc .

Elements of the reflex arc:

a receptor that transforms the energy of irritation into a nervous process associated with an efferent neuron.

The central nervous system (its various levels from the spinal cord to the brain), where excitation is converted into a response and switched from centripetal to centrifugal fibers.

efferent neuron that performs a response (motor or secretory).

A prerequisite for the implementation of the reflex is the integrity of all elements of the reflex arc.

Spinal cord located in the spinal canal. Performs reflex and conduction functions. Departments:

lumbar
sacral.

Brain located in the cranial cavity. Departments:

terminal brain or large hemispheres;

diencephalon;

midbrain;

cerebellum;

medulla.

The cerebral cortex is the highest part of the central nervous system, which appeared last in the process of evolution and is formed before other parts of the brain in the course of individual development.

With a relatively small weight (only 2% of the total body weight), the bark consumes about 18% of the oxygen entering the body. Therefore, even a short-term cessation of blood circulation (for a few seconds) leads to loss of consciousness, and 5-6 minutes after bleeding, the brain dies.

One of the most important functions of the cerebral cortex is analytical, i.e. there is an analysis of signals from all receptors of the body and the synthesis of responses.

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