200 years ago, on April 1, 1815, the first chancellor of the German Empire, Otto von Bismarck, was born. This German statesman entered as the founder of the German Empire, the "Iron Chancellor" and the actual head of foreign policy of one of the greatest European powers. Bismarck's policy made Germany the leading military and economic power in Western Europe.
Youth
Otto von Bismarck (Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck-Schönhausen) was born on April 1, 1815 at Schönhausen Castle in the province of Brandenburg. Bismarck was the fourth child and second son of a retired captain of a small estate nobleman (they were called junkers in Prussia) Ferdinand von Bismarck and his wife Wilhelmina, nee Mencken. The Bismarck family belonged to the ancient nobility, descended from the conquering knights of the Slavic lands on Labe-Elbe. The Bismarcks traced their lineage all the way back to the reign of Charlemagne. Schönhausen Manor has been in the hands of the Bismarck family since 1562. True, the Bismarck family could not boast of great wealth and did not belong to the largest landowners. Bismarcks have long served the rulers of Brandenburg in peace and military fields.
Bismarck inherited toughness, determination and willpower from his father. The Bismarck family was one of the three most self-confident Brandenburg families (Schulenburgs, Alvenslebens and Bismarcks), Friedrich Wilhelm I called them “bad, recalcitrant people” in his “Political Testament”. The mother was from a family of civil servants and belonged to the middle class. During this period, Germany was in the process of merging the old aristocracy and the new middle class. From Wilhelmina Bismarck received the liveliness of the mind of an educated bourgeois, a subtle and sensitive soul. This made Otto von Bismarck a very extraordinary person.
Otto von Bismarck spent his childhood in the Kniphof family estate near Naugard, in Pomerania. Therefore, Bismarck loved nature and retained a sense of connection with it all his life. He was educated at the private Plaman School, the Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium and the Zum Grauen Kloster Gymnasium in Berlin. Bismarck graduated from the last school at the age of 17 in 1832, having passed the matriculation exam. During this period, Otto was most interested in history. In addition, he was fond of reading foreign literature, studied French well.
Otto then entered the University of Göttingen, where he studied law. Study then attracted Otto little. He was a strong and energetic man, and gained fame as a reveler and a fighter. Otto participated in duels, in various tricks, visited pubs, dragged women and played cards for money. In 1833 Otto moved to the New Capital University in Berlin. During this period, Bismarck was mainly interested, in addition to "tricks", in international politics, and the area of \u200b\u200bits of his interests went beyond the borders of Prussia and the German Confederation, within which the thinking of the vast majority of young nobles and students of that time was limited. At the same time, Bismarck had a high conceit, he saw himself as a great man. In 1834 he wrote to a friend: "I will become either the greatest scoundrel or the greatest reformer of Prussia."
However, good abilities allowed Bismarck to successfully complete his studies. Before exams, he attended tutors. In 1835 he received a diploma and began working at the Berlin Municipal Court. In 1837-1838. served as an official in Aachen and Potsdam. However, being an official quickly bored him. Bismarck decided to leave the civil service, which went against the will of his parents, and was the result of a desire for complete independence. Bismarck was generally distinguished by a craving for full will. The career of an official did not suit him. Otto said: "My pride requires me to command, and not to fulfill other people's orders."
Bismarck, 1836
Bismarck the landowner
From 1839, Bismarck was engaged in the arrangement of his estate Kniphof. During this period, Bismarck, like his father, decided to "live and die in the countryside". Bismarck studied accounting and agriculture on his own. He showed himself to be a skilled and practical landowner who knew well both the theory of agriculture and practice. The value of the Pomeranian estates increased by more than a third during the nine years that Bismarck ruled them. At the same time, three years fell on the agricultural crisis.
However, Bismarck could not be a simple, albeit intelligent, landowner. There was a strength in him that did not allow him to live in peace in the countryside. He continued to gamble, sometimes in the evening he lowered everything that he managed to accumulate after months of painstaking work. He led a campaign with bad people, drank, seduced the daughters of peasants. For violent temper he was nicknamed "mad Bismarck".
At the same time, Bismarck continued to educate himself, read the works of Hegel, Kant, Spinoza, David Friedrich Strauss and Feuerbach, and studied English literature. Byron and Shakespeare fascinated Bismarck more than Goethe. Otto was very interested in English politics. Intellectually, Bismarck was an order of magnitude superior to all the Junker landowners around him. In addition, Bismarck - the landowner participated in local government, was a deputy from the district, deputy landrat and a member of the Landtag of the province of Pomerania. Expanded the horizons of his knowledge through travels to England, France, Italy and Switzerland.
In 1843 Bismarck's life took a decisive turn. Bismarck made acquaintance with the Pomeranian Lutherans and met the bride of his friend Moritz von Blankenburg, Maria von Thadden. The girl was seriously ill and dying. The personality of this girl, her Christian convictions and fortitude during her illness struck Otto to the core. He became a believer. This made him a staunch supporter of the king and Prussia. Serving the king meant serving God for him.
In addition, there was a radical change in his personal life. Bismarck met Johanna von Puttkamer at Maria and asked for her hand in marriage. Marriage to Johanna soon became Bismarck's mainstay in life, until her death in 1894. The wedding took place in 1847. Johanna bore Otto two sons and a daughter: Herbert, Wilhelm and Maria. A selfless wife and caring mother contributed to Bismarck's political career.
Bismarck with his wife
"Mad Deputy"
In the same period, Bismarck enters politics. In 1847 he was appointed representative of the Ostelbe knighthood in the United Landtag. This event was the beginning of Otto's political career. His activities in the inter-regional body of estate representation, which mainly controlled the financing of the construction of the Ostbahn (Berlin-Konigsberg road), mainly consisted of delivering critical speeches directed against the liberals who were trying to form a real parliament. Among the conservatives, Bismarck enjoyed a reputation as an active defender of their interests, who was able, without really delving into substantive argumentation, to arrange a "firework", divert attention from the subject of the dispute and excite the minds.
Opposing the liberals, Otto von Bismarck helped organize various political movements and newspapers, including the New Prussian Newspaper. Otto became a member of the lower house of the Prussian Parliament in 1849 and of the Erfurt Parliament in 1850. Bismarck was then opposed to the nationalist aspirations of the German bourgeoisie. Otto von Bismarck saw in the revolution only "the greed of the have-nots." Bismarck considered his main task to be the need to point out the historical role of Prussia and the nobility as the main driving force of the monarchy, and the protection of the existing socio-political order. The political and social consequences of the 1848 revolution, which engulfed much of Western Europe, had a profound effect on Bismarck and strengthened his monarchist views. In March 1848, Bismarck even planned to make a march on Berlin with his peasants in order to put an end to the revolution. Bismarck occupied the far right positions, being more radical even than the monarch.
During this revolutionary time, Bismarck acted as an ardent defender of the monarchy, Prussia and the Prussian Junkers. In 1850, Bismarck opposed a federation of German states (with or without the Austrian Empire), as he believed that this union would only strengthen the revolutionary forces. After that, King Frederick William IV, on the recommendation of the Adjutant General of the King Leopold von Gerlach (he was the leader of the ultra-right group surrounded by the monarch), appointed Bismarck as Prussian envoy to the German Confederation, in the Bundestag, which met in Frankfurt. At the same time, Bismarck also remained a member of the Prussian Landtag. The Prussian conservative debated the constitution with the liberals so vehemently that he even had a duel with one of their leaders, Georg von Vincke.
Thus, at the age of 36, Bismarck assumed the most important diplomatic post that the Prussian king could offer. After a short stay in Frankfurt, Bismarck realized that the further unification of Austria and Prussia within the framework of the German Confederation was no longer possible. The strategy of the Austrian chancellor Metternich, trying to turn Prussia into a junior partner of the Habsburg empire within the "Central Europe" led by Vienna, failed. The confrontation between Prussia and Austria in Germany during the revolution became clear. At the same time, Bismarck began to come to the conclusion that war with the Austrian Empire was inevitable. Only war can decide the future of Germany.
During the Eastern Crisis, even before the outbreak of the Crimean War, Bismarck, in a letter to Prime Minister Manteuffel, expressed the fear that the policy of Prussia, which oscillates between England and Russia, if it deviates towards Austria, an ally of England, could lead to war with Russia. “I would be careful,” Otto von Bismarck noted, “in search of protection from the storm, to moor our elegant and durable frigate to the old, worm-eaten warship of Austria.” He proposed to use this crisis wisely in the interests of Prussia, and not of England and Austria.
After the end of the Eastern (Crimean) War, Bismarck noted the collapse of the alliance based on the principles of conservatism of the three Eastern powers - Austria, Prussia and Russia. Bismarck saw that the gap between Russia and Austria would last for a long time and that Russia would seek an alliance with France. Prussia, in his opinion, had to avoid possible opposing alliances, and not allow Austria or England to involve her in an anti-Russian alliance. Bismarck increasingly took an anti-English position, expressing his distrust of the possibility of a productive alliance with England. Otto von Bismarck noted: "The security of England's island location makes it easier for her to abandon her continental ally and allows her to be abandoned to her fate, depending on the interests of British policy." Austria, if it becomes an ally of Prussia, will try to solve its problems at the expense of Berlin. In addition, Germany remained an area of confrontation between Austria and Prussia. As Bismarck wrote: “According to the policy of Vienna, Germany is too small for the two of us ... we both cultivate the same arable land ...”. Bismarck confirmed his earlier conclusion that Prussia would have to fight against Austria.
As Bismarck improved his knowledge of diplomacy and the art of government, he moved further and further away from the ultra-conservatives. In 1855 and 1857 Bismarck paid "reconnaissance" visits to the French emperor Napoleon III and came to the conclusion that he was a less significant and dangerous politician than the Prussian conservatives believed. Bismarck broke with Gerlach's entourage. As the future "Iron Chancellor" said: "We must operate with realities, not fiction." Bismarck believed that Prussia needed a temporary alliance with France to neutralize Austria. According to Otto, Napoleon III de facto suppressed the revolution in France and became the legitimate ruler. The threat to other states with the help of the revolution is now "England's favorite pastime."
As a result, Bismarck was accused of betraying the principles of conservatism and Bonapartism. Bismarck answered his enemies that "... my ideal politician is impartiality, independence in decision-making from sympathies or antipathies to foreign states and their rulers." Bismarck saw that the stability in Europe was more threatened by England, with her parliamentarism and democratization, than by Bonapartism in France.
Political "study"
In 1858, the mentally ill brother of King Frederick William IV, Prince Wilhelm, became regent. As a result, Berlin's political course changed. The period of reaction ended and Wilhelm proclaimed a "New Era", defiantly appointing a liberal government. Bismarck's ability to influence Prussian policy declined sharply. Bismarck was recalled from the Frankfurt post and, as he himself bitterly noted, sent "to the cold on the Neva." Otto von Bismarck became an envoy in St. Petersburg.
Petersburg experience greatly helped Bismarck as the future Chancellor of Germany. Bismarck became close to the Russian Foreign Minister, Prince Gorchakov. Later, Gorchakov would help Bismarck isolate first Austria and then France, making Germany the leading power in Western Europe. In Petersburg, Bismarck will realize that Russia still holds key positions in Europe, despite the defeat in the Eastern War. Bismarck studied the balance of political forces in the environment of the king and in the capital "light", and realized that the situation in Europe gives Prussia an excellent chance, which falls very rarely. Prussia could unite Germany, becoming its political and military core.
Bismarck's activities in St. Petersburg were interrupted due to a serious illness. For about a year, Bismarck was treated in Germany. He finally broke with the extreme conservatives. In 1861 and 1862 Bismarck was twice introduced to Wilhelm as a candidate for the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs. Bismarck outlined his view on the possibility of unifying "non-Austrian Germany". However, Wilhelm did not dare to appoint Bismarck as a minister, as he made a demonic impression on him. As Bismarck himself wrote: "He found me more fanatical than I really was."
But at the insistence of the War Minister von Roon, who patronized Bismarck, the king nevertheless decided to send Bismarck "to study" in Paris and London. In 1862, Bismarck was sent as an envoy to Paris, but did not stay there long.
To be continued…
Otto von Bismarck (Eduard Leopold von Schönhausen) was born on April 1, 1815 in the family estate of Schönhausen in Brandenburg northwest of Berlin, the third son of the Prussian landowner Ferdinand von Bismarck-Schönhausen and Wilhelmina Mencken, at birth he received the name Otto Eduard Leopold.
Schönhausen Manor was located in the heart of the province of Brandenburg, which occupied a special place in the history of early Germany. Five miles to the west of the estate was the Elbe River, the main waterway of Northern Germany. Schönhausen Manor has been in the hands of the Bismarck family since 1562.
All generations of this family served the rulers of Brandenburg in peace and military fields.
Wilhelmina, Otto's mother, came from a family of civil servants and belonged to the middle class. Such marriages increased in the nineteenth century as the educated middle classes and the old aristocracy began to coalesce into a new elite.
At the urging of Wilhelmina, Bernhard, the elder brother, and Otto were sent to study at the Plamann School in Berlin, where Otto studied from 1822 to 1827. At the age of 12, Otto left school and moved to the Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium, where he studied for three years. In 1830, Otto moved to the gymnasium "At the Gray Monastery", where he felt freer than in previous educational institutions. Neither mathematics, nor the history of the ancient world, nor the achievements of the new German culture attracted the attention of the young cadet. Most of all, Otto was interested in the politics of past years, the history of military and peaceful rivalry between different countries.
After graduating from high school, on May 10, 1832, at the age of 17, Otto entered the University of Göttingen, where he studied law. When he was a student, he gained a reputation as a reveler and a fighter, and excelled in duels. Otto played cards for money and drank a lot. In September 1833, Otto moved to the New Capital University in Berlin, where life turned out to be cheaper. To be more precise, Bismarck was only listed at the university, since he hardly attended lectures, but used the services of tutors who attended him before exams. In 1835 he received a diploma and was soon enlisted to work at the Berlin Municipal Court. In 1837, Otto took up the post of tax official in Aachen, a year later - the same post in Potsdam. There he joined the Guards Jaeger Regiment. In the autumn of 1838, Bismarck moved to Greifswald, where, in addition to performing his military duties, he studied animal breeding methods at the Elden Academy.
Bismarck is a landowner.
On January 1, 1839, Otto von Bismarck's mother, Wilhelmina, died. The death of his mother did not make a strong impression on Otto: only much later came to him a true assessment of her qualities. However, this event resolved for some time an urgent problem - what should he do after the end of his military service. Otto helped his brother Bernhard manage the Pomeranian estates, and their father returned to Schönhausen. His father's financial loss, together with an innate distaste for the lifestyle of a Prussian official, forced Bismarck to resign in September 1839 and take over the management of the family estates in Pomerania. In private conversations, Otto explained this by the fact that, due to his temperament, he was not suitable for the position of a subordinate. He did not tolerate any superiors over himself: "My pride requires me to command, and not to carry out other people's orders". Otto von Bismarck, like his father, decided "to live and die in the village" .
Otto von Bismarck himself studied accounting, chemistry, and agriculture. His brother, Bernhard, took almost no part in the management of the estates. Bismarck proved to be a quick-witted and practical landowner, winning the respect of his neighbors both with his theoretical knowledge of agriculture and with his practical successes. The value of the estates rose by more than a third in the nine years Otto ruled them, with three of the nine years experiencing a widespread agricultural crisis. And yet Otto could not be just a landowner.
 |
On the estate, Bismarck continued his education, taking up the works of Hegel, Kant, Spinoza, David Friedrich Strauss and Feuerbach. Otto was an excellent student of English literature, for Bismarck was more interested in England and her affairs than in any other country. Intellectually, the "mad Bismarck" was far superior to his neighbors - the junkers.
In mid-1841, Otto von Bismarck wanted to marry Ottoline von Puttkamer, the daughter of a wealthy Junker. However, her mother refused him, and in order to unwind Otto went traveling, visiting England and France. This vacation helped Bismarck to dispel the boredom of rural life in Pomerania. Bismarck became more sociable and made many friends.
Bismarck's entry into politics.
After his father's death in 1845, the family property was divided and Bismarck received the Schönhausen and Kniephof estates in Pomerania. In 1847 he married Johanna von Puttkamer, a distant relative of the girl he courted in 1841. Among his new friends in Pomerania were Ernst Leopold von Gerlach and his brother, who not only were at the head of the Pomeranian pietists, but were also part of a group of court advisers.
Bismarck, a student of Gerlach, became known for his conservative stance during the constitutional struggle in Prussia in 1848-1850. From a "mad junker" Bismarck turned into a "mad deputy" of the Berlin Landtag. Opposing liberals, Bismarck contributed to the creation of various political organizations and newspapers, including the "New Prussian newspaper" ("Neue Preussische Zeitung"). He was a member of the lower house of the Prussian parliament in 1849 and of the Erfurt parliament in 1850, when he opposed a federation of German states (with or without Austria), because he believed that this union would strengthen the revolutionary movement that was gaining strength. In his Olmutz speech, Bismarck spoke in defense of King Frederick William IV, who capitulated to Austria and Russia. The contented monarch wrote of Bismarck: "Ardent reactionary. Use later" .In May 1851, the King appointed Bismarck as Prussian representative to the Allied Diet in Frankfurt am Main. There, Bismarck almost immediately concluded that Prussia's goal could not be a German confederation under Austrian dominance, and that war with Austria was inevitable if Prussia were to dominate a united Germany. As Bismarck improved in the study of diplomacy and the art of government, he increasingly moved away from the views of the king and his camarilla. For his part, the king began to lose confidence in Bismarck. In 1859, the king's brother Wilhelm, who was then regent, relieved Bismarck of his duties and sent him as an envoy to St. Petersburg. There, Bismarck became close to the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Prince A.M. Gorchakov, who assisted Bismarck in his efforts to diplomatically isolate first Austria and then France.
Otto von Bismarck - Minister-President of Prussia. His diplomacy.
In 1862, Bismarck was sent as an envoy to France at the court of Napoleon III. He was soon recalled by King William I to resolve the contradictions on the issue of military appropriations, which was vigorously discussed in the lower house of parliament.
In September of the same year, he became the head of the government, and a little later - the minister-president and minister of foreign affairs of Prussia.A militant conservative, Bismarck announced to the liberal middle-class majority in parliament that the government would continue to collect taxes in accordance with the old budget, because parliament, due to internal contradictions, would not be able to pass the new budget. (This policy continued in 1863-1866, which allowed Bismarck to carry out military reform.) At a meeting of the parliamentary committee on September 29, Bismarck emphasized: "The great questions of the time will not be decided by speeches and majority resolutions - this was a blunder of 1848 and 1949 - but iron and blood." Since the upper and lower houses of parliament were unable to develop a unified strategy on the issue of national defense, the government, according to Bismarck, should take the initiative and force parliament to agree to its decisions. By limiting the activities of the press, Bismarck took serious measures to suppress the opposition.
For their part, the liberals sharply criticized Bismarck for offering to support the Russian Emperor Alexander II in suppressing the Polish uprising of 1863-1864 (the Alvensleben convention of 1863). Over the next decade, Bismarck's policies led to three wars: the war with Denmark in 1864, after which Schleswig, Holstein (Holstein) and Lauenburg were annexed to Prussia; Austria in 1866; and France (the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871).
On April 9, 1866, the day after Bismarck signed a secret agreement on a military alliance with Italy in the event of an attack on Austria, he submitted to the Bundestag his draft of a German parliament and universal secret suffrage for the country's male population. After the decisive Battle of Kötiggrätz (Sadova), in which the German troops defeated the Austrian ones, Bismarck managed to get the annexationist claims of Wilhelm I and the Prussian generals, who wanted to enter Vienna and demanded large territorial acquisitions, to be abandoned, and offered an honorable peace to Austria (Prague Peace of 1866) . Bismarck did not allow Wilhelm I to "bring Austria to its knees" by occupying Vienna. The future chancellor insisted on relatively easy peace terms for Austria in order to ensure her neutrality in the future conflict between Prussia and France, which year by year became inevitable. Austria was expelled from the German Confederation, Venice joined Italy, Hanover, Nassau, Hesse-Kasel, Frankfurt, Schleswig and Holstein went to Prussia.
One of the most important consequences of the Austro-Prussian war was the formation of the North German Confederation, which, along with Prussia, included about 30 more states. All of them, according to the constitution adopted in 1867, formed a single territory with laws and institutions common to all. The foreign and military policy of the union was actually transferred into the hands of the Prussian king, who was declared its president. A customs and military treaty was soon concluded with the South German states. These steps clearly showed that Germany was rapidly moving towards its unification under the leadership of Prussia.
The southern German lands of Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden remained outside the North German Confederation. France did everything possible to prevent Bismarck from including these lands in the North German Confederation. Napoleon III did not want to see a united Germany on his eastern borders. Bismarck understood that this problem could not be solved without a war. In the next three years, Bismarck's secret diplomacy was directed against France. In Berlin, Bismarck introduced a bill to Parliament exempting him from liability for unconstitutional acts, which was approved by the Liberals. French and Prussian interests kept clashing on various issues. In France at that time militant anti-German sentiments were strong. Bismarck played on them.
Appearance "ems dispatch" was caused by the scandalous events around the nomination of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern (nephew of Wilhelm I) to the Spanish throne, vacated after the revolution in Spain in 1868. Bismarck correctly calculated that France would never agree to such an option, and in the event of Leopold's accession in Spain, he would begin to rattle weapons and make belligerent statements against the North German Confederation, which would sooner or later end in war. Therefore, he vigorously promoted the candidacy of Leopold, assuring, however, Europe that the German government was completely uninvolved in the claims of the Hohenzollerns to the Spanish throne. In his circulars, and later in his memoirs, Bismarck denied his participation in this intrigue in every possible way, arguing that the nomination of Prince Leopold to the Spanish throne was a "family" affair of the Hohenzollerns. In fact, Bismarck and Minister of War Roon and Chief of Staff Moltke, who came to his aid, spent a lot of effort to convince the reluctant Wilhelm I to support Leopold's candidacy.
As Bismarck had hoped, Leopold's bid for the Spanish throne caused an uproar in Paris. On July 6, 1870, the French Foreign Minister, the Duke de Gramont, exclaimed: "This will not happen, we are sure of it ... Otherwise, we would be able to fulfill our duty without showing any weakness or hesitation." After this statement, Prince Leopold, without any consultation with the king and Bismarck, announced that he was renouncing his claims to the Spanish throne.
This step was not included in Bismarck's plans. Leopold's refusal destroyed his hopes that France herself would unleash a war against the North German Confederation. This was of fundamental importance for Bismarck, who sought to secure the neutrality of the leading European states in a future war, which he later succeeded largely due to the fact that it was France that was the attacking side. It is difficult to judge how sincere Bismarck was in his memoirs when he wrote that upon receiving the news of Leopold's refusal to take the Spanish throne "My first thought was to retire"(Bismarck repeatedly submitted his resignation to William I, using them as one of the means of pressure on the king, who without his chancellor meant nothing in politics), however, another of his memoirs dating back to the same time looks quite authentic: "I already at that time considered the war a necessity, from which we could not honorably evade" .
While Bismarck was thinking about other ways to provoke France into declaring war, the French themselves gave an excellent reason for this. On July 13, 1870, the French ambassador Benedetti came to William I, who was resting on the Ems waters, in the morning and conveyed to him a rather impudent request from his minister Gramont - to assure France that he (the king) would never give his consent if Prince Leopold again put forward his candidacy for Spanish throne. The king, outraged by such a trick that was really daring for the diplomatic etiquette of those times, answered with a sharp refusal and interrupted Benedetti's audience. A few minutes later, he received a letter from his ambassador in Paris, which stated that Gramont insisted that Wilhelm, in his own hand, assure Napoleon III that he had no intention of harming the interests and dignity of France. This news completely pissed off William I. When Benedetti asked for a new audience for a conversation on this topic, he refused to receive him and conveyed through his adjutant that he had said his last word.
Bismarck learned about these events from a dispatch sent that afternoon from Ems by adviser Abeken. The dispatch to Bismarck was delivered at lunchtime. Roon and Moltke dined with him. Bismarck read the dispatch to them. The dispatch made the most difficult impression on the two old soldiers. Bismarck recalled that Roon and Moltke were so upset that they "neglected food and drink." Having finished reading, after some time Bismarck asked Moltke about the state of the army and about its readiness for war. Moltke replied in the spirit that "an immediate outbreak of war is more advantageous than a delay." After that, Bismarck edited the telegram right there at the dinner table and read it to the generals. Here is its text: "After the news of the abdication of the Crown Prince of Hohenzollern was officially communicated to the French imperial government by the Spanish royal government, the French ambassador presented an additional demand to His Royal Majesty in Ems: to authorize him to telegraph to Paris that His Majesty the King undertakes for all future times never give his consent if the Hohenzollerns return to their candidacy. His Majesty the King refused to receive the French ambassador again and ordered the adjutant on duty to tell him that his majesty had nothing more to tell the ambassador. "
Even Bismarck's contemporaries suspected him of falsification "ems dispatch". The German Social Democrats Liebknecht and Bebel were the first to speak about this. Liebknecht in 1891 even published the pamphlet "The Ems Despatch, or How Wars Are Made". Bismarck, in his memoirs, wrote that he only crossed out "something" from the dispatch, but did not add "not a word" to it. What did Bismarck strike out of the Ems dispatch? First of all, something that could point to the true inspirer of the king's telegram appearing in print. Bismarck crossed out the wish of Wilhelm I to submit "to the discretion of your Excellency, i.e. Bismarck, the question of whether we should not inform both our representatives and the press about the new demand of Benedetti and the refusal of the king." To reinforce the impression of the French envoy's disrespect for William I, Bismarck did not include in the new text the mention that the king had responded to the ambassador "rather harshly." The rest of the reductions were not significant. The new edition of the Ems dispatch brought Roon and Moltke, who dined with Bismarck, out of depression. The latter exclaimed: "That sounds different; before it sounded like a signal to retreat, now it's a fanfare." Bismarck began to develop his future plans for them: “We must fight if we do not want to take on the role of the defeated without a fight. But success depends largely on the impressions that the origin of the war will cause in us and others; it is important that we are those who who was attacked, and Gallic arrogance and resentment will help us in this ... "
Further events unfolded in the most desirable direction for Bismarck. The publication of the "Ems dispatch" in many German newspapers caused an uproar in France. Foreign Minister Gramont shouted indignantly in parliament that Prussia had slapped France in the face. On July 15, 1870, the head of the French cabinet, Emile Olivier, demanded a loan of 50 million francs from Parliament and announced the government's decision to call up reservists into the army "in response to the call to war." The future President of France, Adolphe Thiers, who in 1871 would make peace with Prussia and drown the Paris Commune in blood, was still a member of Parliament in July 1870, and was perhaps the only sane politician in France in those days. He tried to convince the deputies to refuse credit to Olivier and to call up reservists, arguing that since Prince Leopold had renounced the Spanish crown, French diplomacy had achieved its goal and one should not quarrel with Prussia over words and bring matters to a rupture on a purely formal occasion. Olivier replied to this that he was "with a light heart" ready to bear the responsibility that henceforth fell on him. In the end, the deputies approved all the proposals of the government, and on July 19, France declared war on the North German Confederation.
Bismarck meanwhile communicated with the deputies of the Reichstag. It was important for him to carefully hide from the public his painstaking behind-the-scenes work to provoke France into declaring war. With his usual hypocrisy and resourcefulness, Bismarck convinced the deputies that in the whole story with Prince Leopold, the government and he personally did not participate. He shamelessly lied when he told the deputies that he learned about Prince Leopold's desire to take the Spanish throne not from the king, but from some "private person", that the North German ambassador left Paris himself "for personal reasons", but was not recalled by the government (in fact, Bismarck ordered the ambassador to leave France, being annoyed by his "softness" towards the French). Bismarck diluted this lie with a dose of truth. He did not lie when he said that the decision to publish the dispatch about the negotiations in Ems between William I and Benedetti was made by the government at the request of the king himself.
William I himself did not expect that the publication of the Ems Dispatch would lead to such a quick war with France. After reading Bismarck's edited text in the papers, he exclaimed: "This is war!" The king was afraid of this war. Bismarck later wrote in his memoirs that William I should not have negotiated with Benedetti at all, but he "left his person as a monarch to the shameless processing of this foreign agent" in large part due to the fact that he succumbed to the pressure of his wife Queen Augusta with "her justified in a feminine way by timidity and the national feeling that she lacked. Thus, Bismarck used Wilhelm I as a front for his behind-the-scenes intrigues against France.
When the Prussian generals began to win victory after victory over the French, not a single major European power stood up for France. This was the result of the preliminary diplomatic activity of Bismarck, who managed to achieve the neutrality of Russia and England. He promised Russia neutrality in the event of its withdrawal from the humiliating Treaty of Paris, which forbade it to have its own fleet in the Black Sea, the British were outraged by the draft treaty published at the direction of Bismarck on the annexation of Belgium by France. But the most important thing was that it was France that attacked the North German Confederation, despite the repeated peace-loving intentions and small concessions that Bismarck made towards her (withdrawal of Prussian troops from Luxembourg in 1867, statements of readiness to abandon Bavaria and create from it a neutral country, etc.). In editing the Ems dispatch, Bismarck did not impulsively improvise, but was guided by the real achievements of his diplomacy and therefore emerged victorious. And the winners, as you know, are not judged. The authority of Bismarck, even in retirement, was so high in Germany that it never occurred to anyone (except the Social Democrats) to pour tubs of dirt on him when, in 1892, the original text of the Ems dispatch was made public from the Reichstag rostrum.
Otto von Bismarck - Chancellor of the German Empire.
Exactly one month after the start of hostilities, a significant part of the French army was surrounded by German troops near Sedan and capitulated. Napoleon III himself surrendered to William I.
In November 1870, the South German states joined the Unified German Confederation, which had been transformed from the North. In December 1870, the Bavarian king offered to restore the German Empire and the German imperial dignity, destroyed in his time by Napoleon. This proposal was accepted, and the Reichstag turned to Wilhelm I with a request to accept the imperial crown. In 1871, at Versailles, William I wrote the address on an envelope - "Chancellor of the German Empire", thus confirming Bismarck's right to rule the empire that he created, and which was proclaimed on January 18 in the mirror hall of Versailles. On March 2, 1871, the Treaty of Paris was concluded - difficult and humiliating for France. The border regions of Alsace and Lorraine were ceded to Germany. France had to pay 5 billion indemnities. Wilhelm I returned to Berlin as a triumph, although all the merit belonged to the Chancellor.
The "Iron Chancellor", representing the interests of the minority and absolute power, ruled this empire in 1871-1890, relying on the consent of the Reichstag, where from 1866 to 1878 he was supported by the National Liberal Party. Bismarck reformed German law, administration and finance. The educational reforms he carried out in 1873 led to a conflict with the Roman Catholic Church, but the main reason for the conflict was the growing distrust of German Catholics (who accounted for about a third of the country's population) in Protestant Prussia. When these contradictions surfaced in the activities of the Catholic "Centre" party in the Reichstag in the early 1870s, Bismarck was forced to take action. The struggle against the dominance of the Catholic Church was called "Kulturkampf"(Kulturkampf, struggle for culture). During it, many bishops and priests were arrested, hundreds of dioceses were left without leaders. Now church appointments had to be coordinated with the state; church employees could not be in the service of the state apparatus. Schools were separated from the church, civil marriage was introduced, the Jesuits were expelled from Germany.
Bismarck built his foreign policy on the basis of the situation that developed in 1871 after the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian war and the capture of Alsace and Lorraine by Germany, which became a source of constant tension. With the help of a complex system of alliances that ensured the isolation of France, the rapprochement of Germany with Austria-Hungary and the maintenance of good relations with Russia (the alliance of the three emperors - Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia in 1873 and 1881; the Austro-German alliance of 1879; "Triple Alliance" between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy in 1882; "Mediterranean agreement" in 1887 between Austria-Hungary, Italy and England and "reinsurance agreement" with Russia in 1887), Bismarck managed to maintain peace in Europe. The German Empire under Chancellor Bismarck became one of the leaders in international politics.
In foreign policy, Bismarck made every effort to consolidate the gains of the Peace of Frankfurt in 1871, contributed to the diplomatic isolation of the French Republic, and sought to prevent the formation of any coalition that threatened German hegemony. He chose not to participate in the discussion of claims to the weakened Ottoman Empire. When at the Berlin Congress of 1878, under the chairmanship of Bismarck, the next phase of the discussion of the "Eastern Question" ended, he played the role of an "honest broker" in the dispute between the rival parties. Although the "Triple Alliance" was directed against Russia and France, Otto von Bismarck believed that a war with Russia would be extremely dangerous for Germany. The secret treaty with Russia in 1887 - the "treaty of reinsurance" - showed Bismarck's ability to act behind the backs of his allies, Austria and Italy, to maintain the status quo in the Balkans and the Middle East.
Until 1884, Bismarck did not give clear definitions of the course of colonial policy, mainly because of friendly relations with England. Other reasons were the desire to preserve Germany's capital and keep government spending to a minimum. Bismarck's first expansionist plans provoked vigorous protests from all parties - Catholics, statesmen, socialists and even representatives of his own class - the Junkers. Despite this, under Bismarck, Germany began to turn into a colonial empire.
In 1879, Bismarck broke with the liberals and henceforth relied on a coalition of large landowners, industrialists, senior military and government officials.
Conflict with Wilhelm II and the resignation of Bismarck.
With the accession of Wilhelm II in 1888, Bismarck lost control of the government.
Under Wilhelm I and Frederick III, who ruled for less than six months, Bismarck's position could not be shaken by any of the opposition groups. The self-confident and ambitious Kaiser refused to play a secondary role, declaring at one of the banquets in 1891: "There is only one master in the country - this is me, and I will not tolerate another"; and his strained relationship with the Reich Chancellor became increasingly strained. Differences manifested themselves most seriously in the question of amending the "Exceptional Law Against Socialists" (in force in 1878-1890) and in the question of the right of ministers subordinate to the chancellor to a personal audience with the emperor. Wilhelm II hinted to Bismarck that his resignation was desirable and received a letter of resignation from Bismarck on March 18, 1890. The resignation was accepted two days later, Bismarck received the title of Duke of Lauenburg, he was also awarded the rank of Colonel General of the cavalry.Bismarck's removal to Friedrichsruhe was not the end of his interest in political life. He was especially eloquent in his criticism of the newly appointed Chancellor and Minister-President Count Leo von Caprivi. In 1891, Bismarck was elected to the Reichstag from Hanover, but never took his seat there, and two years later refused to run for re-election. In 1894, the emperor and the already aging Bismarck met again in Berlin - at the suggestion of Clovis Hohenlohe, Prince Schillingfürst, Caprivi's successor. In 1895, all of Germany celebrated the 80th anniversary of the Iron Chancellor. In June 1896, Prince Otto von Bismarck participated in the coronation of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia. Bismarck died in Friedrichsruhe on July 30, 1898. The "Iron Chancellor" was buried at his own request in his Friedrichsruhe estate, the inscription was engraved on the tombstone of his tomb: "Devoted servant of the German Kaiser Wilhelm I". In April 1945, the house in Schönhausen, where Otto von Bismarck was born in 1815, was burned down by Soviet troops.
Bismarck's literary monument is his "Thoughts and Memories"(Gedanken und Erinnerungen), and "Big Politics of European Cabinets"(Die grosse Politik der europaischen Kabinette, 1871-1914, 1924-1928) in 47 volumes serves as a monument to his diplomatic art.
References.
1. Emil Ludwig. Bismarck. - M.: Zakharov-AST, 1999.
2. Alan Palmer. Bismarck. - Smolensk: Rusich, 1998.
3. Encyclopedia "The World Around Us" (cd)
In 1838 he entered the military service.
In 1839, after the death of his mother, he retired from the service and managed the family estates in Pomerania.
After his father's death in 1845, the family property was divided and Bismarck received the estates of Schönhausen and Kniephof in Pomerania.
In 1847-1848, he was a deputy of the first and second United Landtags (parliament) of Prussia, during the revolution of 1848 he advocated armed suppression of unrest.
Bismarck became known for his conservative stance during the constitutional struggle in Prussia from 1848-1850.
Opposing liberals, he contributed to the creation of various political organizations and newspapers, including the "New Prussian newspaper" (Neue Preussische Zeitung, 1848). One of the organizers of the Prussian Conservative Party.
He was a member of the lower house of the Prussian Parliament in 1849 and of the Erfurt Parliament in 1850.
In 1851-1859 he was the representative of Prussia in the Allied Sejm in Frankfurt am Main.
From 1859 to 1862 Bismarck was the Prussian envoy to Russia.
In March - September 1962 - the Prussian envoy to France.
In September 1862, during a constitutional conflict between the Prussian royalty and the liberal majority of the Prussian Landtag, Bismarck was called by King Wilhelm I to the post of head of the Prussian government, and in October of the same year became Minister-President and Minister of Foreign Affairs of Prussia. He stubbornly defended the rights of the crown and achieved a resolution of the conflict in her favor. In the 1860s, he carried out a military reform in the country and significantly strengthened the army.
Under the leadership of Bismarck, the unification of Germany was carried out by means of a "revolution from above" as a result of three victorious wars of Prussia: in 1864 together with Austria against Denmark, in 1866 against Austria, in 1870-1871 against France.
After the formation of the North German Confederation in 1867, Bismarck became Chancellor. In the German Empire proclaimed on January 18, 1871, he received the highest state post of imperial chancellor, becoming the first Reich Chancellor. Under the 1871 constitution, Bismarck was given virtually unlimited power. At the same time, he retained the post of Prussian Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs.
Bismarck reformed German law, administration and finance. In the years 1872-1875, on the initiative and under pressure from Bismarck, laws were passed against the Catholic Church depriving the clergy of the right to supervise schools, prohibiting the Jesuit order in Germany, on compulsory civil marriage, on the abolition of articles of the constitution providing for the autonomy of the church, etc. These events seriously limited the rights of the Catholic clergy. Attempts to disobey caused repression.
In 1878, Bismarck passed through the Reichstag an "exceptional law" against the socialists, which prohibited the activities of social democratic organizations. He ruthlessly persecuted any manifestation of political opposition, for which he was nicknamed the "Iron Chancellor".
In 1881-1889, Bismarck passed "social laws" (on insurance of workers in case of illness and injury, on pensions for old age and disability), which laid the foundations for the social insurance of workers. At the same time, he demanded a tougher anti-worker policy and during the 1880s successfully sought the extension of the "exclusive law".
Bismarck built his foreign policy on the basis of the situation that developed in 1871 after the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian war and the seizure of Alsace and Lorraine by Germany, contributed to the diplomatic isolation of the French Republic and sought to prevent the formation of any coalition that threatened the hegemony of Germany. Fearing a conflict with Russia and wishing to avoid a war on two fronts, Bismarck supported the creation of the Russian-Austrian-German agreement (1873) "Union of the Three Emperors", and also concluded a "reinsurance agreement" with Russia in 1887. At the same time, in 1879, on his initiative, an alliance agreement was concluded with Austria-Hungary, and in 1882, the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy), directed against France and Russia and marked the beginning of the split of Europe into two hostile coalitions. The German Empire became one of the leaders in international politics. Russia's refusal to renew the "reinsurance pact" at the beginning of 1890 was a serious setback for the chancellor, as was the failure of his plan to turn the "exclusive law" against the socialists into a permanent one. In January 1890, the Reichstag refused to renew it.
In March 1890, Bismarck was dismissed from his post as Reich Chancellor and Prussian Prime Minister as a result of contradictions with the new Emperor Wilhelm II and with the military command on foreign and colonial policy and on the labor issue. He received the title of Duke of Lauenburg, but refused it.
Bismarck spent the last eight years of his life at his Friedrichsruhe estate. In 1891 he was elected to the Reichstag for Hanover, but never took his seat there, and two years later refused to run for re-election.
From 1847 Bismarck was married to Johanna von Puttkamer (died 1894). The couple had three children - daughter Marie (1848-1926) and two sons - Herbert (1849-1904) and Wilhelm (1852-1901).
(Additional
Otto von Bismarck is one of the iconic figures in world history. The "Iron Chancellor" of Prussia, he created the German Empire (II Reich) and managed to strengthen its position in the world; Bismarck was well versed in foreign policy, he knew well the state of European states and Russia (he lived in St. Petersburg for a long time, being Prussia's ambassador to our country). In his book, Bismarck talks about how the German Empire was created, how the political map of Europe changed after that, what problems European countries faced, what role Russia played in Europe. Many of Bismarck's warnings, including those concerning future military conflicts, have fully come true, and his assessments of the future that the world expects have not lost their relevance today.
A series: Giants of political thought
* * *
by the LitRes company.
2014 reissue
© Translated from German, 2016
© TD Algorithm LLC, 2016
Foreword
Biography of Otto von Bismarck and the main stages of his activity
Otto Eduard Leopold Karl-Wilhelm-Ferdinand von Bismarck-Schönhausen was born on April 1, 1815 into a family of small estate nobles in the Brandenburg province (now Saxony-Anhalt). All generations of the Bismarck family served the rulers in the peaceful and military fields, but did not show themselves in anything special. Simply put, the Bismarcks were Junkers, the descendants of conquering knights who established settlements in the lands east of the Elbe River. The Bismarcks could not boast of extensive landholdings, wealth or aristocratic luxury, but were considered noble.
From 1822 to 1827, Otto studied at the Plament school, which emphasized physical development. But young Otto was not happy with this, which he often wrote to his parents about. At the age of twelve, Otto left the Plaman school, but did not leave Berlin, continuing his studies at the Friedrich the Great gymnasium on Friedrichstrasse, and when he was fifteen, he moved to the Gray Monastery gymnasium. Otto showed himself to be an average, not outstanding student. But he studied French and German well, being fond of reading foreign literature. The main interests of the young man lay in the field of politics of the past years, the history of military and peaceful rivalry of various countries. At that time, the young man, unlike his mother, was far from religion.
After graduating from high school, his mother assigned Otto to the Georg August University in Göttingen, which was located in the Kingdom of Hanover. It was assumed that the young Bismarck would learn law and later enter the diplomatic service. However, Bismarck was not in the mood for serious study and preferred entertainment with friends, of which there were many in Göttingen. Otto took part in 27 duels, in one of which he was wounded for the first and only time in his life - he had a scar on his cheek from the wound. In general, Otto von Bismarck at that time was not much different from the "golden" German youth.
Bismarck did not complete his education in Göttingen - life on a grand scale turned out to be burdensome for his pocket, and under the threat of arrest by the university authorities, he left the city. For a whole year he was enrolled at the New Capital University of Berlin, where he defended his dissertation in philosophy in the field of political economy. This was the end of his university education. Naturally, Bismarck immediately decided to start a career in the diplomatic field, which his mother had high hopes for. But the then foreign minister of Prussia refused the young Bismarck, advising him to "look for a place in some administrative institution within Germany, and not in the sphere of European diplomacy." It is possible that the minister's decision was influenced by rumors about Otto's turbulent student life and his passion for sorting things out through a duel.
Otto Eduard Leopold Karl-Wilhelm-Ferdinand von Bismarck-Schönhausen - the first chancellor (from March 21, 1871 - March 20, 1890) of the German Empire, who carried out the plan for the unification of Germany along the Little German path and was nicknamed the "Iron Chancellor"
As a result, Bismarck went to work in Aachen, which had recently become part of Prussia. The influence of France was still felt in this resort town, and Bismarck was mainly concerned with the problems connected with the accession of this frontier territory to the Prussian-dominated customs union. But the work, in the words of Bismarck himself, "was not burdensome", and he had plenty of time to read and enjoy life. During this period, he nearly married the daughter of an English parish priest, Isabella Lorraine-Smith.
Having fallen out of favor in Aachen, Bismarck was forced to enter military service - in the spring of 1838 he enrolled in the guards battalion of huntsmen. However, his mother's illness shortened his term of service: many years of caring for children and the estate undermined her health. The death of his mother put an end to Bismarck's throwing in search of a business - it became quite clear that he would have to manage his Pomeranian estates.
Having settled in Pomerania, Otto von Bismarck began to think about ways to increase the profitability of his estates and soon won the respect of his neighbors - both with theoretical knowledge and practical success. Life on the estate disciplined Bismarck greatly, especially when compared with his student years. He proved to be a quick-witted and practical landowner. But still, student habits made themselves felt, and the surrounding junkers called him "mad."
Bismarck soon had his first opportunity to enter politics as a deputy to the newly formed United Landtag of the Prussian Kingdom. He decided not to lose this chance and on May 11, 1847, he took his deputy seat, postponing his own wedding for a while.
It was the time of the most acute confrontation between liberals and conservative pro-royal forces: the liberals demanded from the Prussian king Frederick William IV the approval of the constitution and greater civil liberties, but the king was in no hurry to grant them; he needed money to build a railway from Berlin to East Prussia. It was for this purpose that he convened in April 1847 the United Diet, consisting of eight provincial Diet.
After his first speech in the Landtag, Bismarck became notorious. In his speech, he tried to refute the liberal deputy's assertion about the constitutional nature of the 1813 war of liberation. As a result, thanks to the press, the “mad Junker” from Pomerania turned into a “mad” deputy of the Berlin Landtag.
1848 brought a whole wave of revolutions - in France, Italy, Austria. In Prussia, the revolution also broke out under the pressure of patriotic liberals who demanded the unification of Germany and the creation of a Constitution. The king was forced to accept the demands. Bismarck was at first afraid of the revolution and was even going to help lead the army to Berlin, but soon his ardor cooled down, and only despondency and disappointment remained in the monarch, who made concessions.
Due to his reputation as an incorrigible conservative, Bismarck had no chance of getting into the new Prussian National Assembly, elected by popular vote of the male part of the population. Otto was afraid for the traditional rights of the junkers, but soon calmed down and admitted that the revolution was less radical than it seemed. He had no choice but to return to his estates and write for the new conservative newspaper, the Kreuzeitung. At this time, there was a gradual strengthening of the so-called "camarilla" - a block of conservative politicians, which included Otto von Bismarck.
The logical outcome of the strengthening of the camarilla was the counter-revolutionary coup of 1848, when the king interrupted the meeting of parliament and sent troops to Berlin. Despite all the merits of Bismarck in preparing this coup, the king refused him a ministerial post, branding him an "inveterate reactionary." The king was not at all in the mood to untie the hands of the reactionaries: soon after the coup, he published the Constitution, which combined the principle of monarchy with the creation of a bicameral parliament. The monarch also reserved the right to absolute veto and the right to rule by emergency decrees. This Constitution did not live up to the aspirations of the liberals, but Bismarck still seemed too progressive.
However, Bismarck was forced to accept and decided to try to move to the lower house of parliament. With great difficulty, Bismarck managed to get through both rounds of elections. He took his place as a deputy on February 26, 1849. However, Bismarck's negative attitude towards German unification and the Frankfurt Parliament hit his reputation hard. After the dissolution of parliament by the king, Bismarck practically lost his chances of being re-elected. But this time he was lucky, because the king changed the electoral system, which saved Bismarck from having to conduct an election campaign. On August 7, Otto von Bismarck again took his deputy seat.
Not much time passed, and a serious conflict arose between Austria and Prussia, which could develop into a full-scale war. Both states considered themselves leaders of the German world and tried to draw small German principalities into the orbit of their influence. This time, Erfurt became the stumbling block, and Prussia had to give in, concluding the Olmütz Agreement. Bismarck actively supported this agreement, as he believed that Prussia could not win this war. After some hesitation, the king appointed Bismarck as Prussian representative to the Frankfurt Federal Diet. Soon Bismarck met the most famous political figure in Austria, Clement Metternich.
During the Crimean War, Bismarck resisted Austrian attempts to mobilize German armies for war with Russia. He became an ardent supporter of the German Confederation and an opponent of Austrian domination. As a result, Bismarck became the main supporter of an alliance with Russia and France (still quite recently at war with each other), directed against Austria. First of all, it was necessary to establish contact with France, for which Bismarck left for Paris on April 4, 1857, where he met with Emperor Napoleon III, who did not make much impression on him. But due to the illness of the king and a sharp turn in the foreign policy of Prussia, Bismarck's plans were not destined to come true, and he was sent as an ambassador to Russia.
According to the prevailing opinion in Russian historiography, Bismarck's formation as a diplomat during his stay in Russia was greatly influenced by his interactions with the Russian Vice-Chancellor Gorchakov. Bismarck already had the diplomatic qualities necessary for this post. He had a natural mind and political insight.
Gorchakov predicted a great future for Bismarck. Once, already being chancellor, he said, pointing to Bismarck: “Look at this man! Under Frederick the Great, he could have been his minister." In Russia, Bismarck learned the Russian language and spoke very decently, and also understood the essence of the Russian way of thinking, which greatly helped him in the future in choosing the right political line towards Russia.
He took part in the Russian royal fun - bear hunting, and even killed two bears, but stopped this activity, saying that it was dishonorable to act with a gun against unarmed animals. In one of these hunts, he had frostbite on his legs so badly that there was a question of amputation.
In January 1861, King Frederick William IV died and the former regent Wilhelm I took his place, after which Bismarck was transferred as ambassador to Paris.
Bismarck consistently pursued a policy of German unification. The phrase "iron and blood" was used by the Prime Minister of Prussia, Otto von Bismarck, on September 30, 1862, in a speech before the budget committee of the parliament, where, among other things, it was said:
“Germany does not look at the liberalism of Prussia, but at its power; let Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden be tolerant of liberalism. Therefore, no one will give you the role of Prussia; Prussia must muster her forces and keep them until the favorable moment, which has already been missed several times. The borders of Prussia, in accordance with the Vienna agreements, do not favor the normal life of the state; important issues of the present day are not decided by speeches and decisions of the majority - this was a major mistake in 1848 and 1849 - but by iron and blood.
The background is as follows: the regent under the incapacitated King Frederick William IV - Prince Wilhelm, closely associated with the army, was extremely dissatisfied with the existence of the Landwehr - the territorial army, which played a decisive role in the fight against Napoleon and retained liberal sentiments. Moreover, the Landwehr, relatively independent of the government, proved ineffective in putting down the 1848 revolution. Therefore, he supported the Minister of War of Prussia, Roon, in developing a military reform that involved the creation of a regular army with an extended service life of three years in the infantry and four years in the cavalry. Military spending was supposed to increase by 25 percent. This met with resistance and the king dissolved the liberal government, replacing it with a reactionary administration. But again the budget was not approved.
In 1861, Wilhelm became King Wilhelm I of Prussia. Knowing Bismarck's position as an extreme conservative, the king had serious doubts about Bismarck's appointment as minister. However, at an audience in Babelsberg on September 22, 1862, Bismarck assured the king that he would serve him as faithfully as a vassal to his overlord. On September 23, 1862, the king appointed Bismarck minister-president of the government of Prussia, endowing him with broad powers.
Bismarck was convinced that the time was right for Prussia and Austria to compete for dominance on German soil. Sensing danger, Austria took the initiative in convening a conference of the rulers of all the German states with the aim of formulating far-reaching federal reforms under the chairmanship of Franz Joseph and further holding general elections for the national parliament. The latter arrived at the resort in Gastein, where Wilhelm was at that time, but Bismarck, not without a nervous breakdown in each participant in the discussion, nevertheless persuaded King Wilhelm to refuse. Having traditionally gathered again in Frankfurt am Main without Prussia, the leaders of the German states came to the conclusion that a united Germany was unthinkable without the participation of Prussia. Austria's hopes for hegemony in the German space collapsed forever.
In 1864 war broke out with Denmark over the status of Schleswig and Holstein, which were the southern part of Denmark but were dominated by ethnic Germans. The conflict had been smoldering for a long time, but in 1863 it escalated with renewed vigor under pressure from nationalists on both sides. As a result, at the beginning of 1864, Prussian troops occupied Schleswig-Holstein and soon these duchies were divided between Prussia and Austria. However, this was not the end of the conflict, the crisis in relations between Austria and Prussia constantly smoldered, but did not fade away.
In 1866, it became clear that war was inevitable, and both sides began to mobilize their military forces. Prussia was in close alliance with Italy, which put pressure on Austria from the southwest and sought to occupy Venice. The Prussian armies quickly occupied most of the northern German lands and were ready for the main campaign against Austria. The Austrians suffered one defeat after another and were forced to accept a peace treaty imposed by Prussia. Hesse-Kassel, Nassau, Hanover, Schleswig-Holstein and Frankfurt am Main went to the latter.
The war with Austria greatly exhausted the chancellor and undermined his health. Bismarck took a vacation. But he did not have long to rest. From the beginning of 1867, Bismarck worked hard to create the Constitution of the North German Confederation. After some concessions to the Landtag, the Constitution was adopted and the North German Confederation was born. Bismarck became Chancellor two weeks later.
This strengthening of Prussia greatly agitated the rulers of France and Russia. And if relations with Alexander II remained quite warm, then the French were very negative towards the Germans. Passions were fueled by the Spanish succession crisis. One of the contenders for the Spanish throne was Leopold, who belonged to the Brandenburg dynasty of Hohenzollern, and France could not admit him to the important Spanish throne. Patriotic sentiments began to rule in both countries. In addition, the southern German lands were under the strong influence of France, which prevented the much-desired unification of Germany. The war was not long in coming.
The Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871 was devastating for the French, the defeat at Sedan was especially crushing. Emperor Napoleon III was captured, and another revolution took place in Paris.
Meanwhile, Prussia was joined by Alsace and Lorraine, the kingdoms of Saxony, Bavaria and Württemberg - and Bismarck proclaimed the creation of the Second Reich on January 18, 1871, where Wilhelm I assumed the title of Emperor (Kaiser) of Germany. Bismarck himself, on the wave of universal popularity, received the title of prince and a new estate.
Soon after the creation of the Second Reich, Bismarck became convinced that Germany was not in a position to dominate Europe. He failed to realize the idea of uniting all Germans in a single state that had existed for hundreds of years. Austria prevented this, striving for the same, but only on the condition of the dominant role in this state of the Habsburg dynasty.
Fearing French revenge in the future, Bismarck sought rapprochement with Russia. On March 13, 1871, together with representatives of Russia and other countries, he signed the London Convention, which abolished Russia's ban on having a navy in the Black Sea.
In 1872, Bismarck and Gorchakov (with whom Bismarck had a personal relationship, like a talented student with his teacher), organized a meeting in Berlin of three emperors - German, Austrian and Russian. They came to an agreement to jointly confront the revolutionary danger. After that, Bismarck had a conflict with the German ambassador to France, Arnim, who, like Bismarck, belonged to the conservative wing, which alienated the chancellor from the conservative junkers. The result of this confrontation was the arrest of Arnim under the pretext of improper handling of documents.
Bismarck, given the central position of Germany in Europe and the real danger associated with this of being involved in a war on two fronts, created a formula that he followed throughout his reign: "A strong Germany seeks to live peacefully and develop peacefully." To this end, she must have a strong army in order to "not be attacked by anyone who draws her sword."
In the summer of 1875, Bosnia and Herzegovina revolted against Turkish rule. They were supported by Serbia and Montenegro. The Turks crushed the movement they had begun with extreme cruelty. But in 1877, Russia declared war on the Ottoman Porte (as they said then, "that decrepit man of Europe") and prompted Romania to support it. The war ended in victory, and under the terms of the peace concluded in San Stefano in March 1878, a large state of Bulgaria was created, which came out on the coast of the Aegean Sea.
However, under pressure from European states, Russia was forced to lose some of the advantages of its victory. On June 13, 1878, a congress began its work in Berlin, convened to consider the results of the Russian-Turkish war. The Congress was chaired by Bismarck, who on July 13, 1878, signed the Treaty of Berlin with representatives of the great powers, establishing new frontiers in Europe. Then many of the territories that had passed to Russia were returned to Turkey, Bosnia and Herzegovina were transferred to Austria, the Turkish Sultan, filled with gratitude, gave Cyprus to Britain.
In the Russian press, after this, an acute pan-Slavist campaign against Germany began. The nightmare of the coalition reappeared. On the verge of panic, Bismarck offered Austria to conclude a customs agreement, and when she refused, even a mutual non-aggression pact. Emperor Wilhelm I was frightened by the end of the former pro-Russian orientation of German foreign policy and warned Bismarck that things were moving towards an alliance between tsarist Russia and France, which had become a republic again. At the same time, he pointed out the unreliability of Austria as an ally, which could not deal with its internal problems, as well as the uncertainty of Britain's position.
Bismarck tried to justify his line by pointing out that his initiatives were taken in the interests of Russia as well. On October 7, 1879, he concluded a "Mutual Treaty" (Dual Alliance) with Austria, which pushed Russia into an alliance with France.
This was Bismarck's fatal mistake, destroying the close relations between Russia and Germany that had been established since the German War of Independence. A fierce tariff struggle began between Russia and Germany. Since that time, the General Staffs of both countries began to develop plans for a preventive war against each other.
In 1879, Franco-German relations deteriorated and Russia demanded in an ultimatum from Germany not to start a new war. This testified to the loss of mutual understanding with Russia. Bismarck found himself in a very difficult international situation that threatened isolation. He even resigned, but the Kaiser refused to accept it and sent the chancellor on an indefinite leave of absence that lasted five months.
An agreement was urgently concluded on July 18, 1881, which is a revival of the "Union of the Three Emperors" - Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary. In accordance with it, the participants pledged to remain neutral, even if one of them starts a war with any fourth power. Thus, Bismarck ensured the neutrality of Russia in case of war with France. On the part of Russia, this was the result of a serious political crisis caused by the need to stop the unrestricted hunt for representatives of state power that had begun, which found support from many representatives of the bourgeoisie and the intelligentsia.
In 1885 war broke out between Serbia and Bulgaria, whose allies were respectively Russia and Austria, France began to supply weapons to Russia, and Germany faced the threat of a war on two fronts, which, if this happened, was tantamount to defeat. However, Bismarck still managed on June 18, 1887 to confirm an agreement with Russia, according to which the latter pledged to remain neutral in the event of a Franco-German war.
Bismarck showed understanding of Russian claims to the Bosporus and the Dardanelles in the hope that this would lead to conflict with Britain. Bismarck's supporters saw the move as further proof of Bismarck's diplomatic genius. However, the future showed that this was only a temporary measure in an attempt to avoid an impending international crisis.
Bismarck proceeded from his belief that stability in Europe could be achieved only if England joined the Mutual Treaty. In 1889, he approached Lord Salisbury with a proposal to conclude a military alliance, but the Lord categorically refused. Although Britain was interested in resolving the colonial problem with Germany, she did not want to bind herself with any obligations in central Europe, where the potentially hostile states of France and Russia were located.
Bismarck's hopes that the contradictions between England and Russia would contribute to its rapprochement with the countries of the "Mutual Treaty" were not confirmed ...
As early as 1881, Bismarck declared that "as long as he is Chancellor, there will be no colonial policy in Germany." However, regardless of his will, in 1884-1885 German colonies were established in Southwest and East Africa, in Togo and Cameroon, New Guinea, on the Bismarck archipelago, the Solomon and Marshall Islands. German colonialism brought Germany closer to her eternal rival France, but created tension with England.
In Bismarck's time, only 0.1 percent of exports went to the colonies, although imports from the colonies to Germany accounted for the same share. Bismarck believed that the maintenance of the colonies is very expensive both economically and politically, since the colonies are always a source of unexpected and serious complications. Colonies divert resources and forces from solving pressing internal problems.
On the other hand, the colonies were possible markets and sources of raw materials for the rapidly developing industry. And also allowed to enter the markets in Africa, South America and Oceania.
At certain points, Bismarck showed commitment to the colonial issue, but this was a political move, such as during the election campaign of 1884, when he was accused of lack of patriotism. In addition, this was done in order to reduce the chances of the heir prince Frederick with his leftist views and far-reaching pro-English orientation. In addition, Bismarck understood that the key problem for the country's security was normal relations with England. In 1890, he exchanged Zanzibar from England for the island of Helgoland, which became much later the outpost of the German fleet in the oceans.
At the beginning of 1888, Emperor Wilhelm I died, which did not bode well for the chancellor. The new emperor was Frederick III, terminally ill with throat cancer, who by that time was in a terrible physical and mental state. A few months later he died.
On June 15, 1888, the throne of the empire was taken by the young Wilhelm II, who did not want to be in the shadow of an influential chancellor. The aging Bismarck resigned, which was approved by the Kaiser on March 20, 1890.
Bismarck, 75, received the honorary title of duke and the rank of colonel general of the cavalry. However, he did not retire completely. "You can't demand of me that after forty years in politics, I'll suddenly do nothing at all." He was elected a member of the Reichstag, all of Germany celebrated his 80th birthday, and he took part in the coronation of the All-Russian Emperor Nicholas II.
After Bismarck's resignation, he decided to present his memoirs and publish his memoirs. Bismarck tried not only to influence the formation of his image in the eyes of his descendants, but also continued to interfere in contemporary politics, in particular, he undertook active campaigns in the press. Bismarck's most often attacked was his successor, Caprivi. Indirectly, he criticized the emperor, whom he could not forgive his resignation.
Otto von Bismarck. Photo from 1890
The press campaign was successful. Public opinion leaned in favor of Bismarck, especially after Wilhelm II began to openly attack him. The authority of the new Reich Chancellor, Caprivi, was especially hard hit when he tried to prevent Bismarck from meeting with the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph. The trip to Vienna turned into a triumph for Bismarck, who declared that he had no obligation to the German authorities: "all bridges have been burned."
Wilhelm II was forced to agree to reconciliation. Several meetings with Bismarck in 1894 went well, but did not lead to a real détente in relations.
The death of his wife in 1894 was a severe blow to Bismarck. In 1898, the health of the ex-chancellor deteriorated sharply, and on July 30 he died at the age of 84.
* * *
The following excerpt from the book Bismarck Otto fon. The world is on the brink of war. What awaits Russia and Europe (Otto Bismarck) provided by our book partner -
Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck-Schönhausen (German: Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck-Schönhausen). Born April 1, 1815 in Schönhausen - died July 30, 1898 in Friedrichsruh. German statesman, prince, first chancellor of the German Empire (Second Reich), nicknamed the "Iron Chancellor".
Otto von Bismarck was born on April 1, 1815 into a family of small estate nobles in Schönhausen, in the Brandenburg province (now Saxony-Anhalt). All generations of the Bismarck family served the rulers of Brandenburg in the peaceful and military fields, but did not show themselves in anything special. Simply put, the Bismarcks were Junkers, the descendants of the conquering knights who founded settlements in the lands east of the Elbe. The Bismarcks could not boast of extensive landholdings, wealth or aristocratic luxury, but were considered noble.
From 1822 to 1827, Otto studied at the Plament school, which emphasized physical development. But young Otto was not happy with this, which he often wrote to his parents about. At the age of twelve, Otto left the Plaman school, but did not leave Berlin, continuing his studies at the Friedrich the Great gymnasium on Friedrichstrasse, and when he was fifteen, he moved to the Gray Monastery gymnasium. Otto showed himself to be an average, not outstanding student. But he studied French and German well, being fond of reading foreign literature. The main interests of the young man lay in the field of politics of the past years, the history of military and peaceful rivalry of various countries. At that time, the young man, unlike his mother, was far from religion.
After graduating from high school, his mother assigned Otto to the Georg August University in Göttingen, which was located in the Kingdom of Hanover. It was assumed that there the young Bismarck would study law and, in the future, enter the diplomatic service. However, Bismarck was not in the mood for serious study and preferred entertainment with friends, of which there were many in Göttingen. Otto often took part in duels, in one of which he was wounded for the first and only time in his life - he had a scar on his cheek from a wound. In general, Otto von Bismarck at that time was not much different from the "golden" German youth.
Bismarck did not complete his education in Göttingen - life on a grand scale turned out to be burdensome for his pocket, and, under the threat of arrest by the university authorities, he left the city. For a whole year he was enrolled at the New Capital University of Berlin, where he defended his dissertation in philosophy and political economy. This was the end of his university education. Naturally, Bismarck immediately decided to start a career in the diplomatic field, which his mother had high hopes for. But the then foreign minister of Prussia refused the young Bismarck, advising him to "look for a place in some administrative institution within Germany, and not in the sphere of European diplomacy." It is possible that the minister's decision was influenced by rumors about Otto's turbulent student life and his passion for sorting things out through a duel.
As a result, Bismarck went to work in Aachen, which had recently become part of Prussia. The influence of France was still felt in this resort town, and Bismarck was mainly concerned with the problems connected with the accession of this frontier territory to the Prussian-dominated customs union. But the work, in the words of Bismarck himself, "was not burdensome" and he had plenty of time to read and enjoy life. In the same period, he had many love affairs with visitors to the resort. Once he even almost married the daughter of an English parish priest, Isabella Lorraine-Smith.
Having fallen out of favor in Aachen, Bismarck was forced to enter military service - in the spring of 1838 he enrolled in the guards battalion of huntsmen. However, his mother's illness shortened his term of service: many years of caring for children and the estate undermined her health. The death of his mother put an end to Bismarck's throwing in search of a business - it became quite clear that he would have to manage his Pomeranian estates.
Having settled in Pomerania, Otto von Bismarck began to think about ways to increase the profitability of his estates and soon won the respect of his neighbors both with theoretical knowledge and practical success. Life on the estate disciplined Bismarck greatly, especially when compared with his student years. He proved to be a quick-witted and practical landowner. But still, student habits made themselves felt, and soon the surrounding junkers called him "mad."
Bismarck became very close to his younger sister Malvina, who finished her studies in Berlin. A spiritual closeness arose between brother and sister, caused by similarities in tastes and sympathies. Otto introduced Malvina to his friend Arnim, and a year later they got married.
Bismarck never again ceased to consider himself a believer in God and a follower of Martin Luther. Every morning he began by reading passages from the Bible. Otto decided to get engaged to Maria's friend Johanna von Puttkamer, which he achieved without any problems.
Around this time, Bismarck had his first opportunity to enter politics as a deputy to the newly formed United Landtag of the Prussian Kingdom. He decided not to lose this chance and on May 11, 1847, he took his deputy seat, temporarily postponing his own wedding. It was the time of the sharpest confrontation between liberals and conservative pro-royal forces: the liberals demanded a Constitution and greater civil liberties from Friedrich Wilhelm IV, but the king was in no hurry to grant them; he needed money to build a railway from Berlin to East Prussia. It was for this purpose that he convened in April 1847 the United Diet, consisting of eight provincial Diet.
After his first speech in the Landtag, Bismarck gained notoriety. In his speech, he tried to refute the liberal deputy's assertion about the constitutional nature of the 1813 war of liberation. As a result, thanks to the press, the "mad" junker from Kniphof turned into a "mad" deputy of the Berlin Landtag. A month later, Otto earned himself the nickname "Fincke's pursuer" because of his constant attacks on the idol and mouthpiece of the liberals Georg von Fincke. Revolutionary moods gradually matured in the country; especially among the urban lower classes, dissatisfied with rising food prices. Under these conditions, Otto von Bismarck and Johanna von Puttkamer finally got married.
1848 brought a whole wave of revolutions - in France, Italy, Austria. In Prussia, the revolution also broke out under the pressure of patriotic liberals who demanded the unification of Germany and the creation of a Constitution. The king was forced to accept the demands. Bismarck was at first afraid of the revolution and was even going to help lead the army to Berlin, but soon his ardor cooled down, and only despondency and disappointment remained in the monarch, who made concessions.
Due to his reputation as an incorrigible conservative, Bismarck had no chance of getting into the new Prussian National Assembly, elected by popular vote of the male part of the population. Otto was afraid for the traditional rights of the junkers, but soon calmed down and admitted that the revolution was less radical than it seemed. He had no choice but to return to his estates and write for the new conservative newspaper, the Kreuzeitung. At this time, there was a gradual strengthening of the so-called "camarilla" - a block of conservative politicians, which included Otto von Bismarck.
The logical outcome of the strengthening of the camarilla was the counter-revolutionary coup of 1848, when the king interrupted the parliament session and sent troops to Berlin. Despite all the merits of Bismarck in preparing this coup, the king refused him a ministerial post, branding him an "inveterate reactionary." The king was not at all in the mood to untie the hands of the reactionaries: soon after the coup, he published the Constitution, which combined the principle of monarchy with the creation of a bicameral parliament. The monarch also reserved the right to absolute veto and the right to rule by emergency decrees. This Constitution did not live up to the aspirations of the liberals, but Bismarck still seemed too progressive.
But he was forced to put up with it and decided to try to move to the lower house of parliament. With great difficulty, Bismarck managed to get through both rounds of elections. He took his place as a deputy on February 26, 1849. However, Bismarck's negative attitude towards German unification and the Frankfurt Parliament hit his reputation hard. After the dissolution of parliament by the king, Bismarck practically lost his chances of being re-elected. But this time he was lucky, because the king changed the electoral system, which saved Bismarck from having to conduct an election campaign. On August 7, Otto von Bismarck again took his deputy seat.
A little time passed, and a serious conflict arose between Austria and Prussia, which could develop into a full-scale war. Both states considered themselves leaders of the German world and tried to draw small German principalities into the orbit of their influence. This time, Erfurt became the stumbling block, and Prussia had to give in, concluding the Olmütz Agreement. Bismarck actively supported this agreement, as he believed that Prussia could not win this war. After some hesitation, the king appointed Bismarck as Prussian representative to the Frankfurt Federal Diet. Bismarck did not yet have the diplomatic qualities necessary for this post, but he had a natural mind and political insight. Soon Bismarck met the most famous political figure in Austria, Clement Metternich.
During the Crimean War, Bismarck resisted Austrian attempts to mobilize German armies for war with Russia. He became an ardent supporter of the German Confederation and an opponent of Austrian domination. As a result, Bismarck became the main supporter of an alliance with Russia and France (still quite recently at war with each other), directed against Austria. First of all, it was necessary to establish contact with France, for which Bismarck left for Paris on April 4, 1857, where he met with Emperor Napoleon III, who did not make much impression on him. But due to the illness of the king and a sharp turn in the foreign policy of Prussia, Bismarck's plans were not destined to come true, and he was sent as an ambassador to Russia. In January 1861, King Frederick William IV died and the former regent Wilhelm I took his place, after which Bismarck was transferred as ambassador to Paris.
But he did not stay long in Paris. In Berlin, at that time, another crisis broke out between the king and parliament. And in order to resolve it, despite the resistance of the empress and the crown prince, Wilhelm I appointed Bismarck head of government, transferring to him the posts of minister-president and minister of foreign affairs. The long era of Bismarck Chancellor began. Otto formed his cabinet from conservative ministers, among whom there were practically no bright personalities, except for Roon, who headed the military department. After the approval of the cabinet, Bismarck delivered a speech in the lower house of the Landtag, where he uttered the famous phrase about "blood and iron." Bismarck was sure that it was a good time for Prussia and Austria to compete for German lands.
In 1863, conflict broke out between Prussia and Denmark over the status of Schleswig and Holstein, which were the southern part of Denmark but were dominated by ethnic Germans. The conflict had been smoldering for a long time, but in 1863 it escalated with renewed vigor under pressure from nationalists on both sides. As a result, at the beginning of 1864, Prussian troops occupied Schleswig-Holstein and soon these duchies were divided between Prussia and Austria. However, this was not the end of the conflict, the crisis in relations between Austria and Prussia constantly smoldered, but did not fade away.
In 1866, it became clear that war could not be avoided, and both sides began to mobilize their military forces. Prussia was in close alliance with Italy, which put pressure on Austria from the southwest and sought to occupy Venice. The Prussian armies quickly occupied most of the northern German lands and were ready for the main campaign against Austria. The Austrians suffered one defeat after another and were forced to accept a peace treaty imposed by Prussia. Hesse, Nassau, Hanover, Schleswig-Holstein and Frankfurt went to her.
The war with Austria greatly exhausted the chancellor and undermined his health. Bismarck took a vacation. But he did not have long to rest. From the beginning of 1867, Bismarck worked hard to create the Constitution of the North German Confederation. After some concessions to the Landtag, the Constitution was adopted and the North German Confederation was born. Bismarck became Chancellor two weeks later. This strengthening of Prussia greatly agitated the rulers of France and Russia. And, if relations with Alexander II remained quite warm, then the French were very negative towards the Germans. Passions were fueled by the Spanish succession crisis. One of the contenders for the Spanish throne was Leopold, who belonged to the Brandenburg dynasty of Hohenzollern, and France could not admit him to the important Spanish throne. Patriotic sentiments began to rule in both countries. The war was not long in coming.
The war was devastating for the French, especially the crushing defeat at Sedan, which they remember to this day. Soon the French were ready to capitulate. Bismarck demanded from France the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, which was completely unacceptable for both Emperor Napoleon III and the republicans who founded the Third Republic. The Germans managed to take Paris, and the resistance of the French gradually faded away. German troops marched triumphantly through the streets of Paris. During the Franco-Prussian War, patriotic sentiments intensified in all German lands, which allowed Bismarck to further rally the North German Confederation by announcing the creation of the Second Reich, and Wilhelm I took the title of Emperor (Kaiser) of Germany. Bismarck himself, in the wake of universal popularity, received the title of prince and the new estate of Friedrichsruhe.
In the Reichstag, meanwhile, a powerful opposition coalition was forming, the core of which was the newly created centrist Catholic Party, which united with parties representing national minorities. In order to resist the clericalism of the Catholic Center, Bismarck went to rapprochement with the National Liberals, who had the largest share in the Reichstag. The "Kulturkampf" began - Bismarck's struggle with the Catholic Church and Catholic parties. This struggle had a negative effect on the unity of Germany, but it became a matter of principle for Bismarck.
In 1872, Bismarck and Gorchakov organized a meeting in Berlin of three emperors - German, Austrian and Russian. They came to an agreement to jointly confront the revolutionary danger. After that, Bismarck had a conflict with the German ambassador to France, Arnim, who, like Bismarck, belonged to the conservative wing, which alienated the chancellor from the conservative junkers. The result of this confrontation was the arrest of Arnim under the pretext of improper handling of documents. The long struggle with Arnim and the implacable resistance of the center party of Windhorst could not but affect the health and character of the chancellor.
In 1879, Franco-German relations deteriorated and Russia demanded in an ultimatum from Germany not to start a new war. This testified to the loss of mutual understanding with Russia. Bismarck found himself in a very difficult international situation that threatened isolation. He even resigned, but the Kaiser refused to accept it and sent the chancellor on an indefinite leave that lasted five months.
In addition to the external danger, the internal danger, namely the socialist movement in the industrial regions, became ever stronger. To combat it, Bismarck tried to enact new repressive legislation, but it was rejected by the centrists and liberal progressives. Bismarck increasingly spoke of the "red threat", especially after the assassination attempt on the emperor. At this difficult time for Germany, the Berlin Congress of the leading powers opened in Berlin to consider the results of the Russian-Turkish war. The Congress turned out to be surprisingly effective, although Bismarck had to constantly maneuver between representatives of all the great powers.
Immediately after the end of the congress in Germany, elections were held to the Reichstag (1879), in which conservatives and centrists received a confident majority at the expense of liberals and socialists. This allowed Bismarck to push a bill against the Socialists through the Reichstag. Another outcome of the new alignment of forces in the Reichstag was the opportunity to introduce protectionist economic reforms to overcome the economic crisis that began in 1873. With these reforms, the chancellor managed to greatly disorient the national liberals and win over the centrists, which was simply unimaginable a few years earlier. It became clear that the Kulturkampf period had been overcome.
Fearing a rapprochement between France and Russia, Bismarck renewed the Union of the Three Emperors in 1881, but relations between Germany and Russia continued to be strained, which was exacerbated by increased contacts between St. Petersburg and Paris. Fearing the performance of Russia and France against Germany, as a counterbalance to the Franco-Russian alliance, in 1882 an agreement was signed on the creation of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria and Italy).
The elections of 1881 were in fact a defeat for Bismarck: Bismarck's conservative parties and liberals lost to the Center parties, progressive liberals and socialists. The situation became even more serious when the opposition parties united in order to cut the cost of maintaining the army. Once again, there was a danger that Bismarck would not stay in the chancellor's chair. Constant work and unrest undermined Bismarck's health - he was too fat and suffered from insomnia. Dr. Schwenniger helped him regain his health, who put the chancellor on a diet and forbade drinking strong wines. The result was not long in coming - very soon the former efficiency returned to the chancellor, and he set to work with renewed vigor.
This time, colonial politics came into his field of vision. For the previous twelve years, Bismarck had argued that colonies were a luxury that Germany could not afford. But in the course of 1884 Germany acquired vast territories in Africa. German colonialism brought Germany closer to her eternal rival France, but created tension with England. Otto von Bismarck managed to draw his son Herbert into the colonial affairs, who was involved in settling issues with England. But there were also enough problems with his son - he inherited only bad traits from his father and drank.
In March 1887, Bismarck succeeded in forming a stable conservative majority in the Reichstag, which was nicknamed "The Cartel". In the wake of chauvinistic hysteria and the threat of war with France, the voters decided to rally around the Chancellor. This gave him the opportunity to push through the Reichstag a law on a seven-year term of service. At the beginning of 1888, Emperor Wilhelm I died, which did not bode well for the chancellor.
The new emperor was Frederick III, terminally ill with throat cancer, who by that time was in a terrible physical and mental state. He also died a few months later. The throne of the empire was occupied by the young Wilhelm II, who was rather cool towards the chancellor. The emperor began to actively intervene in politics, pushing the elderly Bismarck into the background. Particularly divisive was the anti-socialist bill, in which social reforms went hand in hand with political repression (which was very much in the spirit of the Chancellor). This conflict led Bismarck to resign on March 20, 1890.
Otto von Bismarck spent the rest of his life in his Friedrichsruhe estate near Hamburg, rarely leaving it. In 1884 his wife Johanna died. In the last years of his life, Bismarck was pessimistic about the prospects for European politics. Emperor Wilhelm II visited him several times. In 1898, the health of the ex-chancellor deteriorated sharply, and on July 30 he died in Friedrichsruhe.
- In contact with 0
- Google+ 0
- OK 0
- Facebook 0
