The struggle of the popes for independence from secular power and for the possession of secular power in the XI-XIV centuries
Maxim Kozlov
Predecessors of Gregory VII Hildebrand
In the second half of the X century. in France, a new ascetic movement began, which by the end of the century, with more or less force, captures the entire West (the year 1000 was considered as the end of the world). A tense eschatological feeling contributed to the revival of monastic life. There are many monasteries with a strict charter. Self-sacrificing missionaries and martyrs appear. Among them is Adalbert, who preached among the Prussians and was martyred by them.
Exceptionally pious-minded people appear. But, often, asceticism took a specific direction. As an austerity, flagellation, including self-flagellation, is becoming widespread. So, at the beginning of the XI century. Cardinal Peter Domiani created a system of repentance, calculated strictly arithmetically. For each sin, a corresponding period of repentance was assigned. Since there are many sins, a system of substitution for a sacrifice was drawn up (for example, 1 year of repentance was replaced either by a ransom of 36 talers, or 3000 blows with rods when reading 30 psalms). Many people increased this sacrifice at will. So, Peter Domiani himself withstood 300 thousand blows and sang 3000 psalms at the same time. (?)
It was an austerity of personal inspiration. The words "praise the Lord in a tympanum" were understood by Peter Domiani as a praise of God "in dry skin" (tympanum), that is, one who has emaciated skin. Self-flagellation was widespread especially during fasting from the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th century.
Of the monasteries, the most interesting is the monastery in the town of Cluny in France. In the middle of the X century. Abbot Odon restored there the forgotten charter of Benedict of Nursia. Unconditional obedience, personal physical labor, active participation in the works of mercy were required. In this monastery, novices were strictly selected. The monastery gained great fame, and, soon, could not include everyone. Branch monasteries began to form with the same charter, which were ecclesiastical and administratively subordinate to the abbot of the Cluniy monastery. Cluniac monasteries were excluded from subordination to local bishops, and were subordinate only to the abbot, and he - directly to the pope. By the 11th century, up to 100 Cluniac monasteries appeared. This renewed monasticism became the basis of the reformers in Rome who fought for the cleansing of the Roman See. In one of these monasteries, the future Pope Gregory VII also passed the leaven.
Gregory VII, before entering the cathedra, was the closest collaborator of a number of popes, beginning with Leo IX, under whom a division took place. Half German, half Lombard. The son of a peasant, he spent his youth in the Cluniy monastery. Then he was called by Pope Gregory VI to Rome to participate in the affairs of the Roman Curia (Gregory VI was in the Cluniac monastery before the papacy and was familiar with the future Gregory VII).
Gregory VI was the last person to buy the papal crown from Benedict IX. When he was a presbyter, he was persuaded to become pope. Having become one, Gregory VI summoned to Rome all those who encouraged him to become pope, including Gregory VII.
During this period, there were two forces influencing the election of popes: the German emperors and the local nobility. Gregory VI chose a support in the German emperor. The next popes, the Germans, were also supported by the emperor (Leo IX, Victor II, Stephen IX, Nicholas II). Under Nicholas II, a council was held in the Lateran Palace in 1059, which changed the procedure for electing popes. The main electors are the cardinals. The Roman aristocracy is excluded from participation in elections, and the powers of emperors are limited. So, in 1061, after Nicholas II, Alexander II was elected cardinal, after which the emperor was informed.
After the death of Alexander II in 1073, Gregory VII Hildebrand becomes pope.
Activities of Pope Gregory VII Hildebrand
The ideal for Hildebrand was a strong and independent pope, in fact, standing above the secular rulers. This was the theocratic ideal. The foundation of theocracy was thought to be the authority of the Roman Church as the guardian of unchanging religious truth. The organization of the theocracy was supposed to be strictly monarchical. The clergy were supposed to dominate secular society and, at the same time, unconditionally obey the pope. According to Gregory VII, "only the pope has the right to issue laws and dismiss bishops, no one dares to judge him, and his sentence does not allow objections."
Under Gregory VII, the Dictate of the Pope was drawn up with his signature. It has a number of provisions that no one has yet reached. For example, "the pope is a prince over the kingdoms of the world and has unlimited power over all princes and monarchs." Thus, every secular sovereign is only authorized by the pope. Secular power has no legal rights of its own.
The 9th paragraph reads: "Only one dad should kiss his feet." According to the 12th paragraph, the pope has the right to depose emperors. Point 22 says that the Church of Rome has never erred, and will never err, according to the testimony of the Scriptures. And according to the 23rd point, it turns out that every Roman high priest, if he is canonically appointed, by the merits of ap. Peter is undoubtedly made a saint.
With regard to the clergy, Gregory VII insisted that no cleric could have another sovereign than the pope, and another family than the Church. And it is precisely such a clergy, free from outside influence, who should elect a pope.
Gregory VII fought against simony and for the celibacy of the clergy. In this, he was a skillful politician and combined two different reforms (simony is a flagrant disgrace, and celibacy is a controversial phenomenon). Combining these two issues together, Gregory VII succeeded.
His support was a non-existent monasticism, the so-called "patarii" (ragamuffins) - these are itinerant preachers with the blessing of the pope. Crowds of Patarii did not allow people to go to those churches where celibacy was not recognized.
Celibacy was needed to free the clergy from attachments other than papal theocracy. treatises appeared proving the need for celibacy (Peter Domiani is one of the authors of these treatises).
In foreign policy Gregory VII fought against the right of monarchs to vest bishops with their powers, that is, against secular investiture. (Bishops were not only spiritual leaders, but also large feudal lords. And when a bishop was appointed with the sanction of the pope, the local feudal lords of the diocese participated in the elections). Gregory VII began to seek that both spiritual and secular investiture belong to the pope. The lands owned by the bishops accounted for 1/3 of all European lands and were transferred to the next bishops without inheritance to anyone. And if Gregory VII had achieved his goal, he could have become the owner of almost half of Europe.
At first, the pope began to fight investiture successfully in England, Spain, then in Bohemia (Czech Republic), Scandinavia, Poland, Hungary and even in the West of Russia. The Pope met the greatest resistance from the King of France Philip I, the English monarch William the Conqueror and the Emperor of Germany Henry IV. Philip I Gregory VII pacified, threatening with an anathema, Wilhelm - left alone.
The main struggle of the pope unfolded with Henry IV. At the request of the pope to abolish the investiture, Henry gathered a council of German bishops in the city of Worms. The bishops falsely condemned the pope in a reprehensible connection with the Marquise Matilda of Tuscany (an ascetic one), and declared him deposed as a heretic, adulterer and usurper of imperial power. Gregory VII responded by excommunicating the emperor and all the bishops who made such a decision. The subjects of the emperor were declared by the pope free from the oath of allegiance to him. The pope proposed to the princes of Germany that they choose a new emperor. At the same time, a deadline was given during which it was proposed to resolve the situation before the threat of imposing an interdict. This decree was read in all churches. (Not all the bishops were at the council, many were for the pope).
The princes gave Henry a year to think, and the emperor had to retreat. In the winter of 1077, Henry and his wife went to the castle of Canossa, where the pope was staying with Matilda of Tuscany. For three days the emperor waited for the pope to receive him dressed as a penitent. Finally, at the request of Matilda, the pope received Henry IV, saying: "if you sincerely repent, then to salvation, if you hide predatorily, then to condemnation."
On January 28, 1077, the anathema was lifted from Henry, and the rumor about his three-day waiting for the pope's reception quickly spread throughout Europe.
In 1080, the German princes installed a new emperor at the direction of the pope. Gregory VII approved the new emperor Rudolph, and excommunicated Henry. With this, dad wanted to finish off Heinrich, but went too far.
Henry IV was forced to resist. He gathers a cathedral in Mainz, where he duplicates all the decisions of the previous council and even decides to elect a new pope - Archbishop Gibert of Ravenna, who took the name of Clement III. There is a dichotomy. And although the election of Clement III was non-canonical, it was in favor of Henry, for it gathered under its banner all those dissatisfied with Gregory VII. Such phenomena of antipopes were before, but without the support of secular forces.
In the same year, Rudolf dies. Henry invades Italy and conquers Rome in the spring of 1084. Pope Clement III was enthroned in St. Peter's.
The Pope takes refuge in the Castel Sant'Angelo in Rome. (Initially, this castle was the mausoleum of Emperor Hadrian. Under Gregory the Dialogist, a miracle happened near him during the procession from the plague: the youth saw an angel who predicted the imminent end of the plague. The mausoleum was rebuilt, and later became a papal prison).
Mercenaries Normans and Arabs rush to the rescue of the Pope. With fire and sword, they make their way quarter after quarter to the castle of the Holy Angel and free Gregory VII. But the atrocities of the Muslim Arabs led to the indignation of the population of Rome against them, and against the pope too (there is evidence that the Arabs sang surahs from the Koran in St. Peter's Cathedral). The Romans unwittingly take the side of the emperor to expel the Arabs from the city.
Gregory VII, with the help of the Normans, managed to escape to the south of Italy, where he continued the fight against Henry IV until his death in 1085. He is credited with the words: "I loved justice and died in exile."
The Roman Church was ruled by Clement III until 1087. Only then did he enter the cathedra as the legitimate successor of Gregory VII, Pope Victor III, the opponent of Clement, who was expelled. The successors of Gregory VII waged a serious struggle with the successors of Clement III, continuing the split for about 10 years. The struggle against secular investiture did not stop either.
Significant success was achieved by Pope Callistus II (1119-1122). He managed to get into his hands the opponent of the successor of Clement III, Gregory VIII. Gregory was subjected to public reproach (led through the streets of Rome with mockery and ridicule).
Under Callistus II, the Concordat of Worms was concluded in 1122. According to this agreement, the election of the bishop was to be made by the clergy, but in the presence of the emperor. The investiture was presented with a ring and staff to the archbishop who performed the ordination. The investiture of the world, that is, the right to land ownership, the bishop had to receive from the emperor. And for Germany it was important at that time, whose power is higher - the pope or the emperor - at one time or another in history.
At the end of XI early XII centuries, the issue of investiture caused a conflict between the spiritual and secular authorities in England under the archbishop. Anselme of Canterbury, the English kings William II and Henry I. As a result, Anselm won.
In the middle of the XII century. relations between the German emperor and the pope again deteriorated under Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. Antipopes reappeared. The war between the pope and the emperor lasted about 17 years. The Pope was supported by the Guelphs, and the Emperor by the Ghibelins. The struggle went on with varying success, but in the end, the victory remained with the pope.
As a result of this struggle with secular power, under Pope Alexander III, in 1179, the III Lateran Council took place, which decided that the pope should be elected by 2/3 of the cardinal votes.
Bibliography
For the preparation of this work, materials from the site http://psylib.org.ua/
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Maxim Kozlov
Predecessors of Gregory VII Hildebrand
In the second half of the X century. in France, a new ascetic movement began, which by the end of the century, with more or less force, captures the entire West (the year 1000 was considered as the end of the world). A tense eschatological feeling contributed to the revival of monastic life. There are many monasteries with a strict charter. Self-sacrificing missionaries and martyrs appear. Among them is Adalbert, who preached among the Prussians and was martyred by them.
Exceptionally pious-minded people appear. But, often, asceticism took a specific direction. As an austerity, flagellation, including self-flagellation, is becoming widespread. So, at the beginning of the XI century. Cardinal Peter Domiani created a system of repentance, calculated strictly arithmetically. For each sin, a corresponding period of repentance was assigned. Since there are many sins, a system of substitution for a sacrifice was drawn up (for example, 1 year of repentance was replaced either by a ransom of 36 talers, or 3000 blows with rods when reading 30 psalms). Many people increased this sacrifice at will. So, Peter Domiani himself withstood 300 thousand blows and sang 3000 psalms at the same time. (?)
It was an austerity of personal inspiration. The words "praise the Lord in a tympanum" were understood by Peter Domiani as a praise of God "in dry skin" (tympanum), that is, one who has emaciated skin. Self-flagellation was widespread especially during fasting from the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th century.
Of the monasteries, the most interesting is the monastery in the town of Cluny in France. In the middle of the X century. Abbot Odon restored there the forgotten charter of Benedict of Nursia. Unconditional obedience, personal physical labor, active participation in the works of mercy were required. In this monastery, novices were strictly selected. The monastery gained great fame, and, soon, could not include everyone. Branch monasteries began to form with the same charter, which were ecclesiastical and administratively subordinate to the abbot of the Cluniy monastery. Cluniac monasteries were excluded from subordination to local bishops, and were subordinate only to the abbot, and he - directly to the pope. By the 11th century, up to 100 Cluniac monasteries appeared. This renewed monasticism became the basis of the reformers in Rome who fought for the cleansing of the Roman See. In one of these monasteries, the future Pope Gregory VII also passed the leaven.
Gregory VII, before entering the cathedra, was the closest collaborator of a number of popes, beginning with Leo IX, under whom a division took place. Half German, half Lombard. The son of a peasant, he spent his youth in the Cluniy monastery. Then he was summoned by Pope Gregory VI to Rome to participate in the affairs of the Roman Curia (Gregory VI was in the Cluniac monastery before the papacy and was familiar with the future Gregory VII).
Gregory VI was the last person to buy the papal crown from Benedict IX. When he was a presbyter, he was persuaded to become pope. Having become one, Gregory VI summoned to Rome all those who encouraged him to become pope, including Gregory VII.
During this period, there were two forces influencing the election of popes: the German emperors and the local nobility. Gregory VI chose a support in the German emperor. The next popes, the Germans, were also supported by the emperor (Leo IX, Victor II, Stephen IX, Nicholas II). Under Nicholas II, a council was held in the Lateran Palace in 1059, which changed the procedure for electing popes. The main electors are the cardinals. The Roman aristocracy is excluded from participation in elections, and the powers of emperors are limited. So, in 1061, after Nicholas II, Alexander II was elected cardinal, after which the emperor was informed.
After the death of Alexander II in 1073, Gregory VII Hildebrand becomes pope.
Activities of Pope Gregory VII Hildebrand
The ideal for Hildebrand was a strong and independent pope, in fact, standing above the secular rulers. This was the theocratic ideal. The foundation of theocracy was thought to be the authority of the Roman Church as the guardian of unchanging religious truth. The organization of the theocracy was supposed to be strictly monarchical. The clergy were supposed to dominate secular society and, at the same time, unconditionally obey the pope. According to Gregory VII, "only the pope has the right to issue laws and dismiss bishops, no one dares to judge him, and his sentence does not allow objections."
Under Gregory VII, the Dictate of the Pope was drawn up with his signature. It has a number of provisions that no one has yet reached. For example, "the pope is a prince over the kingdoms of the world and has unlimited power over all princes and monarchs." Thus, every secular sovereign is only authorized by the pope. Secular power has no legal rights of its own.
The 9th paragraph reads: "Only one dad should kiss his feet." According to the 12th paragraph, the pope has the right to depose emperors. Point 22 says that the Church of Rome has never erred, and will never err, according to the testimony of the Scriptures. And according to the 23rd point, it turns out that every Roman high priest, if he is canonically appointed, by the merits of ap. Peter is undoubtedly made a saint.
With regard to the clergy, Gregory VII insisted that no cleric could have another sovereign than the pope, and another family than the Church. And it is precisely such a clergy, free from outside influence, who should elect a pope.
Gregory VII fought against simony and for the celibacy of the clergy. In this, he was a skillful politician and combined two different reforms (simony is a flagrant disgrace, and celibacy is a controversial phenomenon). Combining these two issues together, Gregory VII succeeded.
His support was a non-existent monasticism, the so-called "patarii" (ragamuffins) - these are itinerant preachers with the blessing of the pope. Crowds of Patarii did not allow people to go to those churches where celibacy was not recognized.
Celibacy was needed to free the clergy from attachments other than papal theocracy. treatises appeared proving the need for celibacy (Peter Domiani is one of the authors of these treatises).
In foreign policy, Gregory VII fought against the right of monarchs to vest bishops with their powers, that is, against secular investiture. (Bishops were not only spiritual leaders, but also large feudal lords. And when a bishop was appointed with the sanction of the pope, the local feudal lords of the diocese participated in the elections). Gregory VII began to seek that both spiritual and secular investiture belong to the pope. The lands owned by the bishops accounted for 1/3 of all European lands and were transferred to the next bishops without inheritance to anyone. And if Gregory VII had achieved his goal, he could have become the owner of almost half of Europe.
At first, the pope began to fight investiture successfully in England, Spain, then in Bohemia (Czech Republic), Scandinavia, Poland, Hungary and even in the West of Russia. The Pope met the greatest resistance from the King of France Philip I, the English monarch William the Conqueror and the Emperor of Germany Henry IV. Philip I Gregory VII pacified, threatening with an anathema, Wilhelm - left alone.
The main struggle of the pope unfolded with Henry IV. At the request of the pope to abolish the investiture, Henry gathered a council of German bishops in the city of Worms. The bishops falsely condemned the pope in a reprehensible connection with the Marquise Matilda of Tuscany (an ascetic one), and declared him deposed as a heretic, adulterer and usurper of imperial power. Gregory VII responded by excommunicating the emperor and all the bishops who made such a decision. The subjects of the emperor were declared by the pope free from the oath of allegiance to him. The pope proposed to the princes of Germany that they choose a new emperor. At the same time, a deadline was given during which it was proposed to resolve the situation before the threat of imposing an interdict. This decree was read in all churches. (Not all the bishops were at the council, many were for the pope).
The princes gave Henry a year to think, and the emperor had to retreat. In the winter of 1077, Henry and his wife went to the castle of Canossa, where the pope was staying with Matilda of Tuscany. For three days the emperor waited for the pope to receive him dressed as a penitent. Finally, at the request of Matilda, the pope received Henry IV, saying: "if you sincerely repent, then to salvation, if you hide predatorily, then to condemnation."
On January 28, 1077, the anathema was lifted from Henry, and the rumor about his three-day waiting for the pope's reception quickly spread throughout Europe.
In 1080, the German princes installed a new emperor at the direction of the pope. Gregory VII approved the new emperor Rudolph, and excommunicated Henry. With this, dad wanted to finish off Heinrich, but went too far.
Henry IV was forced to resist. He gathers a council in Mainz, where he duplicates all the decisions of the previous council and even decides to elect a new pope - Archbishop Gibert of Ravenna, who took the name of Clement III. There is a dichotomy. And although the election of Clement III was non-canonical, it was in favor of Henry, for it gathered under its banner all those dissatisfied with Gregory VII. Such phenomena of antipopes were before, but without the support of secular forces.
In the same year, Rudolf dies. Henry invades Italy and conquers Rome in the spring of 1084. Pope Clement III was enthroned in St. Peter's.
The Pope takes refuge in the Castel Sant'Angelo in Rome. (Initially, this castle was the mausoleum of Emperor Hadrian. Under Gregory the Dialogist, a miracle happened near him during the procession from the plague: the youth saw an angel who predicted the imminent end of the plague. The mausoleum was rebuilt, and later became a papal prison).
Mercenaries Normans and Arabs rush to the rescue of the Pope. With fire and sword, they make their way quarter after quarter to the castle of the Holy Angel and free Gregory VII. But the atrocities of the Muslim Arabs led to the indignation of the population of Rome against them, and against the pope too (there is evidence that the Arabs sang surahs from the Koran in St. Peter's Cathedral). The Romans unwittingly take the side of the emperor to expel the Arabs from the city.
Gregory VII, with the help of the Normans, managed to escape to the south of Italy, where he continued the fight against Henry IV until his death in 1085. He is credited with the words: "I loved justice and died in exile."
The Roman Church was ruled by Clement III until 1087. Only then did he enter the cathedra as the legitimate successor of Gregory VII, Pope Victor III, the opponent of Clement, who was expelled. The successors of Gregory VII waged a serious struggle with the successors of Clement III, continuing the split for about 10 years. The struggle against secular investiture did not stop either.
Significant success was achieved by Pope Callistus II (1119-1122). He managed to get into his hands the opponent of the successor of Clement III, Gregory VIII. Gregory was subjected to public reproach (led through the streets of Rome with mockery and ridicule).
Under Callistus II, the Concordat of Worms was concluded in 1122. According to this agreement, the election of the bishop was to be made by the clergy, but in the presence of the emperor. The investiture was presented with a ring and staff to the archbishop who performed the ordination. The investiture of the world, that is, the right to land ownership, the bishop had to receive from the emperor. And for Germany it was important at that time, whose power is higher - the pope or the emperor - at one time or another in history.
At the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries, the issue of investiture caused a conflict between the spiritual and secular authorities in England under Archbishop. Anselme of Canterbury, the English kings William II and Henry I. As a result, Anselm won.
In the middle of the XII century. relations between the German emperor and the pope again deteriorated under Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. Antipopes reappeared. The war between the pope and the emperor lasted about 17 years. The Pope was supported by the Guelphs, and the Emperor by the Ghibelins. The struggle went on with varying success, but in the end, the victory remained with the pope.
As a result of this struggle with secular power, under Pope Alexander III, in 1179, the III Lateran Council took place, which decided that the pope should be elected by 2/3 of the cardinal votes.
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As possessions and wealth grow christian church Roman popes tried to strengthen their own power. They were not satisfied with the interference of secular rulers in church affairs. The popes no longer wanted to put up with the fact that abbots and bishops were ordained by the emperor and kings, that church positions were sold, including to the laity.
In addition, the popes were worried about the situation in the church itself. The deviation of the clergy from the biblical commandments, money-grubbing and other vices caused general condemnation. And among the poorest segments of the population, heresies began to spread - teachings that called for a "truly evangelical" life and departure from the official church.
The popes, who ruled in the second half of the 11th century, were actively engaged in strengthening the church. The Lateran Council (1059) decided that from that time on, the Pope of Rome would be elected by a meeting of the highest clergy - a conclave of cardinals (before that, secular sovereigns appointed popes). At the same time, it was forbidden for Catholic priests to accept positions from the laity and to marry.
Medieval drawing
Gregory VII acted especially vigorously (occupied the papal throne in 1073-1085). He forbade believers, under threat of excommunication from the church, to take communion from married priests (that is, those who violated the celibacy of the Catholic clergy) and those who bought their dignity for money. Gregory VII also declared that the power of the pope was superior to that of any secular sovereign. He believed that the right to appoint and approve bishops belongs only to the pope, and not to the kings.
Medieval miniature
The position of Pope Gregory VII was opposed by the German Emperor Henry IV. He continued to appoint bishops in the lands subject to him. The conflict reached the point that each of the opponents issued a decree deposing the other from the throne.
In addition, the pope announced the excommunication of Henry IV from the church, and freed his subjects from the oath and obedience to him. In these circumstances, Henry IV was forced to humble his pride and admit that he was wrong. In the winter of 1077, he appeared at the castle of Canossa, where Gregory VII was staying, and for three days stood barefoot in only rags in the courtyard, waiting for the pope to receive and forgive him. The memory of this event is preserved in the saying "go to Canossa", meaning a humiliating defeat.
Thus, in the mature Middle Ages, the Catholic Church not only strengthened its economic position, but also achieved the strengthening of papal power. In the struggle against secular sovereigns and the feudal nobility, she defended the right to independently manage her possessions, as well as appoint ministers to parishes and bishoprics. The Church also tried to purify and order its inner life. For this, the activities of new monastic orders were encouraged, and separate reforms were carried out. At the same time, the retreat of the clergy from the commandments of religious life led to a decline in their authority among the population. In search of the true faith, people turned to teachings that opposed the official church - heresies.
Questions and tasks 1.
Explain the role of religion in the life of a medieval person. 2.
Why is a medieval church called a feudal lord? 3.
Explain what "poor", mendicant orders are. How did they differ from other monastic associations? 4.
What caused conflicts between popes and secular sovereigns in the 11th century? 5.
Tell us about life in a medieval monastery. 6.
How do you explain the fact that the mendicant orders received not only recognition among the people, but also the support of the popes? 7.
What were the most important tasks solved by the Roman popes in the 11th-13th centuries? What have they been able to achieve? eight.
*Compare the relationship between secular and ecclesiastical authorities in the Middle Ages in Byzantium and Western Europe. What were the differences?
A source: Aleksashkin JI. N .. General history. History of the Middle Ages. Grade 6: textbook. for general education institutions / JI. N. Aleksashkina. - M.: Mnemosyne. - 207 p. : ill.. 2012(original)
The modern political tradition of the West ( Western Europe) is largely laid down in the course of this historical period as a struggle between spiritual and secular power for political influence. The “founders” of this tradition were precisely the popes and emperors of the Middle Ages, who fiercely fought among themselves not just for power, but for power on the scale of the whole of Western Europe.
The strengthening of papal power in the second half of the 11th century owes much to the talented diplomacy of Hildebrand - Gregory VII. He used the infancy of Henry IV and the feudal unrest in Germany, so that, without fear of the intervention of the emperor, to strengthen the papacy in organizational terms. Hildebrand introduces a new procedure for the election of popes by the college of cardinals, thus removing the emperor from influence on papal elections. The celibacy of the clergy was supposed to make him a submissive tool, not distracted by any family concerns. Hildebrand forms an alliance with Tuscany. He personally travels to southern Italy, where the Normans were established at that time, and in Capua enters into an alliance with the Norman Count Richard. In 1059, Count Richard and Robert Guyscard, Duke of Apulia, recognized themselves as papal vassals. In northern Italy, Gildebrand succeeded in subordinating the strong and independent archbishops of Milan to the pope, supporting the Patareni urban movement against them. A large part of Italy was united under papal supremacy to oppose the emperor.
In 1073 Hildebrand became pope. Under the exterior of this small, short-legged fat man, there was an unyielding and merciless will, fierce fanaticism and a flexible diplomatic mind. He knew no restraint in his frenzied eloquence. Instead of "the wrath of the Lord" he said "the fury of the Lord." At the same time, he knew how to skillfully understand the most difficult political situation, deftly maneuver in a dangerous and hostile environment. Among the principles set forth by him in his famous "Dictatus papae", next to the proclamation of the unconditional power of the pope in the affairs of the church, there are also such provisions as "The Roman high priest has the right to depose emperors", "He can release subjects from the oath of allegiance to unrighteous sovereigns ". Of course, Gregory was not the first to put forward these principles, but he was the first to make an attempt to put them into practice.
In addition to the force of arms and the means of diplomacy, Gregory and his successors also had a spiritual sword in the hands - in the form of excommunications, interdicts, and the release of subjects from the oath. For example, interdict(a ban on worship in a certain territory) was an absolutely terrible ideological weapon - one could neither be born, nor marry, nor die (in the sense that church events with all the above-mentioned fundamental events of a person’s life are prohibited, born is illegitimate, married - cohabitation of a man and a woman is illegal Moreover, even physical death is unacceptable without a funeral service). In response, the feudal lords responded traditionally - with blood and iron ...
Under Gregory VII, the sending of papal legates was widely developed, which became one of the main organs of papal administration. They appear everywhere, interfere in everything, depose bishops, oppose sovereigns. The pope orders to obey the legates as one would obey the pope himself. But at the same time, Gregory demanded an account from the legates and checked all their orders.
Classical is the diplomacy of Pope Gregory VII in his struggle with Emperor Henry IV. Gregory stubbornly sought the right to hold church elections, that is, to interfere in the internal and, moreover, the most important affairs of the Empire, pursuing simony (sale of church posts) and secular investiture (elevation to episcopal rank by the emperor). Henry IV with all his might defended these rights of the emperor, not only in Germany, but throughout the Holy Roman Empire. If Gregory conferred on the pope the right to dethrone emperors, Henry used the emperor's previously practiced right to depose popes. Henry deposes the pope at the Diet of Worms in 1076 and writes him a letter ending with an energetic "go out!" A month later, Gregory deposes Henry himself at the Lateran Council, resolving "all Christians" from swearing allegiance to him and forbidding "serving him as king".
The pope wins because he has managed to exploit the discontent that Henry has aroused among the princes of Germany. They join the pope, and Henry's position becomes hopeless.
Date history Canossa has grown into a legend. It is not easy to separate fact from fiction. Whether Heinrich stood barefoot in the snow in front of the gates of the castle, waiting for the pope to deign to receive him, or whether he expected this reception in a more comfortable environment, this does not change much. Canossa seemed to be a decisive victory for the pope, and his supporters did their best to inflate the story of the humiliation of the German emperor, inventing new details. But for Henry, the Canossian repentance was only a diplomatic step that gave him a respite and confused the pope's cards in the struggle that Henry led in Germany against the princes and their chosen new king. In 1080, Henry, with the support of German bishops dissatisfied with the pope, again deposes Gregory VII and nominates an antipope. The nomination of antipopes begins to play the same role in imperial politics as the nomination of anti-kings and anti-emperors in the politics of popes.
With his antipope, Henry went to conquer Rome. Gregory was rescued only by the South Italian Normans of Robert Guiscard. Among the troops that rescued the head of the Christian church were detachments of Sicilian Muslims. Henry had to leave, but the Normans and Arabs at the same time defeated Rome, took many people into slavery, and Gregory could not remain in the city devastated by his allies. He followed the Normans to Salerno, where he died (1085).
The Concordat of Worms of 1122, which separated the spiritual from the secular investiture and gave the first to the pope and the second to the emperor, did not stop the clashes between emperors and popes. It was in all respects an unfortunate compromise that opened the way for new conflicts.
The above conflict has become a classic, it was preceded and inherited for several centuries by a number of corresponding conflicts on one side and the other.
Crusades and international relations. At the end of the 11th century, papal diplomacy was able to take advantage of the broad movement to the East that had begun in the West - the crusades. The crusades were directed by the interests of very diverse groups of Western European feudal society. Chivalry rushed to the East, looking for new lands to capture, new serfs for exploitation, thirsty for robbery and booty. The eyes of trading cities were turned to the East, rising at that time in Europe and especially in Italy and striving to seize the trade routes in the eastern part. mediterranean sea. The peasantry, oppressed by the feudal lords, ruined by incessant wars, and suffering from continuous hunger strikes, also dreamed of moving to the East. The declassed elements of feudal society expected to profit during the big predatory campaigns. The papacy saw in the crusades an opportunity to raise its authority, to subjugate the East to its influence, to enrich itself at the expense of abundant collections flowing from all parts of Europe. Therefore, the papacy zealously set about preaching the crusades. The crusades became one of the instruments of influence of the popes on the sovereigns of Europe, a new pretext for the intervention of the Roman curia in the internal life of European states, a source of new income, a means to strengthen papal authority.
The struggle of popes with emperors does not stop during the crusades.
Friedrich II Hohenstaufen. Pope Innocent left the papal throne elevated to an unprecedented height. But he also bequeathed to him the most dangerous enemy in the face of Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen (1212-1250), nominated by himself, one of the smartest and most cynical diplomats of the Middle Ages. The son of a German emperor and a Sicilian princess from a house of Norman robbers, Frederick II grew up in Sicily, where Italian, Byzantine, Arab and Jewish cultures bizarrely crossed. In essence, he was a man without a fatherland and nationality. Having already become a toy in the hands of unscrupulous politicians in childhood, he matured early and hardened his heart. Infinitely ambitious, he believed only in strength and intelligence. Restless and tireless nature pushed him to new and new political undertakings. Friedrich was the most educated man of his time: he was keenly interested in scientific questions, maintaining correspondence with a number of prominent scientists, both Christians and Jews, as well as Muslims. He was especially interested in Greek and Arabic writers, whom he read in the original. In the field of religion, Frederick showed mocking skepticism, indifference and tolerance, although he persecuted heretics from political views. In diplomacy, his strength was flexibility and promiscuity in the choice of means, knowledge of human weaknesses, seething and impetuous energy.
He became famous for the book “Three scoundrels: Moses, Jesus and Mohammed”, as well as an extremely revolutionary idea for his time (of course, caused by his own political needs) the idea of \u200b\u200bunifying the three great religions: Judaism, Islam and Christianity.
The plans of the world monarchy of both emperors and popes crumbled to dust, but it was in the course of their struggle that the tradition of Western Europe was formed and strengthened - the struggle of spiritual power for political power.
The church, despite its wealth and power, was very dependent on secular authorities. By the 11th century, the struggle between secular and ecclesiastical authorities had spread to almost all Western European states, but it took on the most acute forms in the empire. You will learn about the confrontation between popes and emperors, in particular, about the irreconcilable enmity of the two strong personalities: Pope Gregory VII and Emperor Henry.
Struggle between popes and German emperors
background
V medieval Europe secular and ecclesiastical power were interconnected. The church sanctioned and strengthened the power of the kings, the kings gave land to the church and guarded its riches.
The power of the church was based on the spiritual component:
. It was believed that the church received from Christ the right to forgive sins, that without the observance of the Christian sacraments, the salvation of the soul (even a righteous person) is impossible. The idea of salvation was very important for a man of the Middle Ages (S. Averintsev on the religious concepts of salvation).
. The king was perceived as the anointed of God, and the coronation as the transfer of power from God to the monarch through the mediation of the church.
. The Pope could excommunicate the monarch from the church. This deprived the power of the king of legitimacy in the eyes of the people, gave the right to vassals not to abide by the oath.And on the material:
. 1/3 of the lands cultivated in Europe belonged to the church (the lands complained to the kings and feudal lords). In addition, the property of the church consisted of precious items that were used in worship (see lesson).By the end of the early Middle Ages, the church became a strong and ramified organization with a hierarchical structure (the pope was at the top, archbishops were subordinate to him, bishops were a step lower, priests and monks were even lower). At the same time, the bishops had both spiritual and secular (as landowners) power.
The Holy Roman Emperors sought to control the Church. This assumed the right to investiture - appointments to church positions. This right was given to the German king Otto I in connection with the weakening of the power of the Pope after the collapse of the empire of Charlemagne. This caused opposition from the church and led to the struggle of popes and emperors.
Events
9th century- the weakening of the power of the pope in connection with the collapse of the empire of Charlemagne.
962- coronation of Otto I imperial crown. Otto becomes Holy Roman Emperor.
X-11th century- Cluny (by the name of the monastery of Cluny) movement in the church. The Cluniacs advocated an ascetic regime in monasteries, celibacy (the requirement of celibacy for the clergy), a ban on simony (buying and selling church positions and clergy).
11th century- the celibacy of priests was finally approved.
1059-1061- Papal throne is occupied by Nicholas II.
1059- Lateran Cathedral. Decrees were adopted aimed at separating church power from the influence of secular rulers. The pope must now be elected by a council of cardinals.
1073-1085 Gregory VII takes the papacy. He entered into a struggle for investiture with Henry IV. Henry admitted his defeat after he was excommunicated by the pope (which entailed defiance of the vassals). His humiliating penance to the pope became known as the walk to Canossa in 1077.
1122- Concordat (agreement) of Henry V with the Pope. According to the treaty, bishops must be appointed by the pope. Bishops were considered both vassals of the church (as possessing spiritual authority) and vassals of the emperor (as owners of lands - fiefs).
1198- Innocent III occupies the papal throne. By this time, the church had reached its greatest power. The kings of England, Poland, and some countries of the Iberian Peninsula recognized themselves as vassals of the pope.
Members
Otto I - Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (936-973).
Nicholas II - Pope of Rome (1059-1061).
Gregory VII - Pope of Rome (1073-1085).
Henry IV - the German king, as well as the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, fought for investiture with the popes.
Conclusion
The struggle of popes and emperors for the right to appoint bishops ended in victory for the church. In the XII-XIII centuries. the power of the pope increased significantly.
Parallels
In the Eastern (Orthodox) Church, the figure of the Pope corresponded to the Patriarch of Constantinople. The Latin (Catholic) world was politically fragmented, while the papacy was the unifying principle. The Pope and Emperor were in different countries. In Byzantium, the boundaries of secular and spiritual power coincided territorially, the emperor and the patriarch were located in the same city, the capital of the empire. Church power in Byzantium was closely connected with secular power and, as a rule, did not contradict it. If there were conflicts, then the emperor took over, whose authority and material resources always exceeded the authority and capabilities of the patriarch.
Abstract
In the Catholic Church from the very beginning there was a strict centralization of power. The Roman bishop, who received in the 5th century BC, acquired a huge influence in it. the name of the pope (from the Greek "pappas" - father, father). Rome was considered the city of the Apostle Peter, the keeper of the keys to paradise. The popes of Rome considered themselves the successors of the Apostle Peter. The lands that were in the hands of the pope became the fiefdom of St. Peter. In the 8th century The Papal State was formed, which included the lands of the Roman region and the Exarchate of Ravenna. The church in the medieval West was a state within a state. She received land holdings as a gift from emperors and nobles. By the 15th century the clergy owned 1/3 of the cultivated land. The system of education in medieval Europe was actually in the hands of the church. In the VI century. the first monastery appeared, founded by St. Benedict, who also developed the first monastery charter. The monks were required to fulfill the vows of poverty, celibacy, and obedience. Gradually monasteries become centers of education. Prayers and texts were studied in monastic and church schools Holy Scripture on the Latin. The episcopal schools taught the seven liberal arts: grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music.
Since the reign of Otto I (Fig. 1), German emperors began to dispose of church chairs in Italy, depose and enthrone popes, and control their election. However, from the end of the XI century. the growing papacy begins to gradually free itself from the guardianship of the German emperors and seek supremacy in the fight against them. The episcopal policy of Otto I found its logical conclusion in the capture of Rome as the center of the Catholic Church. Using feudal strife in Italy, Otto I was crowned emperor in 962 in Rome. This act was supposed to mean the restoration of the disintegrated empire of Charlemagne and symbolize the succession of the crown of the German kings from the Roman Caesars. At his coronation, Otto I recognized the pope's claims to secular possessions in Italy, but with the preservation of the emperor's sovereignty over them. In addition, the pope was required to take a vassal oath to the emperor.
The first rulers of the Holy Roman Empire often interfered in the stormy elections of popes and civil strife of the Roman nobility, without ceremony replacing the objectionable with their proteges. Emperor Henry III (1039-56), an ardent supporter of the Cluniac reform of the monasteries, was the last to take such a step. Having ascended the holy throne, the imperial cousin, Pope Leo IX (1049-54), energetically undertook the reform, traveling all over Europe with the mission of eradicating the vices of the clergy. Meanwhile, the papal power was strengthened year by year. In Rome, Nicholas II (1059-61) established a conclave of cardinals to elect popes, putting an end to interference in the elections of nobles and emperors.
But this was only the beginning of the struggle for the exit of the church from the influence of secular sovereigns. The next stage led to open conflict between the pope and the emperor. Emperors themselves have long appointed bishops in their domains. At the inauguration ceremony, or investiture, the bishop was solemnly presented with signs of secular power and pastoral service - a ring and a staff. The right of investiture was of great importance for emperors, since bishops stood at the top of the imperial hierarchy and were endowed with large land holdings, which (unlike secular nobles) could not be inherited. But in 1175, Pope Gregory VII condemned investiture and called on Emperor Henry IV to Rome to answer for his sins. Henry IV tried to depose the pope, and he excommunicated the emperor from the church in retaliation. The position of Henry IV was undermined by the outbreak of rebellions of the German feudal lords, who prevented the fight against papal power. And then the emperor, like a hunted wolf, went to the Italian castle of Canossa, where he stood barefoot in the snow for three days until he begged for forgiveness from the pope (Fig. 2). This famous historical episode brightly highlighted the increased authority of the Vatican, but the story did not end there. Henry IV only for the sake of appearance submitted to the pope in order to split the camp of his enemies, and the struggle continued long after the death of opponents.
Rice. 2. Walking to Canossa ()
According to the Concordat of Worms of 1122, the clerical investiture was henceforth carried out by the pope, who endowed the canons with symbols of spiritual authority. The emperor could be present at the elections of churchmen, but he carried out only secular investiture - he endowed the canon with land ownership with the corresponding vassal duties.
The power of the pope reached its highest power under Innocent III (1198-1216), who was elected pope at the age of 37 (Fig. 3). He was endowed with a strong will, great intelligence and abilities. Innocent argued that the Pope is not only the successor of the Apostle Peter, but also the vicar of God himself on Earth, called to "rule over all peoples and kingdoms." At solemn receptions, everyone had to kneel before the pope and kiss his shoe. Not a single king in Europe used such badges of honor. Innocent III expanded the boundaries of the Papal States. He interfered in relations between states and in the internal affairs of European countries. At one time, the pope elevated and deposed emperors. He was considered the highest judge in the Catholic world. The kings of England, Poland, and some states of the Iberian Peninsula recognized themselves as vassals of the pope.
Rice. 3. Innocent III ()
The Catholic Church, headed by the Pope, claimed a decisive role in political power. She achieved notable success in this during periods when the power of kings and emperors weakened due to feudal strife, and on the papal throne were strong politicians. The most acute controversial issue between the spiritual and secular authorities there was the question of investiture (the right to appoint bishops and abbots). Sometimes the issues of dedication (anointing to the kingdom) of a particular king or emperor turned out to be acute.
Bibliography
- Agibalova E.V., G.M. Donskoy. History of the Middle Ages. - M., 2012
- Atlas of the Middle Ages: History. Traditions. - M., 2000
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- e-reading-lib.com().
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Homework
- Why did the secular and spiritual rulers of Europe clash with each other?
- What does popular expression"Road to Canossa"?
- What testified that under Innocent III the power of the pope reached its highest power?
- Under Gregory VII, Catholic clergy were prohibited from marrying. Why do you think this restriction was introduced?
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