England in England in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries

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England in the second half of the 17th century

Plan. 1. The period of the Cromwellian republic. 2. Cromwell's Protectorate and the Stuart Restoration. 3. “Glorious Revolution” and its results.

Period of the Cromwellian Republic

After the revolution, the situation of the common people did not improve. The confiscated lands of the king, his supporters and his bishops went on sale in large tracts. Only 9% of these lands fell into the hands of wealthy peasants, the rest were bought up by the urban bourgeoisie and the new nobility. The peasants did not receive land and were not released from quitrent.

The Civil War led to a decline in economic life in the country: economic ties between counties were interrupted, and this had a particularly hard impact on London, the center of industry and trade. Difficulties in selling cloth led to mass unemployment. Therefore, part of the population was not happy with the parliamentary reforms. Protest movements developed across the country.

The Diggers, led by Gerard Whistanley, encouraged the poor to occupy the wastelands and farm freely, on the principle that every person had a right to the land. How do you think the Levellers and Diggers justified their views? (They assumed that God created people equal and differences in property and rights must be overcome.) ?

Everywhere the Diggers were dispersed, arrested, and severely beaten; They destroyed their crops, destroyed their huts, and mutilated their livestock. Why do you think? The propertied classes saw these peaceful workers as the most dangerous enemies of bourgeois property. ?

Having suppressed the Digger movement in England, Cromwell set out in August 1649 at the head of an army to suppress the Irish uprising, and essentially to reconquer the “Green Island”. Of Ireland's one and a half million population, just over half remain. The subsequent massive confiscations of the rebels' lands transferred 2/3 of Irish territory into the hands of English owners.

In Scotland, on February 5, 1649, the son of Charles I was proclaimed King Charles II. Cromwell and his army headed there and by September 1651 the Scottish army was completely destroyed, the king fled and soon crossed to the continent.

Cromwell understood that the army was the main support of power. Therefore, the country entirely retained heavy taxes in order to maintain a standing army, the number of which in the 50s had already reached 60 thousand people.

England was devastated by crop failures, falling production, reduced trade, and unemployment. The new land owners infringed on the rights of the peasants. The country needed legal reform and the adoption of a constitution.

Cromwell's Protectorate and Stuart Restoration

A conflict was brewing between Cromwell and Parliament. In 1653 Cromwell dissolved the Long Parliament and established a regime of personal dictatorship, accepting the title of lifelong Lord Protector. The country adopted a new constitution - “The Instrument of Governance”, according to which Cromwell received supreme power for life. The Protector commanded the armed forces, was in charge foreign policy, had the right of veto, etc. The Protectorate was essentially a military dictatorship. A protectorate is a form of government in which the republic was headed by a lifelong Lord Protector.

The country was divided into 11 districts, each of which was headed by a major general subordinate to Cromwell. The Lord Protector banned public festivals, theatrical performances, and work on Sundays. - Why do you think? (Oliver Cromwell was a staunch Puritan, and, in his opinion, various amusements were contrary to Christian principles.) ?

On September 3, 1658, Cromwell died and power passed to his son Richard, but in May 1659 Richard left his post. English political elite did not want a new dictator. Why do you think? (Military dictatorship was not the goal of the English revolution. In addition, Cromwell’s regime did not have serious support in society: it was condemned by royalists, Catholics, and moderate Puritans. The Lord Protector relied exclusively on the army.) ?

In 1660, a bicameral parliament was convened again, mainly from Presbyterians. The rich were afraid of “new unrest”; they needed legitimate power. In this environment, a conspiracy in favor of the “legitimate dynasty” of the Stuarts was increasingly mature.

General Monck entered into direct negotiations with the son of the executed king, the emigrant king Charles II, on the conditions for the restoration (restoration) of the monarchy. On April 25, 1660, the new Parliament approved the return of the Stuarts; a month later, Charles II solemnly entered London. General Monck Charles II

England during the Stuart Restoration

Charles became king under certain conditions. He confirmed the rights won by the new nobility and the bourgeoisie. He was deprived of royal lands, but was given an annual allowance. The king did not have the right to create a standing army. Do you think his power was absolute? But he rarely convened parliament, patronized Catholics, re-established the position of bishop, and persecution began against active participants in the revolution. Charles II?

The Whigs were a party to which the bourgeoisie and gentry belonged, who defended the rights of parliament and advocated reform. The Tories were a party to which large landlords and clergy belonged, who defended the preservation of traditions. In the 70s two political parties began to form.

"Glorious Revolution" and its results

After the death of Charles II, his brother James II took the throne. He did everything to reduce the role of parliament and establish Catholicism. This caused outrage among the English public. In 1688 The Glorious Revolution took place, as a result of which James II was overthrown from the throne, and the ruler of Holland, William III of Orange and his wife Mary Stuart, daughter of James II, were proclaimed king and queen. James II

At the same time, William and Mary accepted the crown under special conditions. They recognized the Bill of Rights, which differentiated the powers of the king and parliament. The Bill of Rights also guaranteed freedom of religion within the kingdom. The "Bill of Rights" (bill - bill) finally laid the foundation new form statehood - a constitutional monarchy. William III of Orange

The affirmation of the principle “the king reigns, but does not rule” meant that all the most important issues would be resolved in a parliament consisting of representatives of bourgeois parties. The party that wins a majority of seats in the House of Commons forms a government led by the Prime Minister.

The form of government in England is a parliamentary monarchy Legislative branch Executive branch Parliament House of Lords House of Commons King Government Prime Minister Elections based on property qualifications What is the name of this form of government that developed in England after the revolution?

After the death of William III and his wife, the throne passed to James II's daughter Anne Stuart (1702-1714). During her reign in 1707, a union was concluded between England and Scotland. The Scottish Parliament was dissolved, and representatives of this region sat from that moment in the English Parliament. Anna Stewart (1702-1714)

Main stages bourgeois revolution in England.

Questions to consolidate: 1. Why did the new owners go for the restoration of the Stuarts? 2. What made it necessary to finally remove the Stuarts from power? What did they interfere with and what did their rule threaten? 3. How were the events of 1688-1689 different? from the events of 1642-1649. ? Why are they called the “glorious revolution”? 4. What is the essence of the parliamentary monarchy regime? What form of government exists in England today? 5. What is the reason for the longevity of the two-party system? ?

Below are the reasons for the revolution in England. Please indicate the wrong answer. Parliament's dissatisfaction with the Stuarts' desire to rule alone. Parliament's dissatisfaction with the economic policies of the Stuarts. Embezzlement and bribery at the royal court. Translating the Bible into English and conducting services in this language.

Use a “yes” or “no” sign to indicate whether you agree with these statements: 1 2 3 4 5 The revolution in England destroyed absolutism. The English Revolution established a parliamentary monarchy in the country. After the revolution, capitalism began to develop in the country. The English Parliament became unicameral. Catholicism became the state religion in the country. yes yes yes no no

Glossary of terms and dates: 1688 - coup d'etat in England, overthrow of the Stuart dynasty. 1689 - adoption of the Bill of Rights - the beginning of the parliamentary monarchy in England. RESTORATION – restoration. PROTECTOR - patron, guardian.

Homework: prepare for testing on the topic “English Revolution of the 17th century.”

The results of Britain's participation in World War II were mixed. The country retained its independence and made a significant contribution to the victory over fascism, at the same time it lost its role as a world leader and came close to losing its colonial status.

Political games

British military historiography often likes to remind that the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of 1939 actually gave the German military machine a free hand. At the same time, in Foggy Albion they bypass Munich Agreement, signed by England jointly with France, Italy and Germany the year before. The result of this conspiracy was the division of Czechoslovakia, which, according to many researchers, was the prelude to World War II.

On September 30, 1938, in Munich, Great Britain and Germany signed another agreement - a declaration of mutual non-aggression, which was the culmination of the British “policy of appeasement.” Hitler quite easily managed to convince British Prime Minister Arthur Chamberlain that the Munich Agreements would be a guarantee of security in Europe.

Historians believe that Britain had high hopes for diplomacy, with the help of which it hoped to rebuild the Versailles system in crisis, although already in 1938 many politicians warned the peacemakers: “concessions to Germany will only embolden the aggressor!”

Returning to London on the plane, Chamberlain said: “I brought peace to our generation.” To which Winston Churchill, then a parliamentarian, prophetically remarked: “England was offered a choice between war and dishonor. She chose dishonor and will get war.”

"Strange War"

On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland. On the same day, Chamberlain's government sent a note of protest to Berlin, and on September 3, Great Britain, as the guarantor of Poland's independence, declared war on Germany. Over the next ten days, the entire British Commonwealth will join it.

By mid-October, the British transported four divisions to the continent and took up positions along the Franco-Belgian border. However, the section between the cities of Mold and Bayel, which is a continuation of the Maginot Line, was far from the epicenter of hostilities. Here the Allies created more than 40 airfields, but instead of bombing German positions, British aviation began scattering propaganda leaflets appealing to the morality of the Germans.

In the following months, six more British divisions arrived in France, but neither the British nor the French were in a hurry to take active action. This is how the “strange war” was waged. Chief of the British General Staff Edmund Ironside described the situation as follows: “passive waiting with all the worries and anxieties that follow from this.”

French writer Roland Dorgeles recalled how the Allies calmly watched the movement German trains with ammunition: "obviously the main concern of the high command was not to disturb the enemy."

Historians have no doubt that the “Phantom War” is explained by the wait-and-see attitude of the Allies. Both Great Britain and France had to understand where German aggression would turn after the capture of Poland. It is possible that if the Wehrmacht immediately launched an invasion of the USSR after the Polish campaign, the Allies could support Hitler.

Miracle at Dunkirk

On May 10, 1940, according to Plan Gelb, Germany launched an invasion of Holland, Belgium and France. The political games are over. Churchill, who took office as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, soberly assessed the enemy’s forces. As soon as German troops took control of Boulogne and Calais, he decided to evacuate parts of the British Expeditionary Force that were trapped in the cauldron at Dunkirk, and with them the remnants of the French and Belgian divisions. 693 British and about 250 French ships under the command of English Rear Admiral Bertram Ramsay planned to transport about 350,000 coalition troops across the English Channel.

Military experts had little faith in the success of the operation under the sonorous name “Dynamo”. Advance detachment of the 19th tank corps Guderian was located a few kilometers from Dunkirk and, if desired, could easily defeat the demoralized allies. But a miracle happened: 337,131 soldiers, most of whom were British, reached the opposite bank almost without interference.

Hitler unexpectedly stopped the offensive German troops. Guderian called this decision purely political. Historians differ in their assessment of the controversial episode of the war. Some believe that the Fuhrer wanted to save his strength, but others are confident in a secret agreement between the British and German governments.

One way or another, after the Dunkirk disaster, Britain remained the only country that avoided complete defeat and was able to resist the seemingly invincible German machine. On June 10, 1940, the position of England became threatening when on the side Nazi Germany Fascist Italy entered the war.

Battle of Britain

Germany's plans to force Great Britain to surrender have not been canceled. In July 1940, British coastal convoys and naval bases were subjected to massive bombing by the German Air Force; in August, the Luftwaffe switched to airfields and aircraft factories.

On August 24, German aircraft carried out their first bombing attack on central London. According to some, it is wrong. The retaliatory attack was not long in coming. A day later, 81 RAF bombers flew to Berlin. No more than a dozen reached the target, but this was enough to infuriate Hitler. At a meeting of the German command in Holland, it was decided to unleash the full power of the Luftwaffe on the British Isles.

Within weeks, the skies over British cities turned into a boiling cauldron. Birmingham, Liverpool, Bristol, Cardiff, Coventry, Belfast got it. During the whole of August, at least 1,000 British citizens died. However, from mid-September the intensity of the bombing began to decrease, due to the effective counteraction of British fighter aircraft.

The Battle of Britain is better characterized by numbers. In total, 2,913 British Air Force aircraft and 4,549 Luftwaffe aircraft were involved in air battles. Historians estimate the losses of both sides at 1,547 Royal Air Force fighters and 1,887 German aircraft shot down.

Lady of the Seas

It is known that after the successful bombing of England, Hitler intended to launch Operation Sea Lion to invade the British Isles. However, the desired air superiority was not achieved. In turn, the Reich military command was skeptical about landing operation. According to German generals, the strength of the German army lay precisely on land, and not at sea.

Military experts were confident that the British ground army was no stronger than the broken armed forces of France, and Germany had every chance of overpowering the United Kingdom's forces in a ground operation. The English military historian Liddell Hart noted that England managed to hold out only due to the water barrier.

In Berlin they realized that the German fleet was noticeably inferior to the English. For example, by the beginning of the war, the British Navy had seven operational aircraft carriers and six more on the slipway, while Germany was never able to equip at least one of its aircraft carriers. In the open seas, the presence of carrier-based aircraft could predetermine the outcome of any battle.

The German submarine fleet was only able to inflict serious damage on British merchant ships. However, having sunk 783 German submarines with US support, the British Navy won the Battle of the Atlantic. Until February 1942, the Fuhrer hoped to conquer England from the sea, until the commander of the Kriegsmarine, Admiral Erich Raeder, finally convinced him to abandon this idea.

Colonial interests

At the beginning of 1939, the British Chiefs of Staff Committee recognized the defense of Egypt with its Suez Canal as one of its strategically most important tasks. Hence the special attention of the Kingdom's armed forces to the Mediterranean theater of operations.

Unfortunately, the British had to fight not at sea, but in the desert. May-June 1942 turned out for England, according to historians, as a “shameful defeat” at Tobruk from Erwin Rommel’s Afrika Korps. And this despite the British having twice the superiority in strength and technology!

The British were able to turn the tide of the North African campaign only in October 1942 at the Battle of El Alamein. Again having a significant advantage (for example, in aviation 1200:120), the British Expeditionary Force of General Montgomery managed to defeat a group of 4 German and 8 Italian divisions under the command of the already familiar Rommel.

Churchill remarked about this battle: “Before El Alamein we did not win a single victory. We haven't suffered a single defeat since El Alamein." By May 1943, British and American troops forced the 250,000-strong Italian-German group in Tunisia to capitulate, which opened the way for the Allies to Italy. IN North Africa The British lost about 220 thousand soldiers and officers.

And again Europe

On June 6, 1944, with the opening of the Second Front, British troops had the opportunity to rehabilitate themselves for their shameful flight from the continent four years earlier. The overall leadership of the allied ground forces was entrusted to the experienced Montgomery. By the end of August, the total superiority of the Allies had crushed German resistance in France.

Events unfolded in a different vein in December 1944 near the Ardennes, when a German armored group literally pushed through the lines American troops. In the Ardennes meat grinder, the US Army lost over 19 thousand soldiers, the British no more than two hundred.

This ratio of losses led to disagreements in the Allied camp. American generals Bradley and Patton threatened to resign if Montgomery did not leave leadership of the army. Montgomery's self-confident statement at a press conference on January 7, 1945, that it was British troops who saved the Americans from the prospect of encirclement, jeopardized the further joint operation. Only thanks to the intervention of the commander-in-chief allied forces Dwight Eisenhower, the conflict was resolved.

By the end of 1944, the Soviet Union had liberated large parts of the Balkan Peninsula, which caused serious concern in Britain. Churchill, who did not want to lose control over the important Mediterranean region, proposed to Stalin a division of the sphere of influence, as a result of which Moscow got Romania, London - Greece.

In fact, with the tacit consent of the USSR and the USA, Great Britain suppressed the resistance of the Greek communist forces and on January 11, 1945, established complete control over Attica. It was then on the horizon of the British foreign policy a new enemy clearly loomed. “In my eyes, the Soviet threat had already replaced the Nazi enemy,” Churchill recalled in his memoirs.

According to the 12-volume History of the Second World War, Britain and its colonies lost 450,000 people in World War II. Britain's expenses for waging the war amounted to more than half of foreign capital investments; the Kingdom's external debt by the end of the war reached 3 billion pounds sterling. The UK paid off all its debts only by 2006.

Great Britain was not occupied by Germany during the Second World War, but this did not save the country from destruction, loss of population and resources. The aviation and navy of the Third Reich regularly attacked the cities of the British Isles, sank ships and submarines, ground military equipment. The British also died on the fronts of World War II, as the country's government sent its soldiers to the Middle and Far East, Japan, Asia, the Balkan and Apennine peninsulas, the Atlantic, Scandinavia, India, North Africa. The British took part in the invasion of Germany in the last months of the war, the capture and occupation of Berlin. Therefore, the consequences, outcomes and results of the Second World War were difficult for Great Britain in economic, social and political terms. The country's government declared war on Hitler and Germany on September 3, 1939, immediately after the capture of Poland, and until September 2, Britain was at war with the Third Reich. Only after the surrender of Japan was the war over for the British state and its population.

Economic and political conditions in the late 1930s.

Before entering the war, Great Britain plunged into a protracted crisis that paralyzed the economy, foreign markets, trade, and the work of enterprises. As a result, workers constantly took to the streets with demonstrations, refused to go to work, enterprises stood still, and British products did not reach the markets. Because of this, capitalists lost huge sums and positions in the global economy every day.

At the head of the government was Neville Chamberlain, who sought to create a strong country capable of competing with Germany, as well as cooperating with it. This foreign policy course was supported by monopolists who had their enterprises in many English colonies. Plans to get closer to Germany are evidenced by the fact that already at the beginning of 1930, representatives of the political forces of England and major industrialists regularly gathered in the house of the Astor family (British millionaires) to develop a plan for cooperation with Hitler. The secret society was called the Cleveland circle, the existence of which only a select few knew. The country's citizens did not support the government's plans, so rapprochement with Germany should have become a fait accompli for them.

In the 1930s England, like its ally France, tried to adhere to the policy of “appeasement,” essentially turning a blind eye to Hitler’s actions in Central Europe. By signing the Munich Agreement in 1938, N. Chamberlain, like E. Daladier, hoped that Germany would continue to seize the East of Europe.

After this, declarations of non-aggression were signed and commitments were made that England would support Germany in the event of war.

Chamberlain, under pressure from British society, was forced to begin anti-German negotiations with the Soviet Union and France. Representatives of the political circles of England, France and the USA gathered separately. Such actions did not end with anything concrete, which is why Hitler launched the invasion of Poland.

Britain at War: The Initial Period

Having declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939, Neville Chamberlain tried to keep the country from direct participation in hostilities. Until May 1940, a “strange war” was fought, which ended with the capture of Belgium, Holland and France. After this, Chamberlain's government began to prepare for war. To prevent Hitler from using the French fleet to attack Britain, the British attacked first. The target was the harbor of Mers el-Kebir, located in Algeria. Having destroyed a huge number of ships, England captured many ships that were stationed in British ports. In addition, there was a complete blockade of the French fleet in the port of Alexandria (Egypt).

At this time, Hitler began to concentrate troops on the banks of the English Channel, preparing for the invasion of the British Isles. The first blow was delivered not from the sea, but from the air. In August 1940, German aircraft carried out a series of attacks on military factories, enterprises, and airfields in Great Britain. They were also injured big cities. The raids were carried out mainly at night, which led to the death of a significant number of civilians. The targets of the bombing were streets, residential buildings, cathedrals, churches, stadiums, and factories.

British air power, supported by Canada and the United States, carried out retaliatory strikes. As a result, in September 1940, both Germany and Britain were exhausted by constant raids, many people died, equipment was damaged, which made the planned German invasion of the British Isles impossible. Hitler's carefully planned Operation Sea Lion was shelved because there were not enough aircraft to break the resistance of Britain, which was fighting the Third Reich alone. The United States did not provide military assistance, but only provided combat ships from which British planes took off.

British Army Forces

The basis of Great Britain's power was the fleet, which was one of the strongest in Europe. In 1939, the number of military personnel of various ranks in the army was about 900 thousand people, and another 350-360 thousand soldiers were stationed in the colonies. The main forces of the state were concentrated in the British Isles - regular divisions and brigades - territorial, infantry, cavalry, tank. In reserve there were seven regular divisions and many separate brigades formed on the basis of the British and Indians.

Before the war, the number of aircraft units that were transferred to the army's balance increased sharply. Aviation was reinforced with bombers, and the navy with battleships and aircraft-carrying ships.

Events of 1941-1944

Hitler's attention was diverted from Britain in the summer of 1941 due to the attack on the Soviet Union. Germany's position became significantly more complicated after the United States entered the Second World War. world war. Hitler could not conduct military operations on two fronts, so he threw all his efforts into the fight against the USSR and the resistance movements that arose in the occupied territories. While Germany was capturing the USSR and establishing its own rules there, Britain and the USA agreed to cooperate, as a result of which secret German documents and radio communications were intercepted, and supplies of food and raw materials were established to the British Isles.

British troops lost several battles on the Asian front in 1941; only the British colonies in India survived. The British also suffered losses in North Africa, but the strengthening of the army by the Americans made it possible in 1942 to turn the situation in favor of the Allies. Hitler withdrew troops from Africa in 1943. Next, the Italian islands were gradually recaptured, including Sicily, Salerno, and Anzio, which forced Mussolini to capitulate.

In November 1943, it opened with the work of the first anti-Hitler coalition, which was carried out in Tehran. It was attended by Stalin, Churchill and Roosevelt, who agreed on the liberation of France and the opening of a second front. In June 1944, the allied forces began to gradually liberate Belgium and France, displacing the Germans from the occupied territories. The Third Reich lost battle after battle. The situation was worsened by the offensive Soviet troops on the fronts of the war.

Surrender of Germany

In 1945, Anglo-American troops began to advance towards Germany. German cities and enterprises turned into ruins as bombers constantly attacked various objects, many of which were unique monuments of history, culture and architecture. Civilians also became numerous victims of the strikes.

At the end of winter - beginning of March 1945, British troops consisting of allied forces, contributed to pushing German troops beyond the Rhine. The offensive took place in all directions:

In April, the German army located in Italy surrendered;
At the beginning of May they became more active fighting on the northern flank of the Allied front, which contributed to the liberation of Denmark, Mecklenburg, and Schleswig-Holstein;
On May 7, the act of surrender of Germany was signed in Reims, signed by General A. Jodl.

The Soviet side opposed such actions, since the document was drawn up unilaterally at the American headquarters of D. Eisenhower. Therefore, the next day, all the allies - the Soviet Union, Britain, the USA and France - were gathered on the outskirts of Berlin, and the act of surrender was re-signed. At the end of May 1945, the British, under pressure from the USA and the USSR, arrested the German generals who commanded in the British zone of occupation.

In 1945 british army took an active part in military operations in Southeast Asia, liberating Burma from Japanese troops. The British did not ignore the Far East, where the offensive was carried out by the Pacific Fleet, formed by Britain in the fall of 1944.

Thus, the British Army took an active part in all important operations of the final period of the Second World War, supporting the actions of the Allies and individual states.

Results and consequences of the war for Britain

Historians assess the results of World War II for England ambiguously. Some believe that the country lost, while others believe that it emerged victorious. The main results of the conflict for the British Isles include:

Loss of superpower status;
She found herself in the camp of the winners, although at the beginning of the war she was on the verge of occupation by the Third Reich;
It retained its independence, avoiding occupation, like many European states. The economy was in ruins, the country was in ruins, but the internal situation was strikingly different from Poland, France, Denmark, Holland;
Almost all trade markets were lost;
Colony of the former British Empire embarked on the path to independence, but most of them continued to maintain economic, trade and cultural relations with London. This became the core of the formation of the future Commonwealth of Nations;
Production fell several times, which was returned to pre-war levels only in the late 1940s. The same applied to the economic situation. The crisis was overcome gradually, only in 1953 was the card system finally abolished in Britain;
The size of sown areas and agricultural land has been halved, so in the British Isles almost one and a half million hectares of land have not been cultivated for several years;
The payment deficit of the British state budget has increased several times.

In World War II, England lost, according to various estimates, from 245 thousand to 300 thousand killed, and about 280 thousand maimed and wounded. The size of the merchant fleet was reduced by one third, causing Britain to lose 30% of foreign investment. At the same time, the military industry was actively developing in the country, which was associated with the need to ensure mass production of tanks, aircraft, weapons and weapons for the needs of the army, as well as with the significant influence of technological progress.

Given the current situation, Britain was forced to continue to use the Lend-Lease program. Equipment, food, and weapons were imported into the country from the United States. For this, the States gained full control of trade markets in the Southeast Asian region and the Middle East.

This internal and external situation in Britain caused concern among the population and government. Therefore, political circles headed for strict regulation of the economy, which included the creation of a mixed economic system. It was built on two components - private property and state entrepreneurship.

Nationalization of enterprises, banks, important industries - gas, metallurgy, coal mining, aviation, etc. – allowed already in 1948 to reach pre-war production levels. The old industries were never able to occupy key positions as they had before the war. Instead, new directions and sectors began to emerge in the economy, industry and production. This made it possible to begin solving the food problem, attract investment to Britain, and create jobs.

Political games

British military historiography often likes to remind that the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of 1939 actually gave the German military machine a free hand. At the same time, the Munich Agreement, signed by England together with France, Italy and Germany a year earlier, is being ignored in Foggy Albion. The result of this conspiracy was the division of Czechoslovakia, which, according to many researchers, was the prelude to World War II.

On September 30, 1938, in Munich, Great Britain and Germany signed another agreement - a declaration of mutual non-aggression - which was the culmination of the British “policy of appeasement”. Hitler quite easily managed to convince British Prime Minister Arthur Chamberlain that the Munich Agreements would be a guarantee of security in Europe.

Historians believe that Britain had high hopes for diplomacy, with the help of which it hoped to rebuild the Versailles system in crisis, although already in 1938 many politicians warned peacemakers: “Concessions to Germany will only embolden the aggressor!”

Chamberlain, returning to London, said at the plane's steps: “I brought peace to our generation,” to which Winston Churchill, then a parliamentarian, prophetically remarked: “England was offered a choice between war and dishonor. She chose dishonor and will get war.”

"Strange War"

By mid-October, the British transported four divisions to the continent and took up positions along the Franco-Belgian border. Odanko, the section between the cities of Mold and Bayel, which is a continuation of the Maginot Line, was located far from the epicenter of hostilities. Here the Allies created more than 40 airfields, but instead of bombing German positions, British aviation began scattering propaganda leaflets appealing to the morality of the Germans.

In the following months, six more British divisions arrived in France, but neither the British nor the French were in a hurry to take active action. This is how the “strange war” was waged. Chief of the British General Staff Edmund Ironside described the situation as follows: “Passive waiting with all the worries and anxieties that follow from this.”

French writer Roland Dorgeles recalled how the Allies calmly watched the movement of German ammunition trains: “Obviously, the main concern of the high command was not to disturb the enemy.”

Historians have no doubt that the “Phantom War” is explained by the wait-and-see attitude of the Allies. Both Great Britain and France had to understand where German aggression would turn after the capture of Poland. It is possible that if the Wehrmacht had immediately launched an invasion of the USSR after the Polish campaign, the Allies could have supported Hitler.

Miracle at Dunkirk

On May 10, 1940, according to Plan Gelb, Germany launched an invasion of Holland, Belgium and France. The political games are over. Churchill, who took office as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, soberly assessed the enemy’s forces. As soon as German troops took control of Boulogne and Calais, he decided to evacuate parts of the British Expeditionary Force that were trapped in the pocket at Dunkirk, and with them the remnants of the French and Belgian divisions. 693 British and about 250 French ships under the command of English Rear Admiral Bertram Ramsay planned to transport about 350,000 coalition troops across the English Channel.

Military experts had little faith in the success of the operation under the sonorous name “Dynamo”. The advance detachment of the 19th Panzer Corps under the command of Colonel General of the German troops Heinz Guderian was located a few kilometers from Dunkirk and, if desired, could easily defeat the demoralized allies. But a miracle happened: 337,131 soldiers, most of whom were British, reached the opposite bank almost without interference.

Hitler unexpectedly stopped the advance of the German troops. Guderian called this decision purely political. Historians differ in their assessment of the controversial episode of the war. Some believe that the Fuhrer wanted to save his strength, but others are confident in a secret agreement between the British and German governments.

One way or another, after the Dunkirk disaster, Britain remained the only country that avoided complete defeat and was able to resist the seemingly invincible German machine. On June 10, 1940, England's position became threatening when fascist Italy entered the war on the side of Nazi Germany.

Battle of Britain

Germany's plans to force Great Britain to surrender have not been canceled. In July 1940, British coastal convoys and naval bases were subjected to massive bombing by the German Air Force. In August, the Luftwaffe switched to airfields and aircraft factories.

Within weeks, the skies over British cities turned into a boiling cauldron. Birmingham, Liverpool, Bristol, Cardiff, Coventry, Belfast got it. During the whole of August, at least a thousand British citizens died. However, from mid-September the intensity of the bombing began to decrease due to the effective counteraction of British fighter aircraft.

Lady of the Seas

It is known that after the successful bombing of England, Hitler intended to launch Operation Sea Lion to invade the British Isles. However, the desired air superiority was not achieved. In turn, the Reich military command was skeptical about the landing operation. According to German generals, the strength of the German army lay precisely on land, and not at sea.

Military experts were confident that Britain's ground army was no stronger than the broken Armed Forces of France and Germany had every chance of defeating the United Kingdom's troops in a ground operation. The English military historian Liddell Hart noted that England managed to hold out only due to the water barrier.

The German submarine fleet was only able to inflict serious damage on British merchant ships. However, by sinking 783 German submarines with US support, the British Navy won the Battle of the Atlantic. Until February 1942, the Fuhrer hoped to conquer England from the sea, until the commander of the Kriegsmarine (German Navy), Admiral Erich Raeder, finally convinced him to abandon this idea.

Colonial interests

At the beginning of 1939, the British Chiefs of Staff recognized the defense of Egypt with its Suez Canal as one of the most important strategic tasks. Hence the special attention of the Kingdom's Armed Forces to the Mediterranean theater of operations.

Unfortunately, the British had to fight not at sea, but in the desert. May-June 1942 turned out for England, according to historians, as a “shameful defeat” near Tobruk from Erwin Rommel’s Afrika Korps. And this despite the British having twice the superiority in strength and technology!

Churchill remarked about this battle: “Before El Alamein we did not win a single victory. We haven't suffered a single defeat since El Alamein." By May 1943, British and American troops forced the 250,000-strong Italian-German group in Tunisia to capitulate, which opened the way for the Allies to Italy. In North Africa, the British lost about 220 thousand soldiers and officers.

And again Europe

Events unfolded in a different vein in December 1944 near the Ardennes, when a German armored group literally pushed through the lines of American troops. In the Ardennes meat grinder, the US Army lost over 19 thousand soldiers, the British - no more than two hundred.

This ratio of losses led to disagreements in the Allied camp. American generals Bradley and Patton threatened to resign if Montgomery did not leave leadership of the army. Montgomery's self-confident statement at a press conference on January 7, 1945, that it was British troops who saved the Americans from the prospect of encirclement, jeopardized the further joint operation. Only thanks to the intervention of the commander in chief of the allied forces, Dwight Eisenhower, was the conflict resolved.

In fact, with the tacit consent of the USSR and the USA, Great Britain suppressed the resistance of the Greek communist forces and on January 11, 1945, established complete control over Attica. It was then that a new enemy clearly loomed on the horizon of British foreign policy. “In my eyes, the Soviet threat had already replaced the Nazi enemy,” Churchill recalled in his memoirs.

According to the 12-volume History of the Second World War, Great Britain and its colonies lost 450,000 people in World War II. Britain's expenses for waging the war amounted to more than half of foreign investment, and the Kingdom's external debt reached 3 billion pounds sterling by the end of the war. The UK paid off all its debts only by 2006.

Henry VIII and church reforms. Episcopal Church. Maria Tudor. Ezebeth and Mary Stuart. Reformation in Scotland. The fate of Mary Stuart. Shakespeare and Bacon. Great English revolution

. James I. Charles I. The Long Parliament. Internecine war. Cromwell. Republic. The Last Stuarts and the 16SS Revolution. Charles II. Whigs and Tories. James II. William III. Culture of England. Manners. Milton. Newton

Henry (1485-1509), the first king of the Tudor family, managed to calm England after the long Wars of the Scarlet and White Roses.

The feudal aristocracy, weakened and ruined by these wars, had to resign itself under his firm rule. By his frugality and confiscations of the property of guilty nobles, Henry accumulated significant sums, so that he did not need new taxes, which required the consent of Parliament; therefore, the parliament itself met quite rarely under him. Thus, he left to his son Henry royal power, strengthened to a degree that it had not reached in England for a long time. Henry VIII (1509-1547), distinguished by his handsome appearance and friendly manner, acquired sincere popular favor in the first years of his reign. He also showed himself at the beginning of his reign to be a zealous Catholic and wrote a book against the teachings of Luther in defense of the seven sacraments; For this book, Pope Leo X gave him the title of “Defender of the Faith.” But then Henry himself carried out the Reformation in England. The reason for this change of views was the following circumstance.

Henry VIII was married to the Spanish princess Catherine of Aragon, daughter of Ferdinand II the Catholic. Previously, she was married to his older brother; and when the latter died, Henry inherited the throne and with him Catherine’s hand. For about twenty years they lived peacefully. Meanwhile, Catherine grew older and became even more devout than before; Henry, on the contrary, loved an absent-minded lifestyle and pleasures. He took a liking to the lively, lovely Anne Boleyn, the queen's maid of honor. And then he remembered that his marriage to Catherine was illegal according to the rules of the Church, since she was previously his brother’s wife. Henry began to seek a divorce in Rome. But Pope Clement VII, fearing to offend the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, nephew of Catherine of Aragon, hesitated to make a decision. Then Henry VIII voluntarily divorced Catherine and married Anne Boleyn (1532). At the same time, with the consent of parliament, he declared the Anglican Church independent of the pope, and himself as its head. The pope wrote to him about excommunication, but the message had no effect; Henry responded to the papal curses by destroying Catholic monasteries, the enormous wealth and lands of which he took away for his own benefit or distributed to the courtiers. The Anglican Church did not accept the teachings of either Luther or Calvin, but showed its own special type of Reformation. She rejected the power of the pope, monasticism, and the celibacy of priests; attended the service at and communion under both types, but retained the rank of bishop and most of the Catholic rites during worship. Therefore, the Anglican Church is otherwise called Episcopal. The Reformation in England did not meet with much opposition from the people: the power of the pope here was much weaker than in the South-West

In Europe, and among the people, various opinions that disagreed with Catholicism have long been spreading (for example, the teachings of Wycliffe and the ideas of humanists).

Since English Reformation Throughout the second half of his reign, Henry VIII acts as a tyrant. He, without flinching, executed the nobles who incurred the royal displeasure; his wives did not escape the same fate. Anne Boleyn died on the chopping block for her frivolous behavior.

After her, Henry was married four more times. The death of Henry VIII, as one might expect, brought England Time of Troubles

. His son from his third wife, Jenny Seymour, the sickly Edward VI, reigned for about six years. Edward was succeeded by Henry's eldest daughter by Catherine of Aragon, Mary I Tudor (1553-1558). After the death of Edward VI, the most powerful of the English nobles, the Duke of Northumberland, enthroned a relative of the royal house, Jenny Gray, who was the wife of his son. This young and well-educated woman became queen against her will and reigned for only ten days. Mary overthrew her, and Jenny paid with her head along with her husband and the Duke of Northumberland.

The second daughter of Henry VIII (from Anne Boleyn) Yeshaeta / Tudor (1558-1603) ascended the throne. Almost rejected by her father (after the execution of her mother), Elizabeth spent most of her youth in solitude and deprivation; During this time, she learned to be firm and thrifty, and developed her mind by reading books. Elizabeth knew how to choose her assistants - talented statesmen; William Cecil, who received the title of Lord Burghley, was her first minister for forty years. But she did not give much power to her favorites and knew how to protect her sovereign rights. (The Earl of Leicester enjoyed her greatest favor.) She achieved the final establishment of the Anglican Church, like her own father, equally crowding out both Catholics and “dissidents” (that is, Protestants who did not belong to the Episcopal Church). England in her time achieved prosperity in industry and trade. Many Dutch people, fleeing the religious persecution of Philip II, settled in England and contributed to the improvement of the city. local manufactures (especially linen, woolen and metal products). English maritime trade spread to almost all known seas. English sailors made a number of glorious expeditions, finding new routes and founding colonies (Forbisher, John Davis, Francis Drake, who traveled around the world, and others). Walter Raleigh. The latter founded a colony in North America, which he named Virginia in honor of his queen, since Elizabeth forever refused marriage and was considered a maiden, in Latin virgo).

Relationship between Elizabeth I and Scottish Queen Mary Stuart became the property of the theater stage.

Mary Stuart remained a child after the death of her father, James V;

“Farewell to the country where Maria spent her happiest years was touching. For five whole hours the queen remained on the ship’s deck, leaning on the stern, with her eyes full of tears and turned to the receding shore, repeating incessantly: “Farewell, France!” Night has come; the queen did not want to leave the deck and ordered a bed to be made for herself in the same place. When dawn broke, the shores of France were still visible on the horizon, Maria exclaimed: “Adieu chere France!” je ne vous verrai jamais plus!” - “Farewell, beautiful France!”

The ship landed in the harbor of the Scottish capital Edinburgh.

The wild northern nature, the poverty of the inhabitants and their stern faces made a grave impression on the young queen. The riding horses prepared on the shore for her retinue were so ugly and poorly dressed that Maria involuntarily remembered the luxury and splendor with which she was surrounded in France and burst into tears. She stayed at the royal castle of Golyrud. The people greeted her cordially. At night, several hundred citizens gathered under her windows and sang a long serenade to her; but they played bad violins and so awkwardly that they only prevented the poor queen, tired from the journey, from falling asleep” (Brantôme’s memoirs). Brought up a devoted Catholic, Mary saw her calling in the fight against the Reformation, which took hold in Scotland during her mother's short regency. The Scottish nobility was one of the most rebellious; it constantly came into conflict with the royal power for its feudal rights; most of

The "invincible armada", equipped by Philip II the following year, was supposed to take revenge on Elizabeth both for helping the Dutch Protestants and for the death of Mary Stuart. The defeat of the Armada dealt a strong blow to the power of the Spaniards at sea; England has since begun to acquire the status of the first maritime power. Elizabeth's last years were poisoned by the execution of her favorite, the Earl of Essex. This young nobleman began to abuse the queen’s trust, clearly disobeyed her and even started a rebellion, for which he laid his head on the chopping block.

Elizabeth was distinguished by great frugality and therefore depended little on parliament in financial matters. She led a modest, moderate lifestyle, her court was more enlightened and stricter in morals than other European courts, and therefore had a more beneficial influence on the people.

SHAKESPEARE AND BACON The revival of sciences and arts in Italy spread to England. The study of ancient languages became such a fashion that here, as in France, many ladies of the highest circle spoke Latin and even Greek. At the same time, the emergence of secular English literature, especially dramatic literature, began. Under Elizabeth I, the first permanent theaters were built in London. (Until then, performances took place only on temporary stages by traveling actors.) During her time, the great William Shakespeare (1564-1616) also lived. He was born in Strafford-on-Avon, the son of a craftsman. In his youth, Shakespeare did not avoid various excesses and hobbies. He married early; then he left his wife and children and went to London, where he became an actor. Then he himself began to compose plays for the theater; The plays were a success and earned him the favor of the queen and nobles. His main patron was the Earl of Southampton (a friend of the unfortunate Earl of Essex). IN last years and depict the development of some passion. In Macbeth we see how ambition and the desire for power little by little lead the hero to terrible crimes. Othello presents the gradual development of jealousy, which completely blinds the hero and ends with the murder of his innocent wife. In Hamlet he portrays a man who is richly gifted by nature, but who is tormented by doubts and indecision. (This tragedy was written under the obvious influence of the classical myth about the fate of Agamemnon.) In general, Shakespeare's tragedies are replete with bloody scenes; this corresponded to the taste of his contemporaries, when morals were still quite rude and spectators loved strong sensations. In addition to tragedies from ancient times, he wrote wonderful dramas borrowed from recent events: the Wars of the Scarlet and White Roses

A contemporary of Shakespeare was the brilliant scientist and philosopher Francis Bacon (U56-1626). He is considered the father of the so-called experimental (empirical) philosophy, which recognizes the only way to achieve truth through observation of nature and the study of reality. Bacon's scientific achievements brought him deep respect from his contemporaries; Elizabeth's successor elevated him to the rank of state chancellor. But for all his talents and information, Bacon was not distinguished by high morality: he loved honors and money and even decided to trade in justice. Parliament appointed a commission to investigate the state of justice in England. The commission reported that there was no truth in the English courts, that justice could be bought, and that the main promoter of abuses was the Chancellor himself. Above Bacon

established an investigation. He was sentenced to imprisonment and a large fine; the king granted him pardon.

Bacon spent the rest of his years in retirement, under the burden of his shame, and died a victim of curiosity. Moving from his estate to London in winter, Bacon decided to get out of his carriage and stuff a freshly killed bird with snow to see how long it could survive when exposed to the cold. The experience cost him a fatal cold.

With the death of Elizabeth I, the Tudor dynasty ended.

She appointed Mary Stuart's son, James, as her successor, who thus peacefully united both neighboring states, England and Scotland, under one crown. Jacob /(1603-1625) was a sovereign of a narrow mind, timid character, and yet claiming the most unlimited royal power. English Catholics expected that he, as the son of Mary Stuart, would ease their situation, but they were mistaken. The dissidents (Puritans, Independents and other sects) were also deceived in their hopes for James as a king, brought up in Scotland, where Puritanism reigned. He proved himself a zealous champion of the Episcopal Church, persecuted the Puritans as well as the Catholics, and even tried to introduce the Episcopal Church into Scotland itself. At the same time, with his extravagance and desire for unlimited power, Jacob antagonized the English parliament. Only the death of the king extinguished the discontent that was already beginning to flare up among the people. Jacob's son Charles (1625-1649) was distinguished by the virtues of a family man and knew how to behave with truly royal dignity; the people greeted his reign with joy and hope. But it soon turned out that Charles I was not superior in foresight to his father. He started wars with Spain and France and, needing money, convened parliament several times so that, according to custom, it would approve taxes for the entire duration of his reign. But parliament did not want to approve them until the king abolished his abuses of power, since Charles arbitrarily dissolved parliament, carried out monetary extortions without his consent and threw many citizens into prison without trial. The persecution of dissident sects continued as before. Thus, the discord between the government and the people grew more and more intense. Ever since the time of James, many Scots and Englishmen, persecuted for political and religious beliefs

The Scots were the first to rebel against the king, among whom he tried to introduce Episcopalian worship. Then in Ireland, oppressed by the British, Catholic indignation broke out. In order to obtain funds for the maintenance of troops, Charles was forced to convene parliament again. But this parliament began to act decisively. Relying on the London common people, Parliament seized supreme power into its own hands and decided not to disperse contrary to the will of the king. In history it was called the Long Parliament. Lacking a standing army, Charles left London and called all his loyal vassals under his banner (1642). He was joined by most of the noble nobility, who looked with displeasure at the claims of the townspeople and feared for their privileges. The royal party, or royalists, were called the Cavaliers, and the parliamentary party - the Roundheads (due to their short-cropped hair). At the beginning of the internecine war, the advantage was on the side of the cavaliers, as they were more accustomed to weapons, but Charles was unable to take advantage of the first successes. Meanwhile, the parliamentary troops, consisting mainly of townspeople and minor nobility, gradually strengthened, gaining experience in military affairs. Victory finally went to the side of parliament when independents became the head of its army. (This was the name of the Protestant sect, which did not recognize any clergy and strove for a republican form of government.) The leader of the Independents was Cromwell.

CROMWELL

Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) came from a humble noble family; he spent his youth stormily, indulging in all sorts of excesses. But then a change occurred in him: he became pious, began to lead a moderate lifestyle and became a good father of the family. Having been elected to the lower house, Cromwell did not distinguish himself as an orator; his voice was hoarse and monotonous, his speech drawn out and confused, his facial features were rough, and he dressed casually. But under this unattractive appearance hid the talent of an organizer and an iron will. During the internecine war, he received permission from parliament to recruit his own special cavalry regiment. Cromwell realized that the bravery of the cavaliers and their sense of honor could only be countered by religious inspiration. He recruited his detachment mainly from pious people, strong in character, and introduced the strictest discipline. His warriors spent time in the camp reading the Bible and singing psalms, and in battle they showed reckless courage. Thanks to Cromwell and his detachment, the parliamentary army won a decisive victory at Merstonmoor; Since then, Cro\twell has attracted everyone's attention. Charles I was defeated again (under Nasby) and, dressed in peasant dress, fled to Scotland. But the Scots gave it to the British for 400,000 pounds sterling. At the request of the Independents, the king was put on trial, sentenced to death as a traitor and beheaded in London in front of the royal palace of Whitehall (1649). Corrected by misfortunes, Charles 1 showed true courage in the last minutes - his death produced a deep

impressed the people and aroused regret in many.

England was declared a republic, but in essence did not cease to be a monarchy, because Cromwell, who bore the title of Protector, had almost unlimited power. Since the Long Parliament (actually, the remainder of it, or the so-called rultfparlamenpg) did not want to completely obey the protector, Cromwell appeared one day with three hundred musketeers, dispersed the meeting and ordered the building to be locked. Then he convened a new parliament of people devoted to him, of independents, who spent a significant part of the meetings in prayers and in their speeches constantly inserted texts from Old Testament. Cromwell's military actions were accompanied by constant success. He pacified the uprising of the Irish and Scots in 1649-1652 (who called Charles II, the son of Charles I, as king). Then he started a war with the Dutch Republic. The reason for it was the Navigation Act issued by Parliament, which allowed foreign merchants to bring to England on their own ships only goods produced in their country; all other goods had to be imported on English ships; this act greatly undermined Dutch trade and favored the development of the English merchant fleet. The Dutch were defeated and had to accept the Navigation Act (1654). Thus, England regained the glory of the first maritime power, which it acquired under Elizabeth I and lost under the Stuarts.

The internal administration of the country under Cromwell was characterized by activity and strict order. Everyone was afraid of him, but did not love him. The most determined republicans openly complained of his despotism; and when they noticed his desire to appropriate the royal title to himself, they organized assassination attempts on him. Although these attempts were unsuccessful, they were the main reason for his death. Cromwell became very restless, was always wary of secret assassins and took all sorts of precautions: he surrounded himself with guards, wore armor under his clothes, rarely slept in the same room, traveled extremely fast and did not return the same way. Constant stress led him to a debilitating fever, from which he died (1658).

THE LAST STEWARTS AND THE REVOLUTION OF 1688

The people, tired of long unrest, longed for peace. Therefore, the royalist party soon gained the upper hand over the other parties with the help of old General Monck. The new parliament, convened thanks to his influence, entered into communication with Charles II, who then lived in Holland, and finally solemnly proclaimed him king. Thus the Great English Revolution ended with the Stuart restoration.

Charles //(1660-1685) was greeted with enthusiasm in England, but did not live up to the hopes placed on him by the state. He was frivolous, indulged in pleasure, leaned towards Catholicism and surrounded himself with bad advisers. During his reign, the struggle between parliament and royal power resumed. At that time, two main political parties were formed in England: the Tories and the Whigs, which continued the division that had already arisen in the country into cavaliers and roundheads. The Tories stood for monarchical power; part of the aristocracy and most of the rural nobles belonged to them. And the Whigs defended people's rights and tried to limit the power of the king in favor of parliament; on their side were the other part of the aristocracy and the population of large cities. Otherwise, the Tory party can be called conservative, and the Whigs - progressive. Thanks to the efforts of the Whigs, during this reign a famous law was issued that established the personal integrity of English citizens. (It is known as Habeas corpus.) By virtue of this law, an Englishman could not be arrested without a written order from the authorities, and after arrest he must be presented to the court no later than three days.

Charles II was succeeded by his brother.^AW 7/(1685-1688), a stubborn and zealous Catholic. Despising the displeasure of the British, he introduced the Catholic mass in his palace and before that he submitted to the influence Louis XIV, which could be considered his vassal.

The illegitimate son of Charles II, the Duke of Monmouth, who was then living in Holland, decided to take advantage of the popular unrest; with a small detachment he landed on the coast of England to take the crown from his uncle. But he failed. Monmouth was defeated and captured; In vain did this handsome, brilliant prince on his knees ask for mercy from the king - he laid his head on the scaffold. Jacob opened extraordinary courts to punish everyone involved in the uprising. Chief Judge Jeffreys, who with his executioners traveled around England and carried out executions on the spot, was particularly ferocious. As a reward for such zeal, Jacob made him great chancellor. Thinking that the people were completely frightened by these measures, he began to clearly strive to establish unlimited

The people still remained calm in the hope that the death of Jacob would stop the policy he had begun: since he had no male offspring, the throne had to pass to his eldest daughter Mary or, in fact, to her husband, the Dutch stadtholder William of Orange, a zealous Protestant. And suddenly the news spread that King James had a son, who immediately after his birth received the title of Duke of Wales, or heir to the throne; there was no doubt that he would be raised Catholic. Discontent in the country increased to an extreme degree. The Whig leaders, who had long been in secret relations with William of Orange, invited him to England. Wilhelm landed with a Dutch detachment and went to London. Yakov was left alone; the army also betrayed him, even his other daughter, Anna, with her husband, the Danish prince, sided with her sister. Yakov completely lost his head and abandoned

state seal into the Thames and, in disguise, fled from the capital. William and Mary solemnly entered London. William was recognized as king and signed the Bill of Rights. The bill secured all the main rights acquired by the English parliament and the people during the revolution, namely: the king promised to convene parliament periodically, at certain times, not to maintain a standing army in peacetime, not to collect taxes not approved by parliament.

Thus the Stuart dynasty was overthrown forever. This coup is known as the Revolution of 168S; however, it was peaceful in nature, because it was accomplished without the shedding of blood. From that time a new period begins English history

, a period of constitutional, or parliamentary, government. William III (1688-1702) faithfully fulfilled the terms he signed; therefore, despite his unattractive manners and dry, unsociable character, he managed to acquire the devotion of the people. Among the Tories, for a long time there were so-called Jacobites who did not give up hope for the return of the heirs of Jacob Stuart to England.

The development of education and art in England slowed down due to prolonged unrest. The Long Parliament, composed predominantly of Puritans, prescribed Puritan customs and even banned theatrical performances. The Republican monotony in the way of life and the lack of entertainment bored the English, and when the Stuart restoration took place, the desire for pleasure was revealed with particular force. Theaters were reopened, but instead of Shakespeare, the British turned to French models and their shortcomings were carried to the extreme. Theatrical performances, especially comedies, went beyond all limits of decency and fell into crude cynicism, although female roles at this time for the first time in England began to be played not by men, but by women. A decent lady did not dare to go to the theater without knowing in advance about the content of the play, and if curiosity overcame modesty, then when going to the theater, women put on a mask. The 17th century brought to England the remarkable poets John Milton (160S--1674) and John Doyne (1572-1631).

Milton was a zealous supporter of the republic and the Puritan party. Under Cromwell, he served as Secretary of State, but lost his sight and was forced to leave the service. Then he turned to his favorite pastime, poetry, and dictated his works to his daughters.

He left behind the majestic religious poem “Paradise Lost,” the content of which was the biblical story of the fall of the first people. The poem appeared during the Stuart restoration, when purism was ridiculed, and therefore was received rather coldly by contemporaries.

John Donne also wrote the mystical poem “The Way of the Soul,” but his poetry, cheerful, going to the human heart (elegy, satire, epigram), opening new paths of English Baroque poetry, did not leave his contemporaries indifferent. Most scientists and thinkers followed Bacon's predominantly practical direction, that is, experiments and observations of the external world came to the fore; This direction has greatly contributed to the success natural sciences . The first place here belongs to Isaac Newton (1643-1727). He studied at Cambridge University, where he was later professor of mathematics, and became the founder of classical physics; William III made him chief mint (he died as an eighty-five-year-old man, president of the Royal Society of London). Newton is credited with postcarding the law. Tradition tells that one day an apple falling from a tree gave Newton the idea that all bodies gravitate towards the center of the Earth. (The same law explained the structure of the planetary system: smaller celestial bodies gravitate toward the big ones. The Moon is towards the Earth, and the Earth and other planets are towards the Sun.)

Of the other English thinkers who developed Bacon's ideas, John Locke deserves special mention. His main work is “An Essay on the Human Mind,” in which Locke proves that people do not have any innate concepts, but receive all their knowledge and concepts through external impressions, through experience and observation. At the same time, a school of philosophers known as deists (Shaftesbury, Bolin-gbrock) was formed in English literature: they went to extremes and fell into atheism. Of the new Protestant sects that appeared in England in the 17th century, the Quakers, who still exist today, are notable. They reject church rituals and gather for prayer in a simple hall. Here the Quakers sit with their heads covered, their eyes cast down to the ground, and wait until one of them, a man or a woman, having received inspiration from above, preaches a sermon. If no one is inspired, they silently disperse. In ordinary life, Quakers are distinguished by strict, simple morals and a distance from secular pleasures (like German Mennonites).

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