10/8/2018 at 00:26 · oksioksi · 2 910

Top 10 ways to navigate the area

Orienteering skills will be useful to every person in life, regardless of where he finds himself: in a city, forest, desert, steppe or among expanses of water. In fact, many people have problems with geographic orientation, and some even have difficulty quickly distinguishing between the right and left sides. And if a person finds himself in an unfamiliar place without visible identifying signs of a residential area, random passersby and marks, then he has to rely solely on his intuition and luck or... Or you can learn to navigate well in space with the help of improvised elements, signs and, in fact, nature itself .

We offer you the TOP 10 most popular methods, thanks to which you can learn to navigate on any terrain and even in the wilderness.

10. According to the relief

This method, of course, is for advanced “naturalists,” as it requires attentiveness to the features of the landscape. If you find yourself in an open area in summer, autumn or spring, then your faithful assistant will be the notorious moss, which chooses the northern sides of trees, old abandoned houses and other objects to grow. If winter finds you in an unfamiliar place, then a carpet of snow will become your faithful ally. It turns out that in the south the coating melts a little faster.

9. By map

When going to an unfamiliar city or, for example, on a hike (even with a guide or group leader), do not forget to arm yourself with a map of the area that does not take up much space. Believe me, even if you are not well versed in its marks and drawing the landscape to scale, the map will definitely not be superfluous in your backpack. It is advisable to study the area before traveling so that, with good access to the Internet, you can clarify controversial or unclear points. Also find out in advance how to read symbols and marks on the map. To start navigating along it, select a real large object (for example, a river or lake) from which you can start and correctly determine the cardinal directions. It is advisable to take a compass and, possibly, a telescope along with the map to look out for distant objects on the horizon.

8. By compass

This little helper already solves a key issue - it helps to determine where the south is and where the north is. If you accurately indicate the direction of the world, you can immediately find large objects for orientation, or at least simply choose the direction of movement. Do not forget that in order to obtain accurate data, the compass should not be used while moving or twirled in your hand. Stop and place it on as level a horizontal surface as possible. The arrow will immediately point you north, and then use the map to determine where to continue moving to get to the control point.

7. By radio signals

In order to navigate using this method, you need to take a pocket radio with you. Next, you should try to catch and record signals from powerful radio stations, which the azimuth on the compass will help you with. It is desirable that the direction of the signals also coincides with the selected side of the world. As you move, if you lose your bearings, then set the receiver in the direction of the worst sound, which will help determine the desired direction of the world, previously indicated by the compass.

6. By the sun

The celestial body has been helping tourists, wanderers and sailors determine the direction of the world since ancient times. The method, of course, is not always stable, since a small accumulation of clouds, twilight or night will prevent you from orienting yourself to the sun. In fact, a special table has been developed that allows you to determine your location by the position of the Star in the sky in different seasons. If you don’t have a compass at home, then it is very advisable to include a printout of the table in the map. If there is no table, you can use a mechanical watch (only if clear sky). Place them on a flat horizontal surface so that the main (short) arrow points to the current position of the sun in the sky. Next, roughly divide the angle between the minute and hour hands in half and draw an imaginary line that will show you the south side of the world.

5. By buildings

If you didn’t grab a map and, as luck would have it, moss doesn’t grow in the area you are observing, then you can focus on unknown structures. For example, altars Orthodox churches(even destroyed or abandoned) will face east. The bell towers of the churches are oriented to the west. Pay attention to the cross - its lower diagonal crossbar shows the north and south sides (upper and lower ends). As for synagogues and mosques, their doors are located strictly to the north. Buddhist monasteries are built so that the facades point to the south.

4. By the North Star

So, you are caught in an unfamiliar area at dusk or at night, which means that it is not possible to take advantage of the sun or landscape landmarks. Then all hope is in the starry sky, which will be accessible only in cloudless weather. Take a good look at the sky and find the North Star (as we know from childhood, it is the brightest among others). And here it is important to remember just one detail - the star is located strictly in the north, if you look at it face-on. If by brightness heavenly body If you didn’t find it right away, then remember your astronomy lessons - the North Star is located in the constellation Big Dipper(Bears).

3. By the Moon

The second most important celestial body after the sun can help out even on a cloudy, gloomy and completely impenetrable night. Focus on the position of the moon, which will allow you to determine the cardinal directions. But this requires some knowledge that in different phases and periods the satellite has different positions. If you do not want to remember specific information, write it down in the fields of your map, because this may be the only way to navigate the area in the evening and at night.

2. By animals

We will talk not so much about animals, but about insects that know how to correctly orient their homes and obey the biorhythms of nature. Your first helpers in the warm summer are, of course, steppe bees, which choose the south side to build their hive. In the daytime, in bad weather conditions and in any season, try to find an anthill. As a rule, ants build their “building” also from the southern part of a stump or tree. Pay attention to the shape of the housing itself, since its flatter side is southern.

1. By plants

In the meantime, while you are busy searching for anthills and beehives (believe me, this can take many hours of mindless wandering), try to pay attention to the vegetation under your feet. Lichen and moss, we remind you, grow precisely on the northern part of the trees. But the grass more often pecks to the south of any nearby object. And here’s another landmark: clearings are forming in the forest from north to south. And if you come across fruits or berries, then know that in front of you, most likely, is the southern side of the world.

IN modern world Navigators and GPS solve problems with terrain orientation, and without Google Maps many feel like they have no hands. However, it’s good that you read this article, because in the most inconvenient and hopeless period of knowledge about orientation in wildlife will emerge from the subconscious very in time.

After reading this article, you will become familiar with the concept of orientation. What does this concept mean, what are its methods and types, the history of orienteering - we will touch on all this in our story. First of all, you need to decide on the key term. Let's talk about such a concept as orientation. Each of us knows that such a concept exists. And many can even explain it: this is the ability to correctly determine the cardinal directions, as well as imagine the location settlements and the direction of roads to where you are. You can always find your way if you know the location of the four cardinal directions. These are south (S), north (N), west (W) and east (E). Let's now talk in more detail about such a concept as orientation.

What is terrain orientation

This is a very broad concept. You can navigate by compass, map, sun, stars, clock, natural phenomena and signs, as well as various tips. For example, if you look out the window in the morning and see people walking with umbrellas, you will understand that it is raining outside. If you notice snow, dress warmer. This is, so to speak, “everyday” orientation.

What is orientation and why is it necessary? It represents one of the most important conditions ensuring human life, as well as necessary for the successful solution of assigned tasks. Using the or card is easy. However, sometimes it is necessary to act without having either a compass or a map with you. Therefore, you should know other ways to navigate the terrain.

When preparing for a hike, you need to pay special attention to instilling the appropriate skills, methods, rules and techniques that will help you do without the use of a compass and map.

Orientation by the Sun

You may know that its rising and setting locations vary depending on the time of year. The sun rises in the southeast in winter and sets in the southwest. In summer, it rises in the northeast and sets in the northwest. In autumn and spring, the Sun rises in the east and sets in the west. It must be remembered that at noon it is always located towards the south, regardless of the time of year. At 13 o'clock the shortest shadow from objects is observed. At this time, its direction from objects located vertically points to the north. If the Sun is hidden by clouds, you can put a knife on your fingernail. A shadow will appear, at least a small one, and it will be clear where it is.

According to the Sun and the clock

You should point the hour hand towards the Sun. The angle formed between the number 1 (13 o'clock) and the clockwise direction must be divided in half using an imaginary line. She will show you the direction: behind is north, in front is south. It must be remembered that the left corner should be divided before 13 o'clock and the right corner in the afternoon.

By the North Star

There are many ways to navigate the terrain. One of the most famous is based on the North Star. This star is always in the north. In order to find it, you must first find the constellation Ursa Major. This constellation resembles a bucket, which is formed from 7 stars, quite bright. Next, you should mentally draw a line through the 2 rightmost stars. On it you need to plot the distance between them, multiplied by five. At the end of the line we will find the North Star. It is located in the tail of Ursa Minor, another constellation. If we face this star, we will be facing north.

By the Moon

In order to navigate the terrain well, you need to remember that the Moon is visible in the south at 20 o’clock in the first quarter, and in the west at 2 o’clock in the morning. If we're talking about about the last quarter, then in the east the Moon will be at 2 am, and in the south - at 8 am. The sides of the horizon at night during a full moon are determined in the same way as by the Sun and the clock. In this case, the Moon is used instead of the Sun. It must be remembered that when it is full, it opposes the Sun. In other words, it is located against him.

Method of orientation by melting snow

We continue to talk about what orientation in geography is. We have not yet described all of its methods. This article only talks about the main ones. One of the most common methods is to navigate by melting snow. The south side of all objects is known to heat up more than the north. This means that snow melts faster on this side as well. This is clearly visible in early spring, as well as in winter, during thaws, from the snow stuck to stones, holes near trees, and the slopes of ravines.

By the shadow

At noon, the shadow is shortest and its direction points north. To avoid waiting for it to appear, you can proceed as follows. You need to stick a stick into the ground, the length of which is approximately 1 m. Next you need to mark the end of its shadow. Then you should wait about 10-15 minutes, and then repeat the procedure. From the first to the second position of the shadow, you need to draw a line, and then extend it beyond the second mark by about a step. Stand with the toe of your left foot opposite the 1st mark, and place the toe of your right foot at the end of the line you drew. You are now facing north.

By buildings

A certain type of building is oriented strictly to the cardinal points. These include churches, synagogues, and mosques. The chapels and altars of Lutheran and peasant churches always face east, and the bell towers of these buildings always face west. You can also navigate by the dome Orthodox Church, or rather, by the cross on it. The edge of its lower crossbar, which is lowered, faces south, and is raised to the north. On the western side there are altars of Catholic churches. The doors of Muslim mosques and synagogues face approximately north.

Usually the exit from yurts is made to the south. In villages, houses have more windows on the south side. Another important sign is that on the south side, the paint on the walls of buildings fades more and takes on a faded color.

Clearings in the forest

You can determine the cardinal directions in cultivated forests by clearings. They are usually cut along east-west and north-south lines. You can also get your bearings by the inscriptions of block numbers, which are made on pillars placed at the intersection of clearings. Numbers are placed at the top of each such pillar and on each of the 4 faces. The north direction shows the edge between the two edges that have the smallest numbers on them.

no watch

If you lose or break your watch, you can find the local time with relative accuracy using a compass. For this purpose, azimuth orientation is used. What it is? It is necessary to measure the azimuth to the Sun. Once you determine it, you need to divide the resulting value by 15. This is the amount by which the Sun rotates per hour. The resulting number will indicate the time. For example, the azimuth to the Sun is 180°. Therefore, the time is 12 hours.

Orienteering

You are probably familiar with the phrase " orienteering". the sport is based on the fact that participants must pass control points located on the ground using a compass and a sports map. As a rule, the results are determined by the time spent completing the distance (sometimes penalty time is taken into account). The method can also be used calculation based on the number of points scored by the participants.

Today, competitions in this sport are held in various groups. They can be both by skill level and by age. The length of the distance and its difficulty are determined by the complexity of the terrain and age group. The route (distance) must be unknown to all participants, and also contain certain difficulties which must be overcome with good physical fitness and navigation skills.

History of orienteering

Since ancient times, people have known what terrain orientation is. It is known that even then they used the skills and abilities associated with it. However, the review historical facts usually begin with military competitions, which were held in northern states Europe. It is believed that orienteering as a sport appeared at the end of the 19th century. It was then that the first competitions were organized between a number of military garrisons in Norway, Sweden, and Great Britain. On October 31, 1897, the first mass competitions among citizens were held. Thus, many people learned about what orienteering is, the definition of which in our time every schoolchild can give. However, the real birth of this sport took place in 1918. It was then that Major E. Killander from Stockholm decided to use environment rural Sweden to organize During the competition he created, runners not only ran, but also had to choose their own routes using a compass and map.

By 1934, orienteering as a sport had spread to Switzerland, Hungary and the USSR. National championships for women and men began to be held annually in Sweden, Finland and Norway by the beginning of World War II. In 1960, Open International competitions took place in the Stockholm area. Representatives from 7 countries took part in them. Today this sport is very popular. There are several of them: running, skiing, cycling, trail orienteering, etc. Competitions are held for each of them.

Now you can talk about what orienteering is. Tourism, sports, and survival in extreme conditions combine this concept. Orientation allows you to find your way anywhere on our planet in an unfamiliar area. Knowing its basics, you will not be afraid of getting lost in the forest or anywhere else.

Orientation - determining your location relative to the sides of the horizon and prominent local objects (landmarks), maintaining a given or selected direction of movement and understanding the position of local objects and objects on the ground.

• a) by map: - in order to navigate the terrain using a map, you need to orient the map (along the terrain lines, using a compass) and determine the point of your standing (by nearby local objects, i.e. relief, measuring distances, serifs - direct and reverse).
• b) without a map: - in order to navigate the terrain without a map, it is necessary to determine the sides of the horizon (directions to the north, south, west and east) - (by a compass, by the North Star, by the Moon and a clock, by the Sun and a clock, by local objects) and determine your position relative to designated landmarks (local objects).

Get your bearings- means determining your location on the ground (standing point or direction of movement) relative to the sides of the horizon, surrounding local objects and relief forms.

Orientation is carried out using a compass, celestial bodies, local objects, landforms and a map.

To navigate the terrain, you need to be able to find the location of the sides of the horizon, determine the direction to surrounding local objects (relief details) and measure distances. Local objects and relief details, relative to which one’s location is determined, are called landmarks in this case.

Methods for determining the sides of the horizon

By compass:

To determine the sides of the horizon using a compass, you need to give it a horizontal position, release the needle brake and set the compass so that the zero division of the compass scale (C) is opposite the northern end of the needle. In this case, the division on the scale C (0 degrees) will show the direction to the north, B (90 degrees) - to the east, S (180 degrees) - to the south, W (270 degrees) - to the west.

According to the Sun:

An approximate (eye-based) determination of the sides of the horizon by the Sun is made taking into account the time of determination. In this case, we assume that the Sun is approximately located in the Northern Hemisphere:

• - at 7 o'clock (Maternity Time) - in the east,
• - at 13 o'clock - in the south,
• - at 19 o'clock - in the west,
• - at 1 o'clock - in the north.

The average movement of the Sun during 1 hour is 15 degrees.

According to the Sun and hours:

Determining the sides of the horizon by the Sun using a watch is performed as follows. Holding the watch horizontally, turn it so that hour hand its tip was directed towards the Sun. The straight line dividing the angle between the hour hand and the direction from the center of the clock to the number “1” of the dial will indicate the direction to the south.

To increase the accuracy of determining the sides of the horizon in the southern regions, a slightly modified technique can be used.

The watch is given not a horizontal, but an inclined position (for a latitude of 50-40 degrees - at an angle of 40-50 degrees to the horizon), while the watch is held with the number “1” away from you, finding on the dial the middle of the arc between the hour hand and the number “ 1", put a match here, i.e. perpendicular to the dial, without changing the position of the watch, rotate with it relative to the Sun so that the shadow of the match passes through the center of the dial. At this moment, the number “1” will be in the direction of the south.

According to the North Star:

The direction to the North Star always corresponds to the direction to the north. To find the North Star, you need to:

• — find the constellation Ursa Major (it looks like a bucket of seven clearly visible stars),
• - mentally draw a line through the two outermost stars of the bucket, put approximately five segments on it equal to the distance between these stars, at the end of the line there will be the North Star.

By Moon:

During a full moon, the sides of the horizon can be determined by the Moon using a watch in the same way as by the Sun (table).

If the Moon is incomplete (waxing or waning), it is necessary to: - divide the radius of the Moon's disk into six equal parts by eye, - determine how many such parts are contained in the diameter of the visible crescent of the Moon, and notice by o'clock time,

- from this time, subtract (if the Moon is waxing) or add (if the Moon is waning) the number of parts contained in the diameter of the visible crescent of the Moon, the resulting difference or sum will show the hour when the Sun will be in the direction where the Moon is, - having determined this hour and taking the Moon for the Sun, determine the direction to the south in the same way as is done when orienting by the Sun and the clock, with the only difference that pointing to the Moon is not the hour hand, but the place on the dial that corresponds to the newly obtained hour.

Along the Milky Way:

At the end of July from 11 pm to 1 am Milky Way the branching end points to the south, in January and early February from 11 pm to 1 am - to the north.

Based on local items.

When determining the sides of the horizon based on various features of local objects, it is necessary to take into account not one, but several features.

Signs of the location of objects in relation to the Sun are as follows:

• - the bark of most trees is coarser on the northern side, thinner, more elastic (birch is lighter) on the southern side,
• - in pine trees, the secondary (brown, cracked) bark on the north side rises higher along the trunk,
• - on the north side, trees, stones, wooden, tile and slate roofs are covered earlier and more abundantly with lichens, fungi,
• - on coniferous trees, resin accumulates more abundantly on the south side,
• — anthills are located on the southern side of trees, stumps and bushes, in addition, the southern slope of the anthills is gentle, the northern slope is steep,
• - berries and fruits acquire the color of maturity earlier (turn red, turn yellow) on the south side,
• - in summer, the soil near large stones, buildings, trees and bushes is drier on the south side, which can be determined by touch,
• - snow melts faster on the southern slopes, as a result of thawing, notches are formed on the snow - “spikes” directed to the south,
• — in the mountains, oak often grows on the southern slopes.

Other signs:

• — the altars of Orthodox churches, chapels and Lutheran churches face east, and the main entrances are located on the west side,
• - altars Catholic churches(churches) facing west,
• - the raised end of the lower crossbar of the cross of churches faces north,
• - shrines (pagan chapels with idols) facing south,
• — clearings in large forests are usually oriented north-south and west-east,
• — the numbering of blocks and forests goes from west to east and further to the south.

Determining the sides of the horizon based on the characteristics of local objects gives very approximate results; this must be taken into account and, at the first opportunity, use more accurate methods for determining the sides of the horizon.

Orientation on the map

When working on the ground, you should make it a rule to always work only on an oriented map.

Orienting a map means positioning it so that the north side of the map frame faces north, and the rest faces south, east, and west, respectively. With this position of the map, all directions observed from the standing point to surrounding local objects will coincide with the same directions on the map, and the relative positions of local objects on the ground and their symbols on the map will be similar.

Depending on the problem being solved, map orientation can be performed approximately or accurately. Approximate orientation is performed by eye. If you need to orient the map more accurately, then this is done using a compass, directions to local objects and along terrain lines.

Map orientation

Orientation of the map by compass is made according to the western or east side frame of the map or along one of the vertical lines of the kilometer grid, for which:

• - install the compass on the map so that the zero diameter of the dial (N - S) coincides with the western or eastern side of the frame and is directed with the letter C to the northern side of the frame,
• — turn the map together with the compass until the northern end of the arrow approaches the division corresponding to the declination value (if the declination is less than 3 degrees, then it is not taken into account.

When working in the field, the map usually does not fully unfold and its frame may become bent. In this case, the compass is applied to any of the vertical lines of the coordinate grid, while introducing a correction for the magnetic declination and the convergence of the meridians, i.e. direction correction.

The magnitude of magnetic declination and direction corrections are always indicated in the text and on the diagram below the south side of the map frame.

Orienting the map towards a local object used when the standing point is known. To do this, you need to put a ruler on the map, align it with the direction of the standing point towards a visible local object (landmark) and rotate the map so that the selected landmark is on the line of sight.

Orientation of the map along the lines (directions) of the terrain. To orientate the map, you need to stand on some terrain line (a straight section of road, a communication line, a clearing in the forest, the bank of a canal, etc.), which is also indicated on the map. Applying a ruler (pencil) to this line, rotate the map so that the direction of the ruler (pencil) coincides with the direction of the same line on the ground. Then you should check whether all local objects located on the ground to the right and left of the selected line have the same location on the map. If this condition is met, then the map is oriented correctly. With sufficient experience, map orientation using this method is done by eye.

Determining your location on the map

You can determine your standing point on the map in various ways. The easiest way to determine a standing point on a map is when it is located on the ground next to some local object shown on the map (road intersection, bridge, separate stone, characteristic forest ledge, etc.). In this case, the location of the symbol of the object will coincide with the desired standing point.

By eye on nearby local objects:

To do this, you need to orient the map and identify two characteristic local objects on it. Then, having determined by eye your location relative to them, plot your standing point on the map.

Measuring distances:

When moving along terrain lines (along a road, the edge of a forest, a ditch, a street, etc.), the standing point can be determined by the distance from the object that is shown on the map and is located on the terrain, provided that it is located on the line of movement. To do this, you need to measure the distance traveled from the object to the standing point and plot it to scale on the map.

Serif:

To determine your location on the map with a notch, you need to orient the map and identify two or three landmarks on the ground shown on the map, make provisions and draw directions from the landmarks towards yourself using a ruler. The intersection of these directions on the map will be our location.

Determining the standing point using Bolotov’s method:

This method allows you to determine your location without orienting a map. To do this, you need to identify at least three landmarks on the ground and on the map. On a sheet of transparent paper from an arbitrarily chosen point, you need to sequentially mark each landmark and draw directions. Then the paper with the directions drawn is placed on the map so that the sight lines pass through the symbols of the landmarks, and the point of intersection of the sight lines is pinned onto the map. This point will be the standing point.

Comparison of the map with the terrain:

To compare a map with the terrain means to find on the map all objects and landforms visible on the ground, as well as to identify on the ground the objects and landforms depicted on the map.

To locate an object visible on the map on the map, you must:

• - orientate the map and determine your standing point on it,
• - maintaining the orientation of the map, turn to face the object whose position you need to find on the map,
• - attach a ruler (pencil) to the point on the map and point it at an object visible on the ground,
• - in the direction of the ruler, find the symbol of the observed object on the map. The position of the symbol will indicate the location of the item on the map.

To locate an object indicated on the map on the ground, you must:

• — orient the map and find a standing point on it,
• - attach a ruler (pencil) to the standing point and conventional sign the item you are looking for,
• - without losing the orientation of the map and without moving the ruler, look at the area in the direction along the ruler (pencil),
• - find the object in this direction, taking into account the distance to it previously determined on the map.

Determining distances to targets

The distance is determined in meters. You can most accurately determine the distance using the map scale by comparing the map with the terrain.

When performing many combat missions, commanders' actions are inevitably related to terrain orientation. The ability to navigate is necessary, for example, on the march, in battle, in reconnaissance to maintain the direction of movement, target designation, drawing landmarks, targets and other objects on a map (terrain diagram), control of a unit and fire. Knowledge and skills in orienteering consolidated by experience help to more confidently and successfully perform combat missions in various combat conditions and on unfamiliar terrain.

Find your bearings- this means determining your location and directions to the sides of the horizon relative to surrounding local objects and relief forms, finding indicated direction movement and accurately maintain it along the way. When orienting in a combat situation, the location of the unit relative to friendly and enemy troops, the location of landmarks, and the direction and depth of operations are also determined.

The essence of orientation. Terrain orientation can be general or detailed.

General orientation consists in approximate determination of one’s location, direction of movement and the time required to reach the final destination of movement. This type of orientation is most often used on the march, when the crew of the vehicle does not have a map, but uses only a pre-compiled diagram or list of settlements and other landmarks along the route. To maintain the direction of movement in this case, it is necessary to constantly monitor the time of movement, the distance traveled, determined by the speedometer of the car, and control the passage of settlements and other landmarks according to the diagram (list).

Detailed orientation is to accurately determine your location and direction of movement. It is used when orienting using a map, aerial photographs, land navigation instruments, when moving in azimuth, plotting explored objects and targets on a map or diagram, when determining achieved boundaries, and in other cases.

When navigating the terrain, the simplest elements are widely used. ways of orientation: using a compass, celestial bodies and signs of local objects, as well as a more complex method - orientation on a map.

2. Orientation on the terrain without a map: determining the sides of the horizon by celestial bodies and signs of local objects

To find the direction according to the cardinal points, first determine the north-south direction; after which, facing north, the determiner will have to the right - east, to the left - west. The cardinal directions are usually found using a compass, and in the absence of one, using the Sun, Moon, stars and some signs of local objects.

2.1 Determination of directions to the sides of the horizon using celestial bodies

In the absence of a compass or in areas of magnetic anomalies, where the compass can give erroneous readings (readings), the sides of the horizon can be determined by the celestial bodies: during the day - by the Sun, and at night - by the North Star or the Moon.

According to the Sun

In the northern hemisphere, the sunrise and sunset locations by season are as follows:

• in winter the Sun rises in the southeast and sets in the southwest;
• in summer the Sun rises in the northeast and sets in the northwest;
• In spring and autumn, the Sun rises in the east and sets in the west.

The sun is approximately at 7.00 in the east, at 13.00 in the south, at 19.00 in the west. The position of the Sun at these hours will indicate the directions east, south and west, respectively.

The shortest shadow from local objects occurs at 13 o'clock, and the direction of the shadow from vertically located local objects at this time will point to the north.

To more accurately determine the sides of the horizon based on the Sun, wristwatches are used.

Rice. 1. Determining the sides of the horizon by the Sun and the clock. a – up to 13 hours; b – after 13 hours.

Rice. 2. Determining the sides of the horizon by the North Star

By the Moon

For approximate orientation (see Table 1), you need to know that in the summer in the first quarter the Moon is in the south at 19 a.s., at 1 a.m. - in the west, in the last quarter at 1 a.m. - in the east, at 7 a.m. - in the south.

During a full moon at night, the sides of the horizon are determined in the same way as by the Sun and the clock, and the Moon is taken for the Sun (Fig. 3).

According to the Sun and the clock

In a horizontal position, the clock is set so that the hour hand is directed towards the Sun. The angle between the hour hand and the direction towards number 1 on the watch dial is divided in half by a straight line, which indicates the direction to the south. Before noon, it is necessary to divide in half the arc (angle) that the arrow must pass before 13.00 (Fig. 1, a), and after noon - the arc that it passed after 13.00 (Fig. 1, b).

By the North Star

The North Star is always in the north. To find the North Star, you must first find the constellation Ursa Major, which resembles a ladle made up of seven quite bright stars. Then, through the two rightmost stars of the Ursa Major, mentally draw a line on which to plot the distance between these extreme stars five times, and then at the end of this line we will find the Polar Star, which, in turn, is located in the tail of another constellation called Ursa Minor. Facing the North Star, we will get the direction to the north (Fig. 2).

Rice. 3. Determining the sides of the horizon by the moon and the clock.

Table 1

Cardinal directions	First quarter (visible, right half of the Moon's disk)	Full Moon (the entire disk of the Moon is visible)	Last quarter (the left half of the Moon's disk is visible)
In the east	-	19 hours	01 o'clock (night)
	19 hours	01 o'clock (night)	07 o'clock (am)
In the West	01 o'clock (night)	07 o'clock (am)

2.2 Determination of directions to the sides of the horizon based on signs of local objects

If there is no compass and the heavenly bodies are not visible, then the sides of the horizon can be determined by some signs of local objects.

By melting snow

It is known that the southern side of objects heats up more than the northern side, and accordingly, the melting of snow on this side occurs faster. This is clearly visible in early spring and during thaws in winter on the slopes of ravines, holes near trees, and snow stuck to stones.

By the shadow

At noon, the direction of the shadow (it will be the shortest) points north. Without waiting for the shortest shadow, you can navigate in the following way. Stick a stick about 1 meter long into the ground. Mark the end of the shadow. Wait 10-15 minutes and repeat the procedure. Draw a line from the first shadow position to the second and extend one step beyond the second mark. Place the toe of your left foot opposite the first mark, and the toe of your right foot at the end of the line you drew. You are now facing north.

For local subjects

It is known that resin protrudes more on the southern half of the coniferous tree trunk; ants make their homes on the southern side of the tree or bush and make the southern slope of the anthill flatter than the northern one (Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Determining the sides of the horizon

according to the characteristics of local objects. The bark of birch and pine on the northern side is darker than on the southern side, and tree trunks, stones, rock ledges are more densely covered with moss and lichens.

In large tracts of cultivated forest, the sides of the horizon can be determined by the clearings, which, as a rule, are cut strictly along the north-south and east-west lines, as well as by the inscriptions of block numbers on poles installed at the intersections of the clearings.

On each such pillar, in its upper part and on each of the four faces, numbers are affixed - the numbering of the opposite forest blocks; the edge between the two edges with the smallest numbers shows the direction to the north (the numbering of forest blocks in the CIS goes from west to east and further to the south).
By buildings

Buildings that are quite strictly oriented along the horizon include churches, mosques, and synagogues.

Altars and chapels of Christian and Lutheran churches face east, bell towers face west.

The lowered edge of the lower crossbar of the cross on the dome of the Orthodox Church faces the south, the raised edge faces the north.

The altars of Catholic churches are located on the western side.

The doors of Jewish synagogues and Muslim mosques face approximately north, their opposite sides are directed: the mosques face Mecca in Arabia, lying on the Voronezh meridian, and the synagogues face Jerusalem in Palestine, lying on the Dnepropetrovsk meridian.

Temples, pagodas, and Buddhist monasteries face south.

The exit from the yurts is usually made to the south.

In rural houses, more windows in living areas are cut on the south side, and the paint on the walls of buildings on the south side fades more and has a faded color.

3. Determination of the sides of the horizon, magnetic azimuths, horizontal angles and compass direction

3.1 Determination of directions to the sides of the horizon using a compass

Using a compass, you can most conveniently and quickly determine north, south, west and east (Fig. 5). To do this, you need to give the compass a horizontal position, release the arrow from the clamp, and let it calm down. Then the arrow-shaped end of the arrow will point north.

Rice. 5 Determining the sides of the horizon using a compass.

To determine the accuracy of the deviation of the direction of movement from the direction to the north or to determine the positions of terrain points in relation to the direction to the north and counting them, divisions are marked on the compass, of which the lower divisions are indicated in degree measures (the value of the division is 3 °), and the upper divisions of the protractor in tens of thousands. Degrees are counted clockwise from 0 to 360°, and protractor divisions are counted counterclockwise from 0 to 600°. The zero division is located at the letter “C” (north), and there is also a triangle glowing in the dark, which replaces the letter “C” in some compasses.

Under the letters “B” (east), “Y” (south), “3” (west) there are luminous dots. On the movable cover of the compass there is a sighting device (sight and front sight), against which luminous indicators are mounted, which serve to indicate the direction of movement at night. The most common compass in the army is the Andrianov system and the artillery compass.

When working with a compass, you should always remember that strong electromagnetic fields or nearby metal objects deflect the arrow from its correct position. Therefore, when determining compass directions, it is necessary to move 40-50 m away from power lines, railroad tracks, military vehicles and other large metal objects.

Determining directions to the sides of the horizon using a compass is performed as follows. The sighting device's front sight is placed on the zero scale division, and the compass is placed in a horizontal position. Then the brake of the magnetic needle is released and the compass is turned so that its northern end coincides with the zero reading. After this, without changing the position of the compass, a distant landmark is noticed by sighting through the rear sight and front sight, which is used to indicate the direction to the north.

Rice. 6. Relative position of the sides of the horizon> Directions to the sides of the horizon are interconnected (Fig. 6), and if at least one of them is known, the rest can be determined.

The opposite direction to north will be south, to the right is east, and to the left is west.

3.2 Determination of magnetic azimuth by compass

Magnetic direction azimuth determined using a compass (Fig. 7). At the same time, the brake of the magnetic needle is released and the compass is turned in a horizontal plane until the northern end of the needle is positioned against the zero division of the scale.

Then, without changing the position of the compass, install the sighting device so that the line of sight through the rear sight and front sight coincides with the direction of the object. The scale reading against the front sight corresponds to the value of the determined magnetic azimuth and directions to a local subject.

The direction azimuth from the standing point to a local object is called direct magnetic azimuth. In some cases, for example to find way back, use reverse magnetic azimuth, which differs from the straight line by 180°. To determine the reverse azimuth, you need to add 180° to the forward azimuth if it is less than 180°, or subtract 180° if it is greater than 180°.

Rice. 7. Determination of the magnetic azimuth direction to a separate tree

3.3 Determination of horizontal angles using a compass

First, the front sight of the compass sighting device is set to zero on the scale. Then, by turning the compass in a horizontal plane, align the line of sight through the rear sight and front sight with the direction to the left object (landmark).

After this, without changing the position of the compass, the sighting device is moved to the direction of the right object and a reading is taken on the scale, which will correspond to the value of the measured angle in degrees.

When measuring an angle in thousandths The line of sight is first aligned with the direction towards the right object (landmark), since the count of thousandths increases counterclockwise.

4. Methods for determining distances on the ground and target designation

4.1. Methods for determining distances on the ground

Very often it is necessary to determine distances to various items on the ground. Distances are most accurately and quickly determined using special instruments (rangefinders) and rangefinder scales of binoculars, stereo scopes, and sights. But due to the lack of instruments, distances are often determined using improvised means and by eye.

Common methods for determining the range (distances) to objects on the ground include the following: by the angular dimensions of the object; by linear dimensions of objects; eye; by visibility (discernibility) of objects; by sound, etc.

Rice. 8. Determination of distances by the angular dimensions of an object (subject)

Determination of distances by angular dimensions objects (Fig. 8) is based on the relationship between angular and linear quantities. The angular dimensions of objects are measured in thousandths using binoculars, observation and aiming devices, a ruler, etc.

Some angular values ​​(in thousandths of the distance) are given in Table 2.

table 2

The distance to objects in meters is determined by the formula: , where B is the height (width) of the object in meters; Y is the angular magnitude of the object in thousandths.

For example (see Fig. 8):

Determining distances by linear dimensions of objects is as follows (Fig. 9). Using a ruler located at a distance of 50 cm from the eye, measure the height (width) of the observed object in millimeters. Then the actual height (width) of the object in centimeters is divided by that measured using a ruler in millimeters, the result is multiplied by a constant number 5 and the desired height of the object in meters is obtained:

Rice. 9. Determination of distances by linear dimensions of an object (subject)

For example, a distance between telegraph poles equal to 50 m (Fig. 8) is closed on the ruler by a segment of 10 mm. Therefore, the distance to the telegraph line is:

The accuracy of determining distances by angular and linear values ​​is 5-10% of the length of the measured distance. To determine distances based on the angular and linear dimensions of objects, it is recommended to remember the values ​​(width, height, length) of some of them, given in table. 3.

Table 3

Item	Dimensions, m
	Height	Length	Width
Medium tank	2-2,5	6-7	3-3 5
Armored personnel carrier	2	5-6	2-2,4
Motorcycle with sidecar	1	2	1,2
Freight car	2-2,5	5-6	2-3,5
A car	1,6	4	1,5
Four-axle passenger car	4	20	3
Four-axle railway tank	3	9	2,8
Wooden communication line pole	5-7	-	-
Average height man	1,7	-	-

Determining distances by eye

Eye-measuring- this is the easiest and fastest way. The main thing in it is the training of visual memory and the ability to mentally lay down a well-imagined constant measure on the ground (50, 100, 200, 500 meters). Having fixed these standards in memory, it is not difficult to compare with them and estimate distances on the ground.

When measuring distance by successively mentally setting aside a well-studied constant measure, one must remember that the terrain and local objects seem reduced in accordance with their distance, that is, when removed by half, the object will seem half as large. Therefore, when measuring distances, the mentally plotted segments (measures of terrain) will decrease according to the distance.

The following must be taken into account:

• the closer the distance, the clearer and sharper the visible object seems to us;
• the closer an object is, the larger it appears;
• larger objects seem closer than small objects located at the same distance;
• an object of a brighter color appears closer than an object of a dark color;
• brightly lit objects seem closer to dimly lit ones that are at the same distance;
• during fog, rain, twilight, cloudy days, when the air is saturated with dust, observed objects seem further away than on clear and sunny days;
• the sharper the difference in color of the object and the background against which it is visible, the more reduced the distances seem; for example, in winter a snow field seems to bring the darker objects on it closer;
• objects on flat terrain seem closer than on hilly terrain, distances defined across vast expanses of water seem especially shortened;
• folds of the terrain (river valleys, depressions, ravines), invisible or not fully visible to the observer, conceal the distance;
• when observing while lying down, objects seem closer than when observing while standing;
• when observed from the bottom up - from the bottom of the mountain to the top, objects seem closer, and when observed from top to bottom - further;
• when the sun is behind the soldier, the distance disappears; shines into the eyes - it seems larger than in reality;
• The fewer objects there are in the area under consideration (when observed through a body of water, a flat meadow, steppe, arable land), the smaller the distances seem.

The accuracy of the eye meter depends on the training of the soldier. For a distance of 1000 m, the usual error ranges from 10-20%.

Determination of distances by visibility (discernibility) of objects

With the naked eye, you can approximately determine the distance to targets (objects) by the degree of their visibility. A soldier with normal visual acuity can see and distinguish some objects from the following maximum distances indicated in Table 4.

It must be borne in mind that the table indicates the maximum distances from which certain objects begin to be visible. For example, if a serviceman saw a pipe on the roof of a house, this means that the house is no more than 3 km away, and not exactly 3 km. It is not recommended to use this table as a reference. Each serviceman must individually clarify this data for himself.

Table 4

Objects and attributes	The distances from which they become visible (discernible)
Separate small house, hut	5 km
Pipe on the roof	3 km
Airplane on the ground tank in place	1 2 km
Tree trunks, kilometer poles and communication line poles	1.0 km
Movement of the legs and arms of a running or walking person	700 m
Heavy machine gun, mortar, anti-tank gun, wire fence stakes	500 m
Light machine gun, rifle, color and parts of clothing on a man, the oval of his face	250 - 300 m
Roof tiles, tree leaves, wire on stakes	200 m
Buttons and buckles, details of a soldier's weapons	100 m
Human facial features, hands, details of small arms	100 m

Orientation by sounds.

At night and in fog, when observation is limited or impossible at all (and in very rough terrain and in the forest, both at night and during the day), hearing comes to the aid of vision.

Military personnel must learn to determine the nature of sounds (that is, what they mean), the distance to the sources of sounds and the direction from which they come. If different sounds are heard, the soldier must be able to distinguish them from one another. The development of such an ability is achieved through long-term training (in the same way a professional musician distinguishes the voices of instruments in an orchestra).

Almost all sounds that indicate danger are made by humans. Therefore, if a soldier hears even the faintest suspicious noise, he should freeze in place and listen. If the enemy starts moving first, thereby giving away his location, then he will be the first to be detected.

On a quiet summer night, even an ordinary human voice in an open space can be heard far away, sometimes half a kilometer. On a frosty autumn or winter night, all kinds of sounds and noises can be heard very far away. This applies to speech, steps, and the clinking of dishes or weapons. In foggy weather, sounds can also be heard far away, but their direction is difficult to determine. On the surface of calm water and in the forest, when there is no wind, sounds travel a very long distance. But the rain greatly muffles the sounds. The wind blowing towards the soldier brings sounds closer and away from him. It also carries sound away, creating a distorted picture of the location of its source. Mountains, forests, buildings, ravines, gorges and deep hollows change the direction of sound, creating an echo. They also generate echoes and water spaces, facilitating its spread over long distances.

The sound changes when its source moves on soft, wet or hard soil, along the street, along a country or field road, on pavement or soil covered with leaves. It must be taken into account that dry soil transmits sounds better than air. At night, sounds are transmitted especially well through the ground. That’s why they often listen by putting their ears to the ground or tree trunks. The average range of audibility of various sounds during the day on flat terrain, km (in summer), is given in Table 5.

Table 5

Character of sound	Range audibility, m
The crack of a broken branch	Up to 80
Steps of a man walking along the road	40-100
Strike the oars on the water	Up to 1000
The blow of an ax, the ringing of a cross-saw	300-400
Digging trenches with shovels in hard ground	500-1000
Quiet conversation	200-300
Shout	1000-1500
The sound of metal parts of equipment	Up to 300
Loading small arms	Up to 500
Tank engine running on site	Up to 1000
Movement of troops on foot:
- on a dirt road	Up to 300
- along the highway	Up to 600
Vehicle movement:
- on a dirt road	Up to 500
- along the highway	Up to 1000
Tank movement:
- on a dirt road	Up to 1200
- along the highway	3000-4000
Shot:
- from a rifle	2000-3000
- from a gun	5000 or more
Gun firing	Up to 15000

To listen to sounds while lying down, you need to lie on your stomach and listen while lying down, trying to determine the direction of the sounds. This is easier to do by turning one ear in the direction from which the suspicious noise is coming. To improve audibility, it is recommended to apply bent palms, a bowler hat, or a piece of pipe to the auricle.

To better listen to sounds, you can put your ear to a dry board placed on the ground, which acts as a sound collector, or to a dry log dug into the ground.

Determining distances using the speedometer. The distance traveled by a car is determined as the difference between the speedometer readings at the beginning and end of the journey. When driving on hard-surfaced roads it will be 3-5%, and on viscous soil 8-12% more than the actual distance. Such errors in determining distances using the speedometer arise from wheel slip (track slippage), tire tread wear and changes in tire pressure. If you need to determine the distance traveled by the car as accurately as possible, you need to make an amendment to the speedometer readings. This need arises, for example, when moving in azimuth or when orienting using navigation devices.

The amount of correction is determined before the march. For this purpose, a section of the road is selected, which in terms of the nature of the relief and soil cover is similar to the upcoming route. This section is passed at marching speed in a straight line and reverse directions, taking speedometer readings at the beginning and end of the section. Based on the data obtained, the average length of the control section is determined and the value of the same section, determined from a map or on the ground with a tape (roulette), is subtracted from it. Dividing the result obtained by the length of the section measured on the map (on the ground) and multiplying by 100, the correction factor is obtained.

For example, if the average value of the control section is 4.2 km, and the measured value on the map is 3.8 km, then the correction factor is:

Thus, if the length of the route measured on the map is 50 km, then the speedometer will read 55 km, i.e. 10% more. The difference of 5 km is the magnitude of the correction. In some cases it may be negative.

Measuring distances in steps. This method is usually used when moving in azimuth, drawing up terrain diagrams, drawing individual objects and landmarks on a map (scheme), and in other cases. Steps are usually counted in pairs. When measuring a long distance, it is more convenient to count steps in threes, alternately under the left and right foot. After every hundred pairs or triplets of steps, a mark is made in some way and the countdown begins again.

When converting the measured distance in steps into meters, the number of pairs or triplets of steps is multiplied by the length of one pair or triple of steps.

For example, there are 254 pairs of steps taken between turning points on the route. The length of one pair of steps is 1.6 m. Then:

Typically, the step of a person of average height is 0.7-0.8 m. The length of your step can be determined quite accurately using the formula:

Where D is the length of one step in meters; P is a person’s height in meters.

For example, if a person is 1.72 m tall, then his step length will be equal to:

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Determination of distances by geometric constructions on the ground. This method can be used to determine the width of difficult or impassable terrain and obstacles (rivers, lakes, flooded areas, etc.). Figure 10 shows the determination of the river width by constructing an isosceles triangle on the ground.

Since in such a triangle the legs are equal, the width of the river AB is equal to the length of the leg AC.

Point A is selected on the ground so that a local object (point B) on the opposite bank can be seen from it, and a distance equal to its width can be measured along the river bank.

Fig. 10. Determination of distances by geometric constructions on the ground. The position of point C is found by approximation, measuring the angle ACB with a compass until its value becomes equal to 45°.

Another version of this method is shown in Fig. 10, b.

Point C is selected so that the angle ACB is equal to 60°.

It is known that the tangent of an angle of 60° is equal to 1/2, therefore, the width of the river is equal to double the value AC distances.
In both the first and second cases, the angle at point A should be equal to 90°.

Orientation by light very convenient for maintaining direction or for determining the position of an object on the ground. Moving at night towards a light source is most reliable. The distances at which light sources can be detected by the naked eye at night are given in Table 6.

Table 6

4.2. Target designation

Target designation – this is the ability to quickly and correctly indicate targets, landmarks and other objects on the ground. Targeting is important practical significance to control the unit and fire in battle. Target designation can be carried out either directly on the ground or from a map or aerial photograph.

When designating targets, the following basic requirements are observed: indicate the location of targets quickly, briefly, clearly and accurately; indicate goals in a strictly established order, using accepted units of measurement; the transmitter and receiver must have common landmarks and firmly know their location, and have a uniform coding of the area.

Target designation on the ground is carried out from a landmark or in azimuth and range to the target, as well as by pointing the weapon at the target.

Target designation from a landmark- the most common method. First, the closest landmark to the target is named, then the angle between the direction to the landmark and the direction to the target in thousandths, and the distance of the target from the landmark in meters. For example: “Landmark two, forty-five to the right, then a hundred, there is an observer at a separate tree.”

If the transmitting and receiving target have observation devices, then instead of the distance of the target from the landmark, the vertical angle between the landmark and the target in thousandths can be indicated. For example: “Landmark four, thirty to the left, ten below - a combat vehicle in a trench.”

In some cases, especially when issuing target designation for unobtrusive targets, local objects located near the target are used. For example: “Landmark two, thirty to the right - a separate tree, further two hundred - ruins, twenty to the left, under a bush - a machine gun.”

Target designation by azimuth and range to the target.

The azimuth of the direction to the appeared target is determined using a compass in degrees, and the distance to it in meters using binoculars (observation device) or by eye. Having received this data, they transmit it, for example: "Thirty-two, seven hundred - a fighting machine."

Target designation by pointing a weapon at a target

Targets spotted on the battlefield must be immediately reported to the commander and their location correctly indicated. The target is indicated by verbal report or tracer bullets.

The report should be concise, clear and precise, for example: “There’s a wide bush straight ahead, a machine gun on the left.” “The second landmark, two fingers to the right, under the bush there is an observer.” When designating targets with tracer bullets, fire one or two short bursts in the direction of the target.

Everyone should be able to navigate the terrain using special means or folk signs. This will help in a critical situation to find the only correct way out. Therefore, next we will consider 10 ways to navigate the terrain.

Navigator by methods

1. Method. Orientation on the map

A map is one of the best ways to navigate the area. Therefore, it is recommended that you take a map before your hike and study it in detail. You need to be able to read all the symbols, so it is recommended that you familiarize yourself with the map in advance so that no problems arise in the future.

In order to navigate the map, it is recommended to compare it with real objects. So you need to find one object on the map in real life. This will be the starting point, which will allow you to find the right path. Of course, the best solution would be to have a map and compass with you.

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2. Method. Orientation by compass

The 4 main methods of orientation include determining the terrain using a compass. In order to obtain accurate data, the compass must be placed on a flat horizontal surface. There should be no difficulty in determining the cardinal directions. Having a compass will allow you to determine the exact location on the map.

3. Method. Orientation by the Sun

This way you can easily determine the cardinal directions using the positions of the planets. So there is a special table that will allow you to calculate your location based on the position of the Sun at different times of the year.

You can also use a mechanical watch. In this case, the weather should be cloudless. The watch must be placed on a horizontal surface so that the main hand points towards the Sun. Next, the angle between the two arrows needs to be divided in half and a line drawn that will point south.

4. Method. Orientation by the North Star

This method is only suitable for night time and cloudless weather. If you can see the North Star, then you can try to determine the cardinal directions by it. You need to know that the North Star is in the north, so it is recommended to face it to determine the direction. Polaris is part of the constellation Ursa Major.

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5. Method. Moon orientation

It happens that nothing else is visible in the sky except the Moon, then you can use its position to determine the cardinal directions. You need to know that in different time and phases The month has different positions. If you have special knowledge, then you can roughly find the right path. These were the main ways to navigate the area.

6. Method. Plant orientation

You can easily determine the cardinal directions in the forest if you navigate by the plants. So there are certain plants that like to grow in damp places, so they choose the northern part of the tree, such as lichen and moss. At the same time, grass likes to grow on the south side of a particular object. Clearings are always cut in the forest from north to south. On the south side, berries and fruits ripen faster.

7. Method. Animal orientation

Insects also allow you to determine the desired direction of the world. So you need to observe where the anthill is. If you find a stump, the anthill from it will be on the south side. We also pay attention to the shape of the anthill. If one of the sides is flatter, then it is the southern one. Steppe bees also choose the south side for their hives.

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8. Method. Terrain orientation

We need to assess the area; if it is winter, then we pay attention to the snow. On the south side the snow melts faster. Moss also grows on the walls of old houses, of course, on the north side.

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9. Method. Orientation by radio signals

Of course, first of all you need to have a radio receiver for orientation in space. To do this, you need to record the signals of the most powerful radio stations using the compass azimuth. In this case, it is better that the direction of the signal coincides with one of the cardinal directions. Next, if you lose your orientation, you need to set the receiver in the direction of the worst sound, which will point to the desired side of the world, which was previously recorded by the compass.

10. Method. Orientation by structures

In addition, you can pay attention to various structures. Thus, the altars of Orthodox churches always face east. Bell towers have always been built on the western part. You can also look at the cross. The lower oblique crossbar points to the south and north. These are the lower and upper ends, respectively. The doors of Muslim mosques and Jewish synagogues face north. The facades of Buddhist monasteries face south. These are the most popular methods of orientation and determining the direction of movement.

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