Starry sky... Enchanting, alluring, twinkling with thousands of lights, bottomless and endless, so close and at the same time so distant... Not the one that is illuminated by the night city or street lamps, but the one that is far from civilization, such that cosmic darkness is visible . To do this, you don’t have to go to the mountains or the steppe. It is enough to go ten kilometers from settlement and retire, for example, in a river valley or in a clearing surrounded at some distance by forest.
First Most of the photo is clickable, to enlarge it, click on the image:
1. Summer sky of the Astronomical City; 2. Starry sky in the mountains.
For me the starry sky from early childhood was the most important mystery and at the same time the most sacred dream. I loved to lie for a long time on a haystack near my village house and admire this endless, shimmering beauty. And dream... That it would be nice to have the capabilities of an astronaut and fly into space at superluminal speed on a ship in order to get close and touch the magic of the most unusual cosmic worlds. With these thoughts, being inside the visualized, vivid images of the space traveler, I often fell asleep in my bed. As a child, I found a map and learned all the constellations in the sky.
The most beloved and desired films for me as a child were science fiction films. space theme. During their showing, I mentally disappeared from my space and was there, in cosmic worlds, together with the heroes of the films. It's a pity that back then (70s) these films were very rare on television (only a couple of times a year). I remember what a strong emotional surge I received during my first viewing of color space science fiction in the city cinema when I became a university student. The library in the village school was weak; there were no books on space science fiction. I remember the emotional shock I received when in the 9th grade the teacher brought me a voluminous collection of science fiction stories. I read until the morning. The next book was “The Hour of the Bull” by Ivan Efremov...
Among my classmates, school friends and children's circle, there was no one who was so keen and delighted with the starry sky. It seemed strange to me then. Now it’s clear why. After all, space is one of the channels here on Earth that forces us to ask questions - who am I, where am I from, where am I, why am I. And if a person is not ready to seek and receive answers to these questions due to young age soul, or due to a lack of experience and knowledge recorded in his spiritual memory, then he does not have a strong craving and powerful delight from contemplating the starry distances. I will say more, after passing the “line” of spiritual transformation, when a person from talking about love becomes spiritually loving, when answers to the above-mentioned sacred questions are received, the delight and pleasure from being under the starry sky and contemplating the constellations only intensifies...
Stars. I have already written in detail about one star, the most important one for us. The Sun is a small, calm, single star of spectral class G (G2V - “yellow dwarf”), one of 200 - 300 billion in our galaxy. An ordinary star, not distinguished by anything special. There are a majority of them. Therefore, with regard to the structure of stars, they glow and life, then there is no point in repeating. It is worth noting here what is characteristic of other stars and stellar systems, but not characteristic of the Sun.
The photo is clickable, to enlarge it, click on the image:
1. Pleiades; 2. Witch in the light of the stars.
With the naked eye, about 3,000 stars are visible in the sky in each hemisphere (northern and southern), about 6,000 in total. Powerful ground-based telescopes can increase this figure millions of times.
1. Star clusters in NGC 1313; 2. Star cluster M34; 3. M39 - open cluster in Lebed; 4. Kemble Cascade.
There are so many stars in our galaxy that only about 0.01% of their number is included in catalogs. The rest have not yet been identified or counted. The most famous stars are Polaris, Sirius, Vega, Aldebaran, Arcturus, Rigel, Mizar, Algol and others. According to the established tradition, supported by astronomers, only about 300 bright stars have their own names. There are no officially assigned names for the stars. In this regard, star naming certificates issued by some organizations are a private initiative and are not recognized by the International Astronomical Union.
The first photo is clickable, to enlarge it, click on the image:
1. Constellations Draco and Ursa Minor; 2. Constellation Ursa Major.
More ancient people bright stars mentally connected with lines and received geometric figures or patterns - constellations- called names. For example, Big Dipper, Ursa Minor, Orion, Cassiopeia, Sagittarius, Lyra, Cygnus, Andromeda, Pegasus, etc. As a rule, the names of the constellations were consonant with the characters of myths and legends. Thus, constellations are fairly large, conventionally defined areas of the celestial sphere, each of which contains several bright stars that are clearly visible to the naked eye. Later, star atlases appeared, based on constellations, accompanied by beautiful drawings of mythical characters. In them, the stars were designated by letters of the Greek alphabet in descending order of their brightness: α is the brightest star in the constellation, β is the second brightest, etc. The stars included in a constellation are not necessarily close to each other in space.
1. Constellation Orion in the sky; 2. Constellation Orion on the star map.
It seems that the stars in the sky are close to each other. In fact distances between them are huge even by cosmic standards. The closest star to Earth (not counting the Sun) is Proxima Centauri. It is located 4.2 light years (or 39 trillion km = 3.9 x 10 13 km) from the solar system (1 light year is the distance that light travels in space in one year). The brightness of a star in the sky is related not only to its distance from the Earth, but also to the size of the star itself and its luminosity.
Stars differ from each other in many ways. First of all, by blossom. The stars are blue, white-blue, white, yellow-white, yellow, orange and red. The color of a star depends on the temperature of its surface. The hottest stars are blue (up to 60,000 ° Kelvin at the surface), the coldest are red (2000 - 3500 ° K). In general, it is very difficult to determine the color of faint stars with the naked eye, whereas in photographs it is easily visible. The color of stars is much easier to determine when observing through a telescope. It should also be kept in mind that observers perceive color differently: some eyes are more sensitive to blue rays and have difficulty distinguishing red stars, or vice versa.
The second distinguishing feature is brightness a star, which is estimated in magnitude. Thus, a star that is perceived by the eye as a star of the first magnitude is almost twice as bright as a star of the second magnitude, which in turn is the same number of times brighter than a star of the third magnitude, etc. Stars up to 6th magnitude are visible to the naked eye. A first magnitude star is exactly 100 times brighter than a sixth magnitude star. It is customary that the brightest stars have negative magnitudes.
1. The star Betelgeuse, visible through the Hubble telescope; 2. The mottled surface of the star Betelgeuse.
The third distinguishing feature is size stars. Here the ratio between the smallest and largest reaches even greater values. The picture on the left shows the comparative size of the Sun (small dot on the left, below) with the blue star LBV 1906-20.
Another picture on the left, if you click on it, will reveal a large picture that clearly shows the sizes of the stars in comparison. And below are two videos where this comparison of the Earth and the Sun with other stars is even more impressive.
These videos can be downloaded from YOUTUBE at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VEa0RiU5aeU And http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kdUAus2-RXg
Masses stars vary within much more modest limits and most range from 0.07 to 100-150 solar masses. There are heavier ones, but such massive stars are very rare. Stars vary greatly in density. Among them there are such cubic centimeter substances which are outweighed by a large loaded ocean ship. For example, the density of the substance of a white dwarf is a million times higher than the density of water. And a neutron star, which is only a few kilometers in size, has a density of matter 280 trillion times greater than the density of water. The matter of other stars is so discharged that its density in the surface layers is less than the density of the vacuum that is achievable in earthly laboratory conditions.
The following are distinguished: types of stars: brown dwarfs, white dwarfs, red giants, variables, Wolf-Rayet and T Tauri stars, novae, supernovae and neutron stars. You can read more about this in the materials, links to which are given at the end of the text.
Photos are clickable, to enlarge them, click on the image:
1. M13 - a huge globular star cluster; 2. Millions of stars in Omega Centauri.
By number of stars, connected in a group, there are single and multiple (double, triple and higher multiplicity) star systems. If a system contains more than ten stars, it is called a star cluster. Our Sun is a single star. Double (multiple) stars are very common in the galaxy (more than 70% of stars). For example, the brightest star visually observed in the sky, Sirius, is double (next to it, a white dwarf also rotates around a single gravitational center).
Different types of stars undergo different evolution. Its main stages are as follows: birth, life on the main sequence, the final stage and death of the star. Stars are born from gas and dust clouds when gravitational compression and heating of matter occurs to temperatures that trigger thermonuclear processes. Star formation regions are usually identified by the presence of massive, hot and bright (young) stars. When I end my life, depending on the class, ordinary stars either turn into white dwarfs, neutron stars or pulsars, or fade out and become invisible (“black” dwarfs), or explode as supernovae, or turn into black holes.
Have you ever wondered how many stars there are in the sky? Or maybe they wanted to count them? The starry sky is a big mystery that has long attracted adults and children with unusual bright lights and interesting phenomena. But it turns out that the way we see it is just a beautiful wrapper, but in fact there is a whole starry world with its own stories, adventures and others interesting events. Which ones exactly? Our fairy tale about the Bear and the North Star will tell about this. So make yourself comfortable.
An unusual star world or a fairy tale about the North Star and its friends
Since ancient times, the sky has been home to many small bright stars, which are perhaps the most beautiful creatures in the whole world. Their shining clothes are a real opportunity for pride, because they even attract people - strange creatures living on one of the planets. Why strange? Yes, because the stars could not understand their way of life: they were always in a hurry somewhere, not even knowing the way, exposing themselves to the danger of getting lost, rarely thinking about what the world really is like and what their purpose is. Worries, worries and worries. This is how their life passed on one of the most picturesque planets in the Universe.
Little ones bright stars it was completely incomprehensible how one could live like this, because, unlike people, they were never in a hurry, they lived measuredly and constantly thought about the lofty things - the meaning of life, heavenly harmony and the incredible beauty of the Universe. Most of all they were interested and fascinated by the unusual laws that governed their world, which was called Cosmos. Comets, meteorites and entire systems of planets rushed through it at incredible speed, and their routes were so precise and harmonious that they did not collide with each other. This was the essence of celestial harmony - a very well-thought-out system of rules and laws that all celestial bodies strictly adhered to.
In their free time from thinking, the stars rejoiced in their outfits, sang star songs and even did a star dance. True, it was very different from what people understood by dance. The reason for this is simple - the stars were forbidden to move from place to place, so their movements were extremely limited. The little beauties were surprised by this, but they never became indignant or protested, realizing that this was one of the rules of heavenly harmony. In general, the habit of being indignant is also inherent only in people. 
Once, during such entertainment, the North Star, the brightest star in the sky, began to talk about people:
- Look, they got lost again.
- Who? - asked one of her friends.
- Yes, sailors! We swam in the wrong direction. Well, how can you go on the road without understanding the cardinal directions at all?
“Indeed,” another heavenly beauty picked up her conversation, “the Chumaks are lost.” They will have to look for salt for a long time, if they find it at all.
“And if they find it, they’ll get lost again on the way home,” Polar Star laughed loudly and suddenly fell silent. She felt it was wrong to laugh at people who lived so far below. Good for them, the stars. From above you can really see everything perfectly. But is it really as easy to live without pointers?
The North Star was not only the brightest, but also very kind and smart. So she instantly came up with an interesting idea:
- What if we become signposts for people? We will show them the way. We still can’t move away from each other, so it will be easy for people to remember our individual groups and navigate in space. And for a better understanding, we will now quickly draw a map of the starry sky.
— Great idea! — one of her closest neighbors supported Polar Star. “And I also suggest that we come up with names for our groups.” For example, Mizar, Mirak and their friends look very much like a bear to me. Why don't they call it that?
- Hmm, you look like a little bear to me! - Mizar laughed. 
- Ursa Major and Ursa Minor! - Polar Star summed up, - in my opinion, it sounds great. The fairy tale about the North Star and Ursa Minor is a good name for a new and interesting story.
- Polar Star, maybe you’ll fantasize about your adventures later, but now let’s finish what we started? - Mizar interrupted her thoughts.
- Yes, sure! We need to draw a map to help people.
This is how individual constellations were formed in the starry sky, and for a long time people have become accustomed to finding their way around them. Therefore, if you don’t know something, don’t forget to raise your head to the sky from time to time. Little bright beauties are always ready to help. 
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MOU Travninskaya secondary school Dovolensky district, Novosibirsk region
Literary and poetry competition "Sunny Country"
Nomination: Real or fictional stories
Subject:Star
One family had no children. The couple lost all hope and resigned themselves to their fate. They understood that only a miracle could help them. But they were too old to believe in miracles.
One late evening, the couple saw a falling star in the sky. They had one desire for both of them - to become parents. That's what they wished for.
And soon our heroes heard a child’s heart-rending cry. It seemed that the child was crying right under the windows of the house. Opening the doors, they saw a little girl. She amazed with her extraordinary beauty. The man took the girl in his arms and, feeling a surge of tenderness, entered the house. The woman looked around the yard, but did not notice anyone or anything. Entering the house, she beckoned the child to her. The girl looked up at her. The eyes were blue-blue, like the Universe itself. A sweet face was framed by golden hair. Warmth radiated from the child. And our heroes were also struck by the fact that the girl seemed to emit a flickering light, like a star. Well, how can you not love such a child?!
The couple fell in love with the girl at first sight and raised her as their own daughter. They gave her a name - Ariel. She grew up in affection and love. Every year, parents discovered more and more new abilities and possibilities of the child. But sometimes they noticed strange things about her and considered it a quirk. Ariel spoke to the stars. She told her parents that the stars were calling her to them. She really wants to go to the stars, but she cannot leave Earth until she grows up. The woman was very worried after such conversations with her daughter, and the man chuckled. He was a very practical person and did not believe in any miracles. Although he admitted that the very appearance of the girl was a miracle. But he explained it in his own way: “For our long-suffering, we were rewarded by God or providence. But we deserve it. My daughter is happy with us, why does she need to go somewhere?”
Time passed, the girl grew up. But her desire to go into space only grew stronger over the years. When she thought about this, her skin glowed with a flickering light. One day, Ariel realized that air was for her like water for the inhabitants of the watery depths. She easily kicked off the ground with her feet and soared high into the sky. The parents were stunned and scared. And they also realized that now nothing would keep their beloved girl on Earth, next to them. How heavy their hearts became for both of them. A man and a woman would not mind at all if their daughter remained an ordinary person.
The time has come for separation. Ariel grew stronger, became more comfortable in the air, and the stars inexorably called to her. She promised her parents not to forget and to visit. And again she easily pushed off the Earth with her feet and quickly flew upward. Her golden hair fluttered like flames. Ariel quickly left earth's atmosphere and found herself in airless space. There, far in space, she felt only a pleasant lightness. There was no usual earthly breathing, but she lived! She was at home! And it seemed to her that the stars were whispering friendly words. From somewhere outside, a voice or something like a voice was heard, telling her that she was a Child of the Cosmos! This news gave me strength. Ariel was overwhelmed with delight. She could move freely from star to star, from one Galaxy to another. And when she got tired, she could sit down on some passing asteroid or meteorite. Stars, planets, galaxies, nebulae, shimmering with pink, blue, green light, and even all the colors of the rainbow, stunned and delighted the small but fearless girl. Only the mysterious black “holes” did not Ariel approach. She knew there was danger there!
Our little, fragile girl remembered that she was raised on the wonderful blue planet Earth. She is used to considering the Earth her home. Ariel often visited her parents, telling them about what she saw and heard there, far from Earth. The parents fell in love with their daughter even more. They looked forward to her unexpected returns and were frightened by her unexpected departures.
One day, while walking far in space, Ariel met aliens. They were short, their skin was gray, covered with large folds. Huge green eyes angrily examined the girl from under the brow ridges. They understood perfectly well who they met on their way, they knew that the cosmos gave the girl strength. Therefore, they invited her to join them. We shared our plans. And the most immediate plans were the destruction of planet Earth. Ariel refused without hesitation. She decided to save her home planet at all costs. The stars gave the fearless girl an unusually strong and beautiful star shield. The sun gave her fiery power.
There were countless aliens. They simultaneously turned towards the Earth. A green light streamed from their eyes, bringing death to the planet. Ariel created a star shield around herself and repelled the alien attack. Gathering a powerful fireball in her hand, the child of the Cosmos destroyed the uninvited evil “guests” with one blow.
The gray creatures were destroyed, and the small planet glowed blue under the rays of the sun. The poor girl gave all her strength to save native home, loved and dear people to her, and turned into the brightest star in our entire Galaxy. It still shines brightly and provocatively in the mysterious night sky. With its radiance, the star makes people’s souls purer and lures them into the starry distances.
Question
Let's think together: why do people look at the stars?
People at all times loved to look at the stars, watched them, studied them, made assumptions about who created the Universe, came up with names for them and beautiful stories about them, because nothing can compare with the fascinating and frightening at the same time with its infinity, the mysterious starry sky.
The stars are very beautiful and they certainly brighten up the sky, especially on a cloudless night. Beautiful, beauty always attracts people's gaze.
Exercise
Of course, you also look at the night starry sky. What do you think of this? What are you thinking about?
Come up with a fantastic story about the starry sky.
When I look at the starry night sky, I imagine an immense space, dark and very distant. I think about how stars far away from us exist in this space. Is there life on these stars, or is it like the desert at night - dark, cold, and lifeless.
“One day I came to visit my friend in the village. His family had a large farm, and one day Andrei, his grandfather and I went out at night to graze the horses. We made all the necessary preparations and lay down by the fire. I looked at the sky for a long time. And it seemed to me that I was in Star Country. The first person I met was Ursa Major. We met, she asked me where I was from, what star? I answered that from the planet Earth, which is not far from the Moon, Venus and Mars. She was very happy, said that she knows the Earth and misses it a little because she lived there. The Bear and I walked along the glowing path high road– The Milky Way and Ursa Major told me who she really was and how she got into the starry sky.
When she lived on Earth, her name was Callisto, she was a beauty, and the goddess Hera was jealous of her and turned her into a Bear. The unfortunate Bear almost died at the hands of her own son, who met her while returning from a hunt. But almighty god Zeus saved the bear and took her to heaven, turning her into a constellation and granting immortality.
The Bear introduced me to her neighbors, I met the Lynx and the Little Lion. When two dogs rushed past us, I asked the Bear what they were doing here and where they were going in such a hurry, the Bear told me about the hunter Orion, and his guards - dogs - Canis Major and Canis Minor. I also saw the Heavenly Dragon. And I even rode a funny Giraffe... And then, someone pushed me and asked how long I would sleep. I woke up and saw that the sky had already brightened on the horizon and realized that I was dreaming in reality. But everything that happened to me in the starry sky, I remember and will never forget.”
Solar "family"
Why was the book of N. Copernicus of great importance? Try to answer this question.
The book of N. Copernicus “On Rotation” celestial spheres" - the main work of the 16th century astronomer published in 1543 in Nuremberg.
In this book, for the first time in Christian Europe, a heliocentric model of the world was proposed, according to which the Sun is the center of the Universe, and the planets move around it. The Copernican world system was proposed to replace the generally accepted geocentric model of Ptolemy at that time, where the center was the stationary Earth. Copernicus's book had a huge influence on the development of the scientific revolution in Modern Europe. The successors who developed the Copernican system of the world relied on it - Giordano Bruno, Galileo, Kepler and Newton.
Despite all its imperfections, the Copernican model of the world was a major step forward and a crushing blow to archaic authorities. The reduction of the Earth to the level of an ordinary planet prepared the way for the Newtonian combination of terrestrial and celestial natural laws. IN late XVII century, Newton completed the development of the dynamic foundation of celestial mechanics, and Ptolemy’s model finally faded into history.
What do you think a farmer will tell about the Sun, and what a traveler?
Farmer:
The sun is an object that gives warmth and light, without it trees and grass do not grow, it is impossible to grow vegetables and fruits, wheat, from which flour is made and bread is baked, water in rivers and lakes heats up in the sun, and it is better to water plants with warm water.
Traveler:
The Sun rises above the horizon, dispelling the darkness of the night, and all living things wake up. In bright sunlight, all objects around us have bright colors, the foliage on the trees is bright green, the sky is blue, the water in the reservoirs is blue, traveling observing the multicolored world around us is more pleasant than on days without the sun, then everything is gloomy, the world around us becomes gray, all the colors are muted and the mood becomes just as gloomy, heavy, unkind. It seems that the whole world is frozen in anxious anticipation of something terrible.
Let us draw a conclusion after conducting the experiment “Rotation of the Moon around the Earth”, answering the questions:
Which side of the Moon is illuminated by the Sun?
What part of the Moon is visible from Earth?
We can observe the movement of the Moon in its orbit by changes in its phases. The moon does not emit light - it is visible due to reflection sunlight falling on its surface. Over time appearance The moon changes: now it is not visible at all, now it is a thin crescent, now a month, now a full disk. It all depends on how the Moon is positioned relative to the Earth and the Sun.
It is important to remember a simple thing: the Moon, like any spherical body, is always illuminated by the Sun equally. Whatever position the Moon is in, the Sun illuminates almost exactly half of its surface, that is, the entire hemisphere.
If we see a thin crescent, this means that the part of the Moon that is invisible to us is almost completely illuminated. If the Moon appears to us as a month, then its reverse side is also exactly half illuminated. And it is clear that during the full moon the invisible part of our satellite is immersed in darkness, and during the new moon the other side shines under the sun's rays.
Since the speed of rotation of the Moon around its axis and the speed of rotation around the Earth are almost the same, we always see only one side of the Moon.
In clear weather, let's look closely at the moon. For this we use binoculars. What do the dark spots on its surface look like?
Dark areas on the Moon are called “Seas”, these are relatively flat areas of the satellite’s surface, covered with solidified lava, as opposed to light areas - “continents”, which are covered with regolith, dust, and stones. Seas are divided into seas proper, oceans, lakes, bays and swamps. On the visible side there are significantly more seas than on the reverse side (21 seas, one ocean and 16 lakes versus 2 seas and 3 lakes) and the seas themselves bigger size. Perhaps because of this difference, the Moon is turned to the Earth on one side.
Exercise
Write a story “If we flew to the moon, we would see...”
“If we flew to the Moon, we would see that the Atmosphere on the Moon is practically absent, because the sky here is always black as coal, both at night and during the day, the temperature in the daytime the sun heats the surface to +120°C, and at night it drops to −160°C.
The surface of the Moon is covered with so-called regolith - a mixture of fine dust and rocky debris formed as a result of meteorite collisions with the lunar surface.
The surface of the Moon can be divided into two types: very old mountainous terrain (lunar continent) and relatively smooth and younger lunar maria. Lunar maria, which make up approximately 16% of the lunar surface, are huge craters created by collisions with celestial bodies, which were later flooded with liquid lava.
We would have discovered a hole in the lunar surface, located near the volcanic plateau of the Hills of Marius, presumably leading to a tunnel below the surface. The diameter of the hole is about 65 meters, and the depth is presumably 80 meters.
Scientists believe that such tunnels are formed by solidifying flows of molten rock, with lava frozen in the center. These processes occurred during the period of volcanic activity on the Moon. If we traveled around the entire moon on a lunar rover, then on the opposite side of the moon, invisible to us, we would see a huge “pool” - a depression with a diameter of 2250 km and a depth of 12 km - this is the largest pool in solar system, which appeared as a result of the collision of the Moon with an asteroid.
We were probably able to ride from domes and ridges into furrows - narrow winding valley-like depressions in the relief. Unfortunately, we cannot be on such a lifeless planet-satellite of the earth for a long time, there is nothing to breathe there, there is no free water, the temperatures are not suitable for our stay. But people will still fly to the Moon and explore it, because it is very attractive and unknown. space object for a long time."
Globe - model of the Earth
Consider the globe. Let's determine which color is more in the picture - blue or brown, which is indicated blue? What about brown?
On a globe, a model of the Earth, water is indicated in blue and land in brown.
Let's conclude: what is more on Earth - land or water? Let's find oceans and continents on the globe. Let's read and remember their names.
There is more water on Earth than land.
There are 4 oceans and 6 continents on Earth.
Oceans: Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic.
Continents: Eurasia (largest), Australia, Antarctica, Africa, North America, South America.
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