There is this observation:
Generals are always preparing for the last war

There were two world wars in the 19th century: the Napoleonic Wars, which ended with the Patriotic War of 1812 and the entry of the Russians into Paris in 1814, and Crimean War 1853 - 1856.

There were also two world wars in the 20th century: the First (1911-1914) and the Second (1938-1945).

Thus, in the current history we have four large-scale world wars, to which four parts of this material are devoted.

The Napoleonic Wars are one of the stages in the development of the Western project, during which the era of the “gold standard” was opened, Switzerland became eternally neutral and another attempt was made to resolve the “Russian question”. About this - in our material.

THE FRENCH AS A MEANS

DESTRUCTION OF EMPIRES

Anti-French coalitions are temporary military-political alliances of European states that sought to restore the Bourbon monarchy in France, which fell during the French Revolution of 1789-1799. A total of 7 coalitions were created. In fact, the Napoleonic Wars are the First World War XIX century, which ended in Paris in 1814. Waterloo, on the other hand, is a more internal police operation of the West against Napoleon, who has already “won back his own”.

In scientific literature, the first two coalitions are called "anti-revolutionary", which were the reaction of European monarchies to the changes in global politics that were marked by the bourgeois revolution in France. However, in the course of the actions of these seemingly “anti-revolutionary” coalitions, they broke up in Europe and disappeared from the political map:

• Holy Roman Empire,


• Prussian kingdom,


• French Empire Of Napoleon,


• also happened palace coup in Russia, which abruptly changed its course (it came to the performance of the Decembrists in 1825).

And the stage of spreading the ideology of liberalism at the global level began. However, starting from the third - these coalitions were called "anti-Napoleonic". Why? Let's look further.

I anti-French coalition (1791-1797)

It consisted of: England, Prussia, Naples, Tuscany, Austria, Spain, Holland, Russia.

In 1789, a bourgeois revolution took place in France. On July 14, the rebels seized the Bastille with a roar. The bourgeois system was established in the country. In St. Petersburg, the revolution that had begun was considered at first an everyday rebellion caused by temporary financial difficulties and the personal qualities of King Louis XVI. With the growth of the revolution in St. Petersburg, they began to fear the spread of the revolution to all the feudal-absolutist countries of Europe. The fears of the Russian court were shared by the kings of Prussia and Austria.

In 1790, an alliance was concluded between Austria and Prussia with the aim of military intervention in the internal affairs of France, but they limited themselves to developing plans for intervention and providing material assistance to French emigration and the counter-revolutionary nobility inside the country (Catherine loaned 2 million rubles to create a mercenary army).

In March 1793, a convention was signed between Russia and England on a mutual obligation to assist each other in the fight against France: to close their ports to French ships and prevent France from trading with neutral countries (Catherine II sent Russian warships to England to blockade the French coast).

At the end of 1795, a counter-revolutionary treaty was concluded between Russia, England and Austria. Triple Alliance(in Russia, the preparation of a 60,000th expeditionary force for operations against France began).

Paul I did not send a corps equipped in August 1796 to help Austria, and declared to his allies (Austria, England and Prussia) that Russia was exhausted by previous wars. Russia left the coalition. Paul I at the diplomatic level tried to limit the military successes of France.

In 1797, Napoleon captured Malta, an island under the personal protection of Paul I, which prompted Paul to declare war. The history of the capture of Malta is very interesting in itself, so we advise you to read - https://www.proza.ru/2013/03/30/2371.

French landing in Malta

Napoleon himself later wrote in his memoirs that

“It was decisive for the fate of the Order that he surrendered himself under the protection of Emperor Paul, the enemy of France ... Russia sought to dominate this island, which is of such great importance because of its position, the convenience and security of its port and the power of the fortifications. Seeking patronage in the North, the Order did not take into account and jeopardized the interests of the powers of the South ... ".

The capture of Malta was fatal for Napoleon, because he thereby involved Paul in the Napoleonic wars and predetermined Russia's participation in anti-French coalitions. But these events were also fatal for Paul, because during the Napoleonic wars he began to draw closer to Napoleon, dooming himself to death.

II anti-French coalition (1798-1800)

It consisted of: Great Britain, the Ottoman Empire, the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Naples.

The II anti-French coalition was created in 1798 as part of Austria, the Ottoman Empire, England and the Kingdom of Naples. The military forces of Russia participated in military operations at sea (in alliance with the Ottoman fleet) and on land (together with Austria).

The Black Sea squadron under the command of F.F. Ushakova in the fall of 1798 through the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles entered the Mediterranean Sea, and then into the Adriatic Sea, where, together with the Turkish fleet, she captured the Ionian Islands and stormed the fortress of Corfu.

The capture of the fortress of Corfu by a united Russian-Turkish squadron under the command of F.F. Ushakov

By the end of August 1799, as a result of Suvorov's Italian campaign of 1799 and Ushakov's Mediterranean campaign of 1799-1800, during which Russian troops liberated Naples in June 1799, and Rome in September, almost all of Italy was liberated from French troops. The remnants of the 35,000-strong French army of General Jean Moreau (about 18,000 people) defeated at Novi retreated to Genoa, which remained the last region of Italy under French control.

The offensive of the Russian-Austrian army under the command of Suvorov (about 43 thousand people) against Genoa, followed by the complete expulsion of the French army from Italy, seemed like a natural next step. The command of the combined Russian-Austrian troops was entrusted to A. V. Suvorov.

On April 15-17, 1799, Suvorov defeated the French at the Adda River. After that, in 5 weeks it was possible to expel the French from Northern Italy. Milan and Turin were liberated without a fight.

The Austrians did not provide Suvorov troops with food, provided incorrect maps of the area and, without waiting for the troops to approach Switzerland, left Rimsky-Korsakov's corps alone in front of superior enemy forces.

Rushing to the rescue, Suvorov chose the shortest and most dangerous path- across the Alps, the Saint Gotthard Pass (September 24, 1799 - the battle for the Devil's Bridge).

Suvorov crossing the Devil's Bridge. Artist A. E. Kotzebue

But help to Rimsky-Korsakov came too late - he was defeated.

Fifteen thousand grenadiers descend from the Alps and Pavel returns them to Russia.

England and Austria took advantage of Russian victories. Due to the fact that England, like Austria, did not show proper concern for the Russian auxiliary corps, located in Holland and operating against the French, and due to the fact that the British occupied after the release of Fr. Malta, and the Austrians occupied Northern Italy left by Suvorov, Paul I breaks off relations with them and concludes new alliances.

Peace is made with France and an alliance is signed with Prussia against Austria and simultaneously with Prussia, Sweden and Denmark against England.

On December 4-6, 1800, at the initiative of Paul I, a convention on armed neutrality was concluded between Russia, Prussia, Sweden and Denmark.

On January 12, 1801, Paul I gave an order according to which 22.5 thousand Cossacks with 24 guns under the command of Vasily Petrovich Orlov (1745-1801) - the military ataman of the Don Cossack army were to make the Indian campaign - to reach Khiva and Bukhara and capture the British India. The Cossacks set out on a campaign on February 28.

February 9 and March 11, 1801- decrees were issued prohibiting the release of Russian goods from British ports and along the entire western border, not only to England, but also to Prussia. An embargo was imposed on British merchant ships in Russian ports.

The conspirators wanted to time the denouement to March 15 - the "Ides of March", which brought death to the tyrant Caesar, but third-party events accelerated the decision, since the emperor came to the conclusion by the evening or night of March 8 that "they want to repeat 1762". The conspirators fussed.

Fonvizin in his notes describes the reaction of his subjects as follows:

“In the midst of the many assembled courtiers, the conspirators and murderers of Paul boldly paced. They, who did not sleep the night, half-drunk, disheveled, as if proud of their crime, dreamed that they would reign with Alexander.

Decent people in Russia, disapproving of the means by which they got rid of Paul's tyranny, rejoiced at his fall. Historiographer Karamzin says that the news of this event was a message of redemption throughout the state: in houses, on the streets, people cried, hugged each other, as on the day of the Holy Resurrection. However, this enthusiasm was expressed by one nobility, other estates accepted this news rather indifferently.».

Alexander I came to the throne, as a result of which the general atmosphere in the country immediately changed. Nevertheless, Alexander himself was deeply traumatized by the assassination, which may have prompted his turn to mysticism late in life. Fonvizin describes his reaction to the news of the murder:

“When it was all over, and he learned the terrible truth, his grief was inexpressible and reached despair. The memory of this terrible night haunted him all his life and poisoned him with secret sadness.

On the eve of the death of Paul, Napoleon came close to concluding an alliance with Russia. The assassination of Paul I in March 1801 postponed this possibility for a long time - until the Peace of Tilsit in 1807. Relations with England, on the contrary, were renewed.

III anti-French coalition (1805)

Unlike the first two, it was exclusively defensive in nature. It consisted of: Russia, England, Austria, Sweden. Russian diplomacy took part in the formation of a coalition consisting of England, Austria, Sweden and Sicily.

The goal of restoring the Bourbons was not set. The coalition was created to stop the further spread of French expansion in Europe and protect the rights of Prussia, Switzerland, Holland and Italy. England was especially interested in creating a coalition, since 200,000 French soldiers stood on the English Channel, ready to land on Foggy Albion.

September 9, 1805 - The Austrian army invades Bavaria. However, already on September 25-26, she was defeated by the French army and began to retreat, having heavy losses. And on October 20, the Austrian army capitulated. And on November 13, Vienna was taken.

On November 10, 1805, Russian troops united with Austrian reinforcements and occupied the Olshansky positions.

On November 20, 1805, in the "Battle of the Three Emperors" - Napoleon, Alexander I and Franz II - near Austerlitz, the combined Russian-Austrian troops were defeated by the French.

Cuadro de François Gérard, 1810, neoclasicismo. Batalla de Austerlitz

On December 26, 1805, Austria signed a peace treaty with France in Pressburg, leaving the war with major territorial and political losses. The Holy Roman Empire of the German nation ceased to exist.

IV anti-French coalition (1806-1807)

It consisted of: Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, Saxony, Sweden.

On June 19 and July 12, secret allied declarations were signed between Russia and Prussia. In the autumn of 1806, a coalition was formed consisting of England, Sweden, Prussia, Saxony and Russia.

October 14, 1806 - the battle of Jena and Auerstedt, in which the Prussian army was completely defeated by the French. The army as an organized force of Prussia ceased to exist in one day. Following this the collapse of the Prussian kingdom, which was conquered by the French army within three weeks.

November 21, 1806 in Berlin, Napoleon signed a decree on the "blockade of the British Isles". In 1807, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands joined the continental blockade, after Tilsit - Russia and Prussia, in 1809 - Austria.

On January 26 - 27, 1807, a battle took place near Preussisch-Eylau, where the army of Russian and Prussian soldiers repulsed all the attacks of the French.

On June 9 (21), 1807, a truce was signed and 2 days later it was ratified by Alexander I. On June 13 (25), a meeting of two emperors took place on a raft in the middle of the Neman River opposite the city of Tilsit.

Meeting on the Neman Alexander I and Napoleon. Engraving by Lamo and Miesbach. 1st thurs. 19th century

V Anti-French Coalition (1809)

The anti-French coalition formed after the destruction of Napoleon's Great Army in Russia during the Russian campaign of 1812.

The coalition included: Russia, Sweden, Great Britain, Austria and Prussia (the last two were allies of France until the beginning of 1813).

April 5, 1812 The Treaty of St. Petersburg was signed between Russia and Sweden. After the start of Napoleon's invasion of Russia, on July 6 (18), 1812, the Treaty of Örebrus was signed between Russia and Great Britain, which eliminated the state of war between the two powers that had existed since 1807. On December 18 (30), 1812, in Taurogen, the Prussian General York signed a convention of neutrality with the Russians and withdrew troops to Prussia.

FIRST PATRIOTIC WAR

Russia's participation in the continental blockade, established by Napoleon by a special decree of November 21, 1806, and directed against England, had a detrimental effect on the Russian economy. In particular, the volume foreign trade Russia for 1808 - 1812 decreased by 43%. And France, Russia's new ally under the Tilsit peace treaty, could not compensate for this damage, since Russia's economic ties with France were insignificant.

The continental blockade completely upset Russian finances. Already in 1809, the budget deficit increased by 12.9 times compared to 1801 (from 12.2 million to 157.5 million rubles).

Therefore, the reasons for the Patriotic War of 1812 were Russia's refusal to actively support the continental blockade, in which Napoleon saw the main weapon against Great Britain, as well as Napoleon's policy towards European states, which was carried out without taking into account the interests of Russia, or rather, how they were seen by Alexander, ascended to the throne. I.

Whatever some historians say about Napoleon's aggression in 1812, on the eve of the war, Russia itself was preparing for an attack. And Alexander I, back in the autumn of 1811, offered Prussia to “slay the monster” with a preemptive strike. The Russian army even began to prepare for the next campaign against Napoleon, and only the treachery of Prussia prevented Alexander from starting the war first - Napoleon was ahead of him.

The Russian monarch did not favor Napoleon. For Alexander, the war with him was

“... an act of struggle of his personal pride, regardless of the political reasons that caused it,” writes historian M.V. Dovnar-Zapolsky. - Despite the appearance of friendly relations, the "Byzantine Greek", as Napoleon characterized his Tilsit friend, could never endure the humiliation he experienced.

Alexander never forgot anything and never forgave anything, although he was remarkably able to hide his true feelings. Moreover, Alexander, like his opponent, liked to indulge in dreams of such activities that would pursue world interests.

It is not surprising that the war took on a double meaning in Alexander's eyes: firstly, a sense of pride prompted him to take revenge on his rival, and ambitious dreams led Alexander far beyond the borders of Russia, and the good of Europe occupied the first place in them. Despite the setbacks - and even more so, as the setbacks grew, Alexander grew firmer to continue the war until the enemy was completely destroyed. The very first significant failures exacerbated the feeling of revenge in Alexander.

Paul I, in our opinion, would have pursued a different policy and, most likely, would have supported the blockade of Great Britain, and then, most likely, there would have been no Patriotic War of 1812, and Great Britain could have replenished the number of empires that disappeared during the Napoleonic Wars.

It is clear that this development of events did not suit some groups in the West (it is clear that most of them were in Great Britain), so the English ambassador was an accomplice in a conspiracy against Paul I.

Far-sighted, I must say, acted British intelligence. Postponed the fall of colonial Britain by almost a hundred years! The story eventually went along the event branch, on which Napoleon invades Russia.

June 22 - 24, 1812. Troops of the Great Army of Napoleon cross the Neman, invading the territory of Russia

According to the calculations of the military historian Clausewitz, the army of the invasion of Russia, together with reinforcements during the war, consisted of 610 thousand soldiers, including 50 thousand soldiers of Austria and Prussia. That is, we can talk about a united European army. With the support or at least non-intervention of the rest of Europe, until March 1813.

On January 18 (30), 1813, an agreement similar to the Taurogen one was signed by the commander of the Austrian corps, General Schwarzenberg (Truce of Zeichen), after which he surrendered Warsaw without a fight and left for Austria.

The official act that secured the formation of the 6th coalition was the Kalisz Union Treaty between Russia and Prussia, signed on February 15 (27), 1813 in Breslau and on February 16 (28), 1813 in Kalisz.

At the beginning of 1813, only Russia waged war against Napoleon in central Europe.. Prussia entered into a coalition with Russia in March 1813, then England, Austria and Sweden joined in the summer of the same year, and after the defeat of Napoleon in the Battle of the Nations near Leipzig in October 1813, the German states of Württemberg and Bavaria joined the coalition. Doesn't remind you of anything, does it?

Spain, Portugal and England fought independently with Napoleon in the Iberian Peninsula. Active fighting were fought for a year from May 1813 to April 1814 with a 2-month truce in the summer of 1813.

In 1813, the war against Napoleon was waged with varying success in Germany, mainly in Prussia and Saxony. In 1814, the fighting moved to the territory of France and ended by April 1814 with the capture of Paris and the abdication of Napoleon from power.

Treaty of Paris 1814- a peace treaty between the participants of the sixth anti-French coalition (Russia, Great Britain, Austria and Prussia), on the one hand, and Louis XVIII, on the other. Signed in Paris on May 30 (May 18, old style). Later, Sweden, Spain and Portugal joined the treaty. The treaty provided for France to retain the borders that existed on January 1, 1792, with the addition of only part of the Duchy of Savoy, the former papal possessions of Avignon and Venessin and small strips of land on the northern and eastern borders that previously belonged to the Austrian Netherlands and various German states (including purely the German town of Saarbrücken with rich coal mines), only about 5 thousand km² and more than one million inhabitants.

France was returning most of colonial possessions lost during the Napoleonic Wars. Sweden and Portugal returned to France all the colonies taken from it; England retained only Tobago and Saint Lucia in the West Indies and the island of St. Mauritius in Africa, but returned Spain Haiti. France was allowed to keep all the objects of art it seized, with the exception of the trophies taken from the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin and the abductions made in the Vienna library. She was not obligated to pay a contribution.

The Netherlands regained its independence and were returned to the House of Orange. Switzerland was declared independent. Italy, with the exception of the Austrian provinces, was to consist of independent states. The German principalities were united in an alliance. Freedom of navigation on the Rhine and Scheldt was declared. France, by special agreement with England, undertook to abolish the slave trade in her colonies. Finally, it was decided that representatives of all the powers that had taken part in the war would convene, within two months, for a congress in Vienna to resolve the still outstanding questions.

As for the war with Russia, which became inevitable, then, having lost it, Napoleon spoke as follows:

“I did not want this famous war, this bold enterprise, I had no desire to fight. Alexander did not have such a desire, but the prevailing circumstances pushed us towards each other: fate did the rest.

But did "rock" do it?

THE ROLE OF FREEMASONRY IN THE ASCENT AND

THE FALL OF NAPOLEON

Once upon a time, the arbitrariness of would-be revolutionaries brought Napoleon Bonaparte to power. Why? Yes, because the Freemasons, who saw that the revolution did not go at all where they wanted, needed a strong hand to suppress the raging revolutionary fanatics and extremists. The famous Austrian statesman and diplomat Prince Clemens von Metternich remarked on this:

“Napoleon, who himself was a Freemason when he was a young officer, was admitted and even supported by this secret power in order to protect himself from a great evil, namely, from the return of the Bourbons.”

In addition, Masons considered Napoleon an effective tool for the destruction of European monarchies and after such a gigantic purge, they hoped that it would be easier for them to carry out their plan to build a world republic.

“Masonry decided to follow Napoleon on its own, and therefore on the 18th day of Brumaire it was helped by the most influential revolutionaries,” the author of the book “The Secret Power of Freemasonry” A.A. Selyaninov explains: “They thought that Napoleon would govern France by their proxy.”

Napoleon with Masonic Hidden Hand

But Napoleon, nominated by the Freemasons, gradually began to crush Freemasonry for himself. First he became consul, then first consul, then consul for life, and then emperor. Finally, the moment came when it became clear to everyone that the interests of Napoleon, who used the Masons for his exaltation, and the Masons, who had high hopes for him, diverged.

The revolutionary dictator turned into an autocratic despot, and the Freemasons changed their attitude towards him.

"Secret societies turned sharply against him when he discovered a desire to restore in his own interests a staunch, conservative autocracy,"

Montaigne de Ponsin testified. By the winter of 1812, it became quite clear that Napoleon had completely lost the campaign.

On October 23, 1812, a rather strange coup attempt took place in Paris, organized by General Male. Of course, the conspirators were arrested and shot, but the behavior of the city authorities that day turned out to be extremely passive. Moreover, one gets the impression that the news inspired by the conspirators that Napoleon died in Russia made many people very happy.

In 1813, a series of defeats that began in Russia followed, and in January 1814, the allied armies crossed the Rhine and entered French territory. Louis d'Estamp and Claudio Jeannet, in their book Freemasonry and Revolution, write on this subject:

“From February 1814, realizing that it was impossible to resist the royalist tendencies, the strength of which was growing every day, Freemasonry decided that it was necessary to abandon Napoleon and begin to curry favor with the new regime in order to save at least what was left of the revolution.”

On March 31, 1814, Paris capitulated. When allied forces entered France, the Parisian Freemasons decided to open the doors to their brothers - officer-Masons of hostile armies.

And already on May 4, 1814, they held a banquet dedicated to the restoration of the Bourbons. The further events of Napoleon's "hundred days" and the Battle of Waterloo are in fact a police operation of the West, and not a continuation of the Napoleonic Wars, which by that time had solved some European problems, without solving, however, the "Russian question".

Introduction

Napoleonic anti-French coalition war

The Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815) were fought by France during the years of the Consulate and Empire of Napoleon I against coalitions of European states.

Of course, one cannot explore the Napoleonic Wars without the personality of Napoleon himself. He wanted to do the same thing that the Romans wanted to do with the world - to civilize it, erase the borders, turning Europe into one country, with the same money, weights, civil laws, local self-government, the flourishing of sciences and crafts ... He accepted the Great French Revolution with warm approval. His activities in Corsica and the mastery of the city of Toulon was the beginning of the rapid ascent of Bonaparte in military service.

Bonaparte proved to be a remarkable master of strategy and maneuvering tactics. Fighting against a numerically superior enemy. Victorious wars with coalitions of powers, brilliant victories, a huge expansion of the territory of the empire contributed to the transformation of H. I into the actual ruler of all Western (except Great Britain) and Central Europe.

All the Napoleonic wars were fought in the interests of the French bourgeoisie, which sought to establish its military-political and commercial-industrial hegemony in Europe, annex new territories to France and win the fight against Great Britain for world trade and colonial superiority. The Napoleonic wars, which did not stop until the fall of the empire of Napoleon I, were on the whole wars of conquest. They were conducted in the interests of the French bourgeoisie, which sought to consolidate its military-political and commercial-industrial dominance on the continent, pushing the British bourgeoisie into the background. But they also contained progressive elements, tk. objectively contributed to the undermining of the foundations of the feudal system and cleared the way for the development of capitalist relations in a number of European states: (the abolition of dozens of small feudal states in Germany, the introduction of the Napoleonic civil code in some conquered countries, the confiscation and sale of part of the monastic lands, the elimination of a number of privileges of the nobility, etc.). The main opponents of France during the Napoleonic Wars were England, Austria and Russia.

1. Causes and nature of the Napoleonic wars

The Napoleonic era had not only a military-political aspect, in many respects the war acquired a universal character, turned into a war of economies and peoples, something that later became an axiom in the 20th century during the years of two world wars. If earlier the war had the character of military clashes of relatively small professional armies, then in the Napoleonic era, all spheres of public and state life of the participating countries were already permeated by war. The nature of the armed forces also changed, they began to turn into massive armies. This inevitably led to changes in the relationship between state and public institutions.

There are several opinions about the nature of the Napoleonic wars and the reasons that caused them. To name just a few of them: continued revolutionary wars French Republic, the fruit of the exorbitant ambition of one person (Napoleon), the desire of the feudal "old regime" states to destroy this person (Napoleon), the continuation of the centuries-old confrontation between France and England for dominance in the world, the struggle of the ideologies of the new and old regimes (that is, the clash of young capitalism with feudalism ).

2. First anti-French coalition 1793-1797

The revolution that took place in France in 1789 had a strong effect on the states adjacent to it and prompted their governments to resort to decisive measures against the menacing danger. Emperor Leopold II and King Friedrich Wilhelm II of Prussia, at a personal meeting in Pilnitz, agreed to stop the spread of revolutionary principles. They were also encouraged to do so by the insistence of the French emigrants, who made up a corps of troops in Koblenz under the command of the Prince of Condé. Military preparations were begun, but the monarchs for a long time did not dare to open hostilities. The initiative was taken by France, which on April 20, 1792 declared war on Austria for its hostile actions against France. Austria and Prussia entered into a defensive and offensive alliance, which was gradually joined by almost all other German states, as well as Spain, Piedmont and the Kingdom of Naples.

Hostilities began with the invasion of French troops into the possessions of the German states on the Rhine, followed by the invasion of coalition troops into France. Soon the enemies were repulsed and France itself began active military operations against the coalition - it invaded Spain, the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Western German states. Soon, in 1793, the battle of Toulon took place, where the young and talented commander Napoleon Bonaparte first showed himself. After a series of victories, the enemies were forced to recognize the French Republic and all its conquests (with the exception of the British), but then, after the deterioration of the situation in France, the war resumed.

3. Second anti-French coalition (1798-1801)

The conventional date for the start of the Napoleonic Wars is the establishment in France during the coup of 18 Brumaire (November 9), 1799, of the military dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte, who became the first consul. At this time, the country was already at war with the 2nd anti-French coalition, which was formed in 1798-99 by England, Russia, Austria, Turkey and the Kingdom of Naples.

Having come to power, Bonaparte sent the English king and the Austrian emperor a proposal to start peace negotiations, which was rejected by them. France began to form a large army on the eastern borders under the command of General Moreau. At the same time, on the Swiss border, in secrecy, the formation of the so-called "reserve" army was going on, which dealt the first blow to the Austrian troops in Italy. Having made a difficult transition through the St. Bernard Pass in the Alps, on June 14, 1800, at the Battle of Marengo, Bonaparte defeated the Austrians operating under the command of Field Marshal Melas. In December 1800 Moreau's army of the Rhine defeated the Austrians at Hohenlinden (Bavaria). In February 1801, Austria was forced to conclude peace with France and recognize her seizures in Belgium and on the left bank of the Rhine. After that, the 2nd coalition actually broke up, England agreed in October 1801 to sign the terms of the preliminary (i.e. preliminary) agreement, and on March 27, 1802, the Treaty of Amiens was concluded between England, on the one hand, and France, Spain and the Batavian Republic - with another.

4. Third anti-French coalition (1805)

However, already in 1803 the war between them resumed, and in 1805 the 3rd anti-French coalition was formed, consisting of England, Russia, Austria and the Kingdom of Naples. Unlike the previous ones, it proclaimed as its goal the struggle not against revolutionary France, but against the aggressive policy of Bonaparte. Becoming Emperor Napoleon I in 1804, he prepared the landing of a French expeditionary army in England. But on October 21, 1805, in the Battle of Trafalgar, the English fleet, led by Admiral Nelson, destroyed the combined Franco-Spanish fleet. However, on the continent, Napoleon's troops won one victory after another: in October 1805, the Austrian army of General Mack capitulated at Ulm without a fight; Napoleon in November victorious march entered Vienna; On December 2, 1805, Emperor Napoleon in the battle of Austerlitz defeated the armies of the emperors of Austria, Franz I and Russia, Alexander I. After this battle, the third anti-French coalition broke up, and Austria had to accept the difficult conditions of the Bratislava Peace, which practically meant the loss of Austrian political influence in South Germany and Southern Europe, and France became a powerful land power. Now the biggest opponent of France in the struggle for hegemony in Europe was Great Britain, which, after the Battle of Cape Trafalgar, held unconditional dominance over the seas.

As a result of the war, Austria was completely ousted from Germany and Italy, and France established its hegemony on the European continent. March 15, 1806 Napoleon gave the Grand Duchy of Cleve and Berg into the possession of his brother-in-law I. Murat. He expelled from Naples the local Bourbon dynasty, which fled to Sicily under the protection of the English fleet, and on March 30 he placed his brother Joseph on the Neapolitan throne. On May 24, he transformed the Batavian Republic into the Kingdom of Holland, placing his other brother Louis at the head of it. In Germany, on June 12, the Confederation of the Rhine was formed from 17 states under the protectorate of Napoleon; On August 6, the Austrian emperor Franz II renounced the German crown - the Holy Roman Empire ceased to exist.

5. Fourth (1806-1807) and fifth (1808-1809) anti-French coalitions

The war against Napoleon was continued by England and Russia, which were soon joined by Prussia and Sweden, concerned about the strengthening of French domination in Europe. In September 1806, the 4th anti-French coalition of European states was formed. A month later, during two battles, on the same day, October 14, 1806, the Prussian army was destroyed: near Jena, Napoleon defeated parts of Prince Hohenlohe, and at Auerstedt, Marshal Davout defeated the main Prussian forces of King Frederick William and the Duke of Brunswick. Napoleon solemnly entered Berlin. Prussia was occupied. The Russian army moving to help the allies met with the French first near Pultusk on December 26, 1806, then at Preussisch-Eylau on February 8, 1807. Despite the bloodshed, these battles did not give an advantage to either side, but in June 1807 Napoleon won the battle of Friedland over the Russian troops commanded by L.L. Benigsen. On July 7, 1807, in the middle of the Neman River, a meeting of the French and Russian emperors took place on a raft, and the Peace of Tilsit was concluded. According to this peace, Russia recognized all the conquests of Napoleon in Europe, and joined the "Continental blockade" of the British Isles proclaimed by him in 1806. In the spring of 1809, England and Austria again united into the 5th anti-French coalition, but already in May 1809 the French entered Vienna, and on July 5-6, the Austrians were again defeated in the battle of Wagram. Austria agreed to pay an indemnity and joined the continental blockade. A significant part of Europe was under the rule of Napoleon.

6. End of the Napoleonic Wars

The national liberation movement that was growing in Europe acquired the greatest scope in Spain and Germany. However, the fate of Napoleon's empire was decided during his campaign in Russia. During the Patriotic War of 1812, the strategy of the Russian army, led by Field Marshal M.I. Kutuzov, partisan movement contributed to the death of more than 400 thousandth "Great Army". This caused a new upsurge in the national liberation struggle in Europe, in a number of states civil uprising. In 1813, the 6th anti-French coalition was formed, which included Russia, England, Prussia, Sweden, Austria, and a number of other states. In October 1813, as a result of the "battle of the peoples" near Leipzig, the territory of Germany was liberated from the French. The Napoleonic army withdrew to the borders of France, and then was defeated on its own land. On March 31, Allied troops entered Paris. On April 6, Napoleon I signed the abdication of the throne and was expelled from France to the island of Elba.

In 1815, during the famous "Hundred Days" (March 20 - June 22), Napoleon made his last attempt to regain his former power. The defeat in the Battle of Waterloo (Belgium) on June 18, 1815, inflicted on him by the troops of the 7th coalition under the command of the Duke of Wellington and Marshal Blucher, completed the history of the Napoleonic wars. Congress of Vienna(November 1, 1814 - June 9, 1815) decided the fate of France, securing the redistribution of the territories of European countries in the interests of the victorious states. The wars of liberation that were waged against Napoleon were inevitably associated with the partial restoration of the feudal-absolutist order in Europe (the “Holy Alliance” of European monarchs, concluded with the aim of suppressing the national liberation and revolutionary movement in Europe).

Results

As a result of the Napoleonic Wars military power France was broken and she lost her dominant position in Europe. The main political force on the continent was the Holy Union of Monarchs, led by Russia; The UK has maintained its status as the world's leading maritime power.

The aggressive wars of Napoleonic France threatened the national independence of many European peoples; at the same time, they contributed to the destruction of the feudal-monarchist order on the continent - the French army brought on its bayonets the principles of a new civil society (Civil Code) and the abolition of feudal relations; Napoleon's liquidation of many small feudal states in Germany facilitated the process of its future unification.

Bibliography

1. Bezotosny V.M. Napoleonic Wars. - M.: Veche, 2010.

2. Zalessky K.A. Biographical encyclopedic dictionary. Napoleonic Wars, 1799-1815, M., 2003

3. Easdale C.J. Napoleonic Wars. Rostov-on-Don, 1997

4. encyclopedic Dictionary Brockhaus and Efron Napoleonic Wars. - St. Petersburg: Publishing Society "F.A. Brockhaus - I.A. Efron", 1907-1909

5. Chandler D. Napoleon's military campaigns. Triumph and tragedy of the conqueror. M., 2000

6. http://www.krugosvet.ru/

7. http://www.bezmani.ru/spravka/bse/base/3/014204.htm

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Na-po-leo-nov wars are commonly called wars, which were waged by France against European countries in the period of the reign of Na-po-leo-on Bo- on-par-ta, that is, in 1799-1815. European countries created anti-Napoleonic coalitions, but their forces were insufficient to break the power of the Napoleonic army. Napoleon won victory after victory. But the invasion of Russia in 1812 changed the situation. Napoleon was expelled from Russia, and the Russian army launched a foreign campaign against him, which ended with the Russian invasion of Paris and Napoleon's loss of the title of emperor.

Rice. 2. British Admiral Horatio Nelson ()

Rice. 3. Battle of Ulm ()

On December 2, 1805, Napoleon won a brilliant victory at Austerlitz.(Fig. 4). In addition to Napoleon, the emperor of Austria personally participated in this battle and Russian emperor Alexander I. The defeat of the anti-Napoleonic coalition in central Europe allowed Napoleon to withdraw Austria from the war and focus on other regions of Europe. So, in 1806, he conducted an active campaign to capture the Kingdom of Naples, which was an ally of Russia and England against Napoleon. Napoleon wanted to put his brother on the throne of Naples Jerome(Fig. 5), and in 1806 he made another of his brothers King of the Netherlands, LouisIBonaparte(Fig. 6).

Rice. 4. Battle of Austerlitz ()

Rice. 5. Jerome Bonaparte ()

Rice. 6. Louis I Bonaparte ()

In 1806, Napoleon managed to radically solve the German problem. He liquidated a state that had existed for almost 1000 years - Holy Roman Empire. Of the 16 German states, an association was created, called Confederation of the Rhine. Napoleon himself became the protector (defender) of this Confederation of the Rhine. In fact, these territories were also placed under his control.

feature these wars, which in history have been called Napoleonic Wars, was that the composition of the opponents of France changed all the time. By the end of 1806, the anti-Napoleonic coalition included completely different states: Russia, England, Prussia and Sweden. Austria and the Kingdom of Naples were no longer in this coalition. In October 1806, the coalition was almost completely defeated. In just two battles, under Auerstedt and Jena, Napoleon managed to deal with the Allied troops and force them to sign a peace treaty. Near Auerstedt and Jena, Napoleon defeated the Prussian troops. Now nothing prevented him from moving further north. Napoleonic troops soon occupied Berlin. Thus, another important rival of Napoleon in Europe was taken out of the game.

November 21, 1806 Napoleon signed the most important for the history of France continental blockade decree(a ban on all countries subject to him to trade and in general to conduct any business with England). It was England that Napoleon considered his main enemy. In response, England blockaded French ports. However, France could not actively resist England's trade with other territories.

Russia was the rival. In early 1807, Napoleon managed to defeat the Russian troops in two battles on the territory of East Prussia.

July 8, 1807 Napoleon and AlexanderIsigned the Treaty of Tilsit(Fig. 7). This agreement, concluded on the border of Russia and French-controlled territories, proclaimed good neighborly relations between Russia and France. Russia pledged to join the continental blockade. However, this treaty meant only a temporary softening, but in no way overcoming the contradictions between France and Russia.

Rice. 7. Peace of Tilsit 1807 ()

Napoleon had a difficult relationship with Pope PiusVII(Fig. 8). Napoleon and the Pope had an agreement on the division of powers, but their relationship began to deteriorate. Napoleon considered church property to belong to France. The Pope did not tolerate this and after the coronation of Napoleon in 1805 he returned to Rome. In 1808, Napoleon brought his troops to Rome and deprived the pope of secular power. In 1809, Pius VII issued a special decree in which he cursed the robbers of church property. However, he did not mention Napoleon in this decree. This epic ended with the fact that the Pope was almost forcibly transported to France and forced to live in the Fontainebleau Palace.

Rice. 8. Pope Pius VII ()

As a result of these campaigns of conquest and the diplomatic efforts of Napoleon, by 1812, a huge part of Europe was under his control. Through relatives, military leaders or military conquests, Napoleon subjugated almost all the states of Europe. Only England, Russia, Sweden, Portugal and the Ottoman Empire, as well as Sicily and Sardinia, remained outside his zone of influence.

June 24, 1812 Napoleon's army invaded Russia. The beginning of this campaign for Napoleon was successful. He managed to pass a significant part of the territory of the Russian Empire and even capture Moscow. He could not hold the city. At the end of 1812, the Napoleonic army fled from Russia and again fell into the territory of Poland and the German states. The Russian command decided to continue the pursuit of Napoleon outside the territory of the Russian Empire. It went down in history as Foreign campaign of the Russian army. He was very successful. Even before the beginning of the spring of 1813, Russian troops managed to take Berlin.

From October 16 to October 19, 1813, the largest battle in the history of the Napoleonic Wars took place near Leipzig., known as "Battle of the Nations"(Fig. 9). The name of the battle was due to the fact that almost half a million people took part in it. Napoleon at the same time had 190 thousand soldiers. His rivals, led by the British and Russians, had about 300,000 soldiers. The numerical superiority was very important. In addition, Napoleon's troops did not have the readiness in which they were in 1805 or 1809. A significant part of the old guard was destroyed, and therefore Napoleon had to take into his army people who did not have a serious military training. This battle ended unsuccessfully for Napoleon.

Rice. 9. Battle of Leipzig 1813 ()

The allies made Napoleon an advantageous offer: they offered him to keep his imperial throne if he agreed to cut France to the borders of 1792, that is, he had to give up all conquests. Napoleon indignantly refused this offer.

March 1, 1814 members of the anti-Napoleonic coalition - England, Russia, Austria and Prussia - signed Chaumont treatise. It prescribed the actions of the parties to eliminate the Napoleonic regime. The parties to the treaty pledged to field 150,000 soldiers in order to resolve the French question once and for all.

Although the Treaty of Chaumont was only one in a series of European treaties of the 19th century, it was given a special place in the history of mankind. The Chaumont treaty was one of the first treaties aimed not at joint campaigns of conquest (it did not have an aggressive orientation), but at joint defense. The signatories of the Treaty of Chaumont insisted that the wars that shook Europe for 15 years should finally end and the era of the Napoleonic wars should end.

Almost a month after the signing of this agreement, March 31, 1814, Russian troops entered Paris(Fig. 10). This ended the period of the Napoleonic wars. Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to the island of Elba, which was given to him for life. It seemed that his story was over, but Napoleon tried to return to power in France. You will learn about this in the next lesson.

Rice. 10. Russian troops enter Paris ()

Bibliography

1. Jomini. Political and military life Napoleon. A book covering Napoleon's military campaigns up to 1812

2. Manfred A.Z. Napoleon Bonaparte. - M.: Thought, 1989.

3. Noskov V.V., Andreevskaya T.P. General history. 8th grade. - M., 2013.

4. Tarle E.V. "Napoleon". - 1994.

5. Tolstoy L.N. "War and Peace"

6. Chandler D. Napoleon's military campaigns. - M., 1997.

7. Yudovskaya A.Ya. General history. History of the New Age, 1800-1900, Grade 8. - M., 2012.

Homework

1. Name the main opponents of Napoleon during 1805-1814.

2. Which battles from the series of Napoleonic wars left the greatest mark on history? Why are they interesting?

3. Tell us about Russia's participation in the Napoleonic Wars.

4. What was the significance of the Treaty of Chaumont for European states?

The British Army entered these wars as little more than a collection of corporate regiments staffed, moreover, by not the best representatives of their nation on the basis of "voluntary" recruitment. Strict discipline, based on the inevitability and severity of punishment, made it possible to keep the “red coats” in obedience. At the same time, the distance between the rank and file and officer corps was the largest in the British army, unlike other European, or, as the British said, continental armies, which was noted by many contemporaries. And only the reforms carried out under the leadership of Prince Frederick, Duke of York at the turn of the century, allowed the British Army to restore its combat effectiveness and become a worthy adversary of Napoleonic France during the Pyrenees Company of 1807-1814 and in June 1815.

INFANTRY:

The infantry units of the British Army in the European theater of operations were represented by regiments of line and light infantry, as well as special rifle units. All regiments of the British army had both a continuous numbering according to the seniority of their formation, and their own names according to the territories of the counties, regimental chiefs, etc.

In general, the British infantry was tenacious both on the defensive and on the offensive. The volley fire produced by the deployed ranks of British infantry was superior in density and rate of fire to all continental armies.

Line infantry:

Organization and structure:

The British infantry had a battalion structure like most continental armies. True, until the end of the 18th century, almost all the infantry regiments of the British army had one battalion, which made it inconvenient, from a tactical point of view, to control them during the battle. By 1807, most of the infantry regiments switched to two battalions.

All British infantry battalions had the same 10-company composition, 85-100 people each. The basis of the infantry battalion was eight so-called "central" or "battalion" companies. The "flank" companies consisted of one grenadier or "right flank" and one light skirmisher or "left flank" company.

The Guard was represented in the British Army by three infantry regiments of three battalions: 1st Foot Guard, Coldstream Guard and 3rd Foot Guard.

A uniform:

Battalion companies:

Since 1800, the English infantry wore short single-breasted uniforms, the cut of which was similar to the Austrian infantry uniforms, the traditional red color for the English army. Red in combination with white for uniforms and sultans on shakos denoted the colors of the cross of St. George - the patron saint of England. In reality, the color of the uniforms of the lower ranks (other ranks) was pale maroon, closer to a brick tint, while the officer's uniforms were bright scarlet. The collars and cuffs of each of the regiments had their own distinctive color. In addition, each of the regiments had its own lace, usually white with a distinctive pattern in the form of colored lines, stripes, chains, etc. The collar, cuffs and buttonholes of the uniform side were trimmed with lace. Buttonholes, which were supposed to have 8, were grouped one by one, two or three, symmetrically on both sides of the uniform. Depending on the traditions of the regiment, the endings of the buttonholes could be straight, pointed or in the form of a “bastion” (pentagonal). On the buttons was placed the number of the regiment or other images, own for some regiments. Shoulder straps, the colors of instrument cloth, had lush but short tassels of white woolen threads on the outer edge, the so-called “comb” (tufts). The lining and lapels of the tailcoat of the uniform were white in all regiments.

At full form infantrymen had to wear white short trousers - breeches with white stockings, which were abolished only in 1823. With the same uniform, the lower ranks wore black cloth leggings, fastened with metal buttons and covering their legs well above the knees. White spats were used only for state ceremonies. But the most common and practical were hiking trousers (overalls) of a straight cut (winter - gray cloth, summer - white linen), which soldiers wore during campaigns and military campaigns. Shoes were black shoes with gray half-gaiters or boots with short tops, worn under pants.

Greatcoats in the British army appeared in the middle of 1800 and were unified in cut for almost all branches of the military. Overcoats of all ranks had capes and a high standing collar. The overcoats of the lower ranks were single-breasted. Their color could vary from dark gray to blue-gray. The overcoat was worn in a roll over a knapsack.

If the uniform of the British infantryman remained practically unchanged from 1800 to 1815, then the hats changed three times.

In December 1800, the “all-weather and universal” triangular hat of the lower ranks and non-commissioned officers was replaced by a new-fashioned leather hat - a shako (shako). The shako was made of black patent leather and had a cylindrical shape 9 inches (230 mm) high, with a top cover diameter of 7 inches (180 mm). The shako had a straight leather visor 2 inches (51 mm) wide. For protection from the weather, the shako was equipped with a leather flap 3 inches (76 mm) high, which, under normal conditions, folded up and was fixed on the back wall with hooks. In front of the shako was decorated with a small woolen sultan. red-white colors, black silk cockade and brass forehead plaque. Rectangular plate 6 x 4 inches (153 x 100 mm) had a stamped image of the royal monogram "GR" and military fittings. In some regiments, this image was supplemented by regimental insignia. The design of the shako was very cumbersome, which was felt by the foot soldiers during the Egyptian campaign of 1800-1801, and required constant care.

In 1806, a new lightweight version of the infantry shako was introduced into the British army. It began to be made of felt and was also varnished. The height of the shako was increased to 10 inches (254 mm). All the details of the previous sample of the shako were preserved. Because of their shape, these shakos were nicknamed "chimneys" (stovepipes). Light infantry received similar shakos, but cone-shaped.

In June 1811, it was decided to replace the shakos of the English infantry with new, more practical and elegant models. Already in May 1812, new shakos were introduced for all ranks of the line infantry, which later received the nickname “Belgian cap” (Belgic cap). This name naturally appeared only after the campaign of 1815, which became for the British a symbol of the victory at Waterloo. In addition, the new shako had other unofficial names: “Portugal shako”, “Wellington shako” and “Waterloo shako”. In reality, new shakos began to enter the army only in 1814-1815.

The shako was made from black felt. The cylinder height of the main body of the shako was reduced to 6.5 inches (170 mm). The so-called "false forehead" or vertical visor was about 8 inches (210 mm) high and was trimmed around the edge with black braid 0.5 inches (12 mm) wide. In the center of the forehead was a brass plaque 5 x 3 inches (140 x 95 mm) with the image of the royal monogram “GR”, with the addition of the actual badge or number of the regiment in some regiments. The flat leather visor and rear flap remain the same. Sultanchik and cockade moved to the left side. In addition, the shako decorated the etiquette of white woolen cords, ending on one side with braided rosettes and tassels. In all cases, except for parades and state ceremonies, shakos, for their safety, were covered with waterproof covers.

Officers of the infantry regiments from 1800 to 1812 wore felt bicorners decorated with a red and white feather plume. Since 1812, all officers, in uniform, had to wear a new type of shako.

The forage caps of the British army (fatigue cap), worn by all the lower ranks out of order, resembled Russian caps, with the addition of a pom-pom on the crown. In reality, this headgear varied from regiment to regiment, some of them resembled the caps of the Prussian Landwehr (without a visor), or even resembled, in shape, a simple beret. All of them were supposed to be blue and have a red band. The color of the pompom differed by company: red and white in battalion companies, white in grenadier companies, and green in light companies. For officers, the band was covered with a special uniform (silver or gold) galloon. As a rule, caps, rolled up, were worn under a cartridge bag.

Since 1802, the differences in the ranks of non-commissioned officers began to be indicated by sleeve chevrons. One more hallmark non-commissioned officers of the British army were required to wear an archaic 9-foot pike in combat uniform.

In 1808, the wearing of braids and other “barbers” was abolished in the English army.

Flank companies:

The soldiers of the flank companies (grenadier and light companies) wore uniforms similar to the battalion companies of their regiments. With general regimental differences, they differed from each other in a number of small details, traditional for almost all European armies of this period. So, for example, in most armies, grenadiers are characterized by red details and emblems depicting burning grenades, and for rangers, shooters, flankers and skirmishers - yellow or green details and emblems depicting a hunting horn. Accordingly, to the forehead plaque of shakos described above in light companies, an ornament in the form of a silver hunting horn could be added, and in grenadier companies - a gilded grenade. The same symbols could also be located on the shako's badge itself.

The uniforms of the soldiers of both flank companies had on their shoulders located directly behind the shoulder seam “wings” (wings) of red color (in the guards regiments they were dark blue). In 1815, white wool rolls or a short white fringe were added along the outer edge of the “porches”. The “porches” were covered with six transverse pieces of white galloon, while in the grenadier companies only the outer edge of the “porches” was sheathed with white braid.

The companies differed from each other:

Grenadiers: a white sultan on a shako and a grenade instead of a button in the center of the cockade. Officers wore galloon or metal "porches". In addition, fur grenadier hats were included in the ceremonial uniform of the British grenadiers. However, they were practically not used in the field. After 1812, fur hats were to be worn only in full uniform during parades and state ceremonies;

Light companies: green sultan and cords on the shako, as well as a horn in the center of the cockade. At the beginning of 1815, in order to increase camouflage, the wearing of forehead plaques in all light regiments, companies and riflemen (rifles) was canceled. Instead, their traditional horn and regiment number were left as decoration (something similar could have been found in some regiments before, but as a private initiative). Officers of light companies (until 1812) preferred to wear shakos or hussar caps-mirletons in field uniforms.

Scottish regiments (Highlander Regiments):

The Scottish regiments, as an integral part of the British army, certainly deserve special attention. Contradictory impressions from their crushing attacks and extravagant, from the point of view of other nationalities, clothes led to the fact that, among others, they were given the nickname “ladies from hell” and “Amazons”. The French, who had the misfortune to see them enter Paris, called them "British sans-culottes". The pipers, who played the role of drummers in the Scottish regiments, looked no less colorful. It should be understood that we are talking about the regiments of the Scottish highlanders - Highlander Regiment - as they were called in the British army, staffed by residents of the Highland part of Scotland. The regiments recruited in the lowland part of Scotland did not differ in their uniform from the rest of the infantry and, at best, had the word “Scots” in the name of their regiment.

All fifteen Highlander Regiments, considered shock units, had a similar structure to line infantry regiments.

They wore the usual infantry uniform, but with details that had their origins in Scottish military traditions, most of which date back to the 17th century. The headdress in the Highlander Regiments was a Scottish hat (bonnet or feathered bonnet), which was decorated with a black plume of ostrich feathers (about 35 cm high). At the beginning of the century, the plume consisted of only 3-7 feathers, but under the influence of fashion, by the end of the Napoleonic wars, it “grew” to such an extent that the hats of Scottish soldiers began to resemble grenadier bear hats in silhouette, which their owners probably aspired to. The cap had a "Highland dicing" band, with a pattern of green-white-red checks. The top of the hat was decorated with a red pom-pom (white among the grenadiers), which, due to the “feather vegetation”, was practically invisible. Feather plumes, attached on the left side, were red with a white base in battalion companies, white in grenadier companies and green in light companies. They were fastened with a black silk cockade with a grenade or horn in the flank companies and with a uniform button in the battalion companies. The regiments participating in the Egyptian Company of 1800-1801 wore on their cockades the image of a white metal sphinx with the inscription "EGYPT". During the Iberian War, removable leather visors appeared on Scottish hats.

The uniforms in the Scottish regiments had short tails. Otherwise, namely in their design, regimental and between company differences, they did not differ from the uniforms of the English line infantry regiments.

Kilts (kilts) - the famous men's skirts, to which Scottish soldiers, no matter where they appeared, always owed a lot of sharp or vice versa respectful nicknames. Kilts were pleated (on the sides and back) or smooth, wrapped in front, skirt. As noted above, only Highland Scottish regiments wore kilts.

The fabric from which the kilts were made had a special checkered pattern for each regiment, the so-called “tartan” (tartan), belonging to one of the many clans. IN late XVII century, a single type of tartan was introduced for all regiments - “Government” (Government). There was another name for this type of pattern: “42nd tartan”, given to it by the regiment number - 42nd Black Watch, the oldest of the highland regiments, which was the first to wear kilts with this pattern. It was a mixture of blue, black and a small amount of green stripes. Sometimes, at general type tartan, the shelves were distinguished by a thin colored stripe added to his design.

Kilts were worn by all lower ranks of the Highlander Regiment in all uniforms.

Officers in combat uniform preferred to wear ordinary gray or blue infantry pants (overalls), worn over boots. Sometimes they were hemmed with leather, decorated with stripes (white or regimental color) on the sides. At the same time, a short plaid (plaid) was worn over the uniform, more precisely behind the back, fastened on the left shoulder.

The kilt was worn with linen stockings (hose) with light red intersecting diagonal stripes. On the leg, the stockings were supported by red garters. To protect against dirt and dampness, the soldiers wore short gray leggings over their stockings.

Fur purses (sporran) - the same integral part of Scottish military clothing, were worn by all ranks of the regiments, but not with combat uniforms.

In Scottish regiments senior officers were armed with infantry sabers. The rest of the officers, sergeants and bagpipers wore traditional Scottish broadswords with a large hemispherical guard.

LIGHT INFANTRY

Since 1794, companies of light infantry began to be introduced into the regiments of the line infantry to conduct small arms combat in loose formation. However, following the example of many continental armies, in the British army, from 1802, separate regiments of light infantry began to be organized, which, during the period of hostilities, were supposed to provide brigades and divisions with a sufficient number of rifle units, while leaving light companies in the line infantry regiments. By 1807, there were already 7 regiments of light infantry in the British army - the 43rd, 51st, 52nd, 68th, 71st and 85th Light Infantry Regiments, which were reorganized from the line infantry regiments.

These regiments did not differ in their uniforms from the uniforms of the light companies of the regiments of the line infantry, but continued to wear the old felt shakos introduced back in 1806. The shakos were decorated with a green plume, and instead of a forehead plate, with a hunting horn. In the 71st (Glasgow Highland Light Infantry), the shako regiment had the “Highland dicing” band.

The officers of the light infantry regiments in their uniforms very often used “hussar motifs”, which was expressed in the embroidering of the uniform with cords, wearing hussar sashes, boots and even mentics.

Arrows (Rifles):

During the Napoleonic Wars, special light infantry units armed with rifled weapons began to appear in European armies, designed to conduct small arms combat exclusively in loose formation. From the shooters in combat conditions, courage, personal initiative, the ability to “camouflage” on the ground and, of course, fast well-aimed shooting were required.

In 1802, on the basis of Sir John Moor's Experimental Corps of Riflemen, the 95th (Rifles) Regiment was created - one of the most famous regiments of the British army, which gained respect even among enemies thanks to its excellent training and fighting qualities.

The 95th had an all green uniform with a black distinctive color. The uniforms in the regiment were double-breasted and did not have lapels. Pewter buttons. Shoulder straps with black tassels at the shoulder seam. White edging ran along the edges of the cuffs and collar. The soldiers of the regiment wore dark green trousers with short black leggings.

The headdress of the shooters was the light infantry shako of the 1806 model with a green sultan and a cockade with a uniform button in the center. The forehead plaque was in the form of a silver hunting horn. On the shakos of this regiment, a green etiquette was worn, fastened under the cockade. The forage hats were black with a white edging and a black pom-pom.

The equipment of the shooters, in addition to the general infantry satchel, bag and flask, also included a waist belt, on which a black leather bag for bullets was worn. A green cord was attached to the sling of the cartridge bag, on which a powder flask hung. The lower ranks were armed with “Baker” fittings (barrel length 76 cm) and long bayonet cleavers (about 60 cm) with a brass guard and black leather scabbard. Ammunic belts were made of black leather.

The officers of the riflemen of the 95th regiment wore a hussar-type uniform. Dolomans and mentics (with 3 rows of silver buttons) were embroidered with black cord on the chest, back and back seams of the sleeves. The collar and cuffs were decorated with black embroidery. Mentic with similar decorations had brown or gray fur trim. In full uniform, the officers were supposed to have a dark green long-sleeved uniform with white lining and coattails. On the shoulders were black "porches" with silver trim. Obviously, there were several versions of officer shakos, including a shako with a square-shaped visor. The etishket on officer shakos was fastened on the left side. The belts were of the hussar type, or silk as in the infantry of the line, in both cases crimson. In full dress, officers wore tight dark green trousers with hussar boots. In other cases, green infantry pantaloons were worn, as a rule? lined with black leather. The officers were armed with light cavalry sabers. Ammunition, like that of the lower ranks, was made of black leather. Overcoats with capes were white.

Another, no less famous rifle unit was the 5th battalion of the 60th (Royal American) regiment, formed back in 1798. Initially, the battalion fought in the overseas colonies of the British Empire, until in June 1808 it arrived in Portugal, where it took an active part in the Pyrenean Company 1807-1814.

The ranks of the battalion had a uniform and equipment similar to the 95th (Rifles) Regiment, with the only difference that the color of the instrument cloth was red.

FOREIGN FORMATIONS:

During the fighting, the British Empire, following the example of many continental armies, formed numerous foreign units as part of its army. The most famous among them were The King's German Legion and The Duke of Brunswick's "Black Corps".

Royal German Legion:

In May 1803, French troops occupied Hanover, whose Elector was the British King George III. At the initiative of the Duke of Cambridge, the formation of the Royal German Regiment began from patriotic Hanoverian emigrants. In December 1803, by personal decree of the king, the regiment was transformed into the Royal German Legion. He was taken into British service under the overall command of the Duke of York. By February 1806, the legion had 8 battalions of line, 2 battalions of light infantry (arrows), 2 regiments of heavy and 3 regiments of light dragoons, 4 batteries of foot and 2 batteries of horse artillery.

The Royal German Legion took part in many battles of the Pyrenees campaign of 1807-1814 and in June 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo. In 1815 the Royal German Legion was disbanded. The personnel of the legion was used to recruit the Hanoverian army.

The uniform of the legion units corresponded to similar infantry, cavalry and artillery units of the British army. The abbreviation "KGL" (King's German Legion) was present in the detailing of the uniforms of the ranks of the legion.

"The Black Corps of the Duke of Brunswick":

The corps was formed in 1809 on the initiative and at the expense of Wilhelm Friedrich, Duke of Brunscheig. As volunteer corps(Freikorp) was taken into Austrian service. In May 1809, Wilhelm Friedrich attempted to liberate the Duchy of Brunswick, which had been incorporated into the Kingdom of Westphalia in 1806. After the defeat of Austria, he fought his way to the North of Germany to the port of Weser, where on August 5, 1809, having loaded the remains of the Black Pack (Schwarze Schar) onto British ships, he was evacuated to England. The corps was accepted into British service and, consisting of 9 infantry, 3 jaeger battalions and one hussar division, took an active part in the Pyrenean campaign of 1807-1814. The personnel of the corps included, in addition to Germans, Croats, Danes, Dutch, Italians and Poles (prisoners of war and deserters).

In 1814 the corps was disbanded. However, in June 1815, having received news of the return of Napoleon, Wilhelm Friedrich, at the head of the revived 7,000th corps (6 infantry battalions, life and vanguard battalions, one hussar regiment and one lancer squadron, two batteries of foot artillery) joined Wellington's army. On June 16, 1815, in the battle of Quatre-Bras, at a critical moment, he supported the British units. His actions largely saved Wellington's army from defeat, but the Duke of Brunswick himself was mortally wounded. The death of his commander and the losses suffered did not affect in the best way on the morale of the “Brunswickers” and their participation in the Battle of Waterloo was less than satisfactory

A distinctive feature of the uniform was the black color of the uniforms, which gave the name to the corps itself, as well as the image “ dead head” on shakos.

Napoleon said: "Victory will give me the opportunity, as a master, to accomplish whatever I want"

Napoleonic Wars 1799-1815- fought by France and its allies during the years of the Consulate (1799-1804) and the Empire of Napoleon I (1804-1815) against coalitions of European states.

The nature of wars:

1) aggressive

2) revolutionary (undermining the feudal order, the development of capitalist relations in Europe, the spread of revolutionary ideas)

3) bourgeois (were conducted in the interests of the French bourgeoisie, who sought to consolidate their military-political and commercial and industrial dominance on the continent, pushing the British bourgeoisie into the background)

Main opponents: England, Russia, Austria

Wars:

1) fight with 2 anti-French coalition

2 anti-French coalition was formed in 1798-99 . participants: England, Russia, Austria, Turkey and the Kingdom of Naples

Brumaire 18 (November 9), 1799 - the establishment of the military dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte, who became the first consul - the conditional date for the start of the Napoleonic wars

May 1800 - Napoleon at the head of an army moved across the Alps to Italy and defeated the Austrian troops at the Battle of Marengo (June 14, 1800).

Outcome: 1) France received Belgium, the left bank of the Rhine and control over all of Northern Italy, where the Italian Republic was created (Treaty of Luneville)

2) the 2nd anti-French coalition actually ceased to exist,

Russia withdrew from it because of disagreements; Only Great Britain continued the war.

After the resignation of W. Pitt the Younger (1801), the new English government entered into negotiations with France

Outcome of negotiations:

1802 - signing Treaty of Amiens. France withdrew its troops from Rome, Naples and Egypt, and England - from the island of Malta.

BUT 1803 - the resumption of war between France and Great Britain.

1805 - Battle of Trafalgar. The English fleet under the command of Admiral G. Nelson defeated and destroyed the combined Franco-Spanish fleet. This defeat thwarted the strategic plan of Napoleon I to organize the landing in Great Britain of the French expeditionary army, concentrated in the Boulogne camp.

1805 - creation 3 anti-French coalition(Great Britain, Austria, Russia, Sweden).

Military operations - along the Danube. Within three weeks, Napoleon defeated the 100,000-strong Austrian army in Bavaria, forcing the surrender of the main Austrian forces on October 20 at Ulm.

December 2, 1805 - the battle of Austerlitz, in which Napoleon inflicted a crushing defeat on the Russian and Austrian troops.

December 26, 1805 - Peace of Pressburg. Austria pays an indemnity, she has lost a huge part of the land. From the South German states, Napoleon created the Confederation of the Rhine and appointed himself its head. In turn, the Russian Emperor Alexander I did not accept defeat and did not sign peace with Napoleon.

September 1806 - between Russia and Prussia was concluded new anti-French alliance joined by England and Sweden

October 14, 1806 in two battles at Jena and Auerstadt, the French defeated the Prussian army, thirteen days later Napoleon's army entered Berlin.

Outcome:

capitulation of Prussia, all possessions west of the Elbe - with Napoleon, where he formed the kingdom of Westphalia

The Duchy of Warsaw was created on the territory of Poland

A 100 million indemnity was imposed on Prussia, until the payment of which she was occupied by French troops.

2 battles with the Russian army:

French troops pushed back the Russian army and approached the Neman. Both Napoleon, who by this time had conquered all of Europe, and Alexander I, who had lost all allies, considered the further continuation of the war pointless.

July 7, 1807 - Peace of Tilsit. On a specially placed raft in the middle of the Neman River, a meeting of two emperors took place. Outcome:

Russia recognized all the conquests of the French Empire

Russia received freedom of action against Sweden and Turkey.

Under the secret clause of the agreement, Alexander promised to stop trading with England, that is, to join the continental blockade, announced shortly before by Napoleon.

May 1808 - popular uprisings in Madrid, Cartagena, Zaragoza, Murcia, Asturias, Grenada, Balajos, Valencia.

A series of heavy defeats of the French. Portugal revolted, on whose territory the British troops landed. The defeat of the Napoleonic troops in Spain undermined the international position of France.

Napoleon sought support in Russia.

Napoleon succeeded in obtaining an extension Franco-Russian Union, but only at the cost of recognizing Russia's rights to Moldavia, Wallachia and Finland, which then still belonged to Sweden. However, in the most important issue for Napoleon about Russia's attitude to Austria, Alexander I showed stubbornness. He was well aware of Napoleon's predicaments and was not at all disposed to help him pacify Austria. The discussion on the Austrian problem proceeded in a tense atmosphere. Unable to achieve concessions, Napoleon screamed, threw his cocked hat on the floor, and began to trample it with his feet. Alexander I, keeping calm, told him: "You are a hot person, but I'm stubborn: anger does not work on me. Let's talk, reason, otherwise I'll leave" - ​​and headed for the exit. Napoleon had to hold him back and calm down. The discussion resumed in a more moderate, even friendly tone.

Outcome: October 12, 1808 signing union convention, but no real strengthening of the Franco-Russian alliance occurred.

The conclusion of a new convention with Russia allowed Napoleon to throw his forces against Spain and take control of Madrid again.

April 1809 - Austria began hostilities on the Upper Danube with the support of England, which formed the 5th coalition against France.

heavy defeat of the Austrians, after which Franz I was forced to start peace negotiations.1

Napoleon annexed almost all of Western Galicia to the Duchy of Warsaw

Russia left the Tarnopol district.

Austria was deprived of Western Galicia, the provinces of Salzburg, parts of Upper Austria and Carniola, Carinthia, Croatia, as well as lands on the Adriatic coast (Trieste, Fiume, etc., which became the Illyrian departments of the French Empire). The Treaty of Schönbrunn in 1809 is the biggest success of Napoleon's diplomacy.

Russian-French relations began to deteriorate rapidly due to:

the conclusion of the Treaty of Schonbrunn and a significant expansion of the Duchy of Warsaw at the expense of Western Galicia

Napoleon's unwillingness to delimit spheres of influence in the Middle East. He tried with all his might to subjugate the Balkan Peninsula to his influence.

July 1810 - The Kingdom of Holland was annexed to France

December 1810 - Swiss territory of Vallis off France

February 1811 - the Duchy of Oldenburg, parts of the Duchy of Berg and the Kingdom of Hanover were ceded to France.

Hamburg, Bremen and Lübeck also belong to France, which was becoming a Baltic power

Napoleon's unsuccessful attempt to marry Alexander 1's sister Anna Pavlovna (of course, this is not the main thing)

Napoleon's support for the Poles' desire for independence, which did not suit Russia

Napoleon's failure to fulfill his promise to support Russia against Turkey

Russia's violation of the Continental Blockade Agreement.

This was the cause of the War of 1812.

Both countries violated the terms of the Peace of Tilsit. War was being prepared. Napoleon sought, above all, to tie Prussia and Austria more firmly to France.

February 24, 1812 - Friedrich Wilhelm III concluded a secret convention with France, according to which Prussia undertook to field a 20,000-strong corps to participate in the war against Russia.

March 14, 1812 - Austria also pledged to take part in the war against Russia, putting up a 30,000-strong corps for operations in Ukraine. But both of these agreements were signed under brute pressure from French diplomats.

Napoleon demanded that Russia comply with the conditions of the Tilsit peace.

On April 27, Kurakin, on behalf of the tsar, informed Napoleon that the precondition for this could be:

withdrawal of French troops from Prussia across the Elbe

liberation of Swedish Pomerania and Danzig

consent to Russian trade with neutral countries.

Napoleon refused. He deployed armed forces in Prussia and in the Duchy of Warsaw, right at the very borders of Russia.

representative of Alexander 1, Balashov, tried to convince Napoleon to stop the invasion. The latter answered the royal envoy with a rude and arrogant refusal. After Balashov's departure from Vilna, diplomatic relations between the Russian and French governments ceased.

The first failures of Napoleon, who failed to defeat the troops of General Barclay de Tolly in border battles, forced him to seek an honorable peace.

August 4-5 - Battle of Smolensk. Retreat of Russian troops. After Smolensk, Bonaparte for the first time tried to start negotiations with the Russian government, but the negotiations did not take place.

November 14-16 - Battle of the Berezina. The retreat towards the Berezina and Vilna led Napoleon's army to almost complete destruction. The already catastrophic situation of the French troops was further aggravated by the transition of the Prussian troops to the side of Russia. Thus, a new, 6th coalition against France was created. In addition to England and Russia, Napoleon was now opposed by Prussia, and then Sweden.

On August 10, Austria joined the 6th coalition at a time when a huge army consisting of Russian, Prussian, Swedish and English contingents was concentrating in Germany against Napoleon.

October 16-19, 1813 - "Battle of the Nations" near Leipzig. The defeated armies of Napoleon were forced to retreat behind the Rhine, and soon hostilities were transferred to the territory of France itself.

March 31 - Alexander I and Friedrich Wilhelm III, at the head of their troops, solemnly entered the streets of the French capital. Located in Fontainebleau, 90 kilometers from Paris, Napoleon was forced to abandon the continuation of the struggle

April 6 - Napoleon abdicated in favor of his son. later he dutifully proceeded to the south of France, in order to proceed further by sea to the island of Elba, granted to him by the allies for life possession.

May 30, 1814 - Treaty of Paris between France and the Sixth Coalition (Russia, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia), which was later joined by Spain, Portugal and Sweden.:

the restoration of the independence of Holland, Switzerland, the German principalities (which were united in a union) and the Italian states (except for the lands that were ceded to Austria).

Freedom of navigation on the Rhine and Scheldt was declared.

France returned most of the colonial possessions lost during the Napoleonic Wars

September 1814 - June 1815 - Congress of Vienna. Convened under the terms of the Paris Treaty. Representatives of all European states participated (except Turkey)

Tasks:

elimination of political changes and transformations that took place in Europe as a result of the French bourgeois revolution and the Napoleonic wars.

the principle of "legitimism", i.e., the restoration of the "legitimate" rights of former monarchs who have lost their possessions. In reality, the principle of "legitimism" was only a cover for the arbitrariness of the reaction

creation of guarantees against the return to power of Napoleon and the resumption of French wars of conquest

repartition of Europe in the interests of the victorious powers

Solutions:

France is deprived of all conquests, its borders remain the same as in 1792.

Transfer of Malta and the Ionian Islands to England

Austrian authority over northern Italy and some Balkan provinces

Division of the Duchy of Warsaw between Austria, Russia and Prussia. Lands included in Russian Empire, were called the Kingdom of Poland, and the Russian Emperor Alexander I became the Polish king.

incorporation of the territory of the Austrian Netherlands into the new Kingdom of the Netherlands

Prussia got part of Saxony, a significant territory of Westphalia and the Rhineland

Formation of the German Confederation

Significance of Congress:

determined the new balance of power in Europe, which had developed by the end of the Napoleonic Wars, for a long time denoting the leading role of the victorious countries - Russia, Austria and Great Britain - in international relations.

the Vienna system of international relations

the creation of the Holy Alliance of European States, which had the goal of ensuring the inviolability of European monarchies.

« 100 days» Napoleon - March-June 1815

Return of Napoleon to power

June 18, 1815 - Battle of Waterloo. Defeat of the French army. Napoleon's exile to Saint Helena.