Serbian defense breakthrough. Assault on Belgrade

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July 22, 1456 under Belgrade stopped the Ottoman offensive against Western Europe - moreover, for about seven decades! Contemporaries fully appreciated the importance of this event - it is believed that it was in his honor that Pope CalixtusIII will add a holiday to the calendar of the Western Church The Transfiguration of the Lord ... (It is believed that the tradition of celebrating the victory with a bell ringing came from here - in any case, it is known that the same Calixtus during the Belgrade siege will order to ring at noon, reminding of the need to pray for the besieged - therefore this ringing will be called "Turkish » …)

... Along with the obvious historical significance, there is something mystical in this battle (or, on the contrary - let's not be afraid of this word - curious!) But - in order.

Constantinople fell only three years ago - and MehmedII continued his victorious (as he assumed) path to the West. Belgrade at that time was an advanced outpost Kingdom of Hungary.(In addition to Hungary itself, it included the vast territories of present-day Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Croatia - and, in addition, Transcarpathia).

The Belgrade Fortress was once an insignificant Byzantine castle - but over the course of several decades it was turned into, practically, an example of engineering art. Adjacent to the Danube lower city with port; behind it were double walls upper city; the last line of defense was the inner castle with donjon(more precisely, last line it was this narrow three-story tower that became).

... Nevertheless, the local garrison did not exceed seven thousand - and Mehmed had two hundred ships, three hundred cannons, and one hundred and sixty thousand soldiers. (True, some researchers consider this number to be twice as high ... well, it doesn’t matter - in any case, the advantage was huge - besides, the sultan led an army tested in battles and inspired by victories ...)

... However, the regent of the Kingdom of Hungary was already in a hurry to help Janos Hunyadi and Franciscan friar (and future saint) John Capistran!

... Hunyadi (his eldest son then commanded the Belgrade garrison - and the youngest will become the Hungarian king) was an experienced general, and over the past ten years he beat the Turks more than once - he himself was beaten by them. According to various sources, he managed to gather from fifteen to thirty thousand people - however, mostly poorly armed peasants; there were, however, professional mercenaries and noble cavalry.

The Italian Capistran had already served as a papal legate in Germany for some time - and managed to become famous as a preacher (although he did it in Latin!) - and at the same time as merciless burner any heretics. Having learned about the fall of Constantinople, he began to gather an army for the crusade ... however, the German barons were somehow not impressed by the fervent sermons (perhaps they knew little Latin) - therefore the quality of Capistran's army was even more doubtful than that of the Hungarian regent. (Apparently, it was based on cosiners- and this formidable word means only peasants with braids). But they gathered (again, according to various estimates) from thirty to sixty thousand!

Meanwhile, Mehmed approached the city ... he had a different alignment: heavy Anatolian infantry, sipahis(armored cavalry) - and (where could it be without them!) Janissaries. We have already mentioned guns and ships ... By the way, something immediately went wrong with the ships - Hunyadi began by attacking them with his flotilla - he sank three galleys, captured two and a half dozen - the rest retreated in disarray. (Sometimes, it seems that for centuries the Turkish fleet existed mainly for someone to drown it ...) One way or another, the blockade was broken; Significant reinforcements were brought into the city.

... But the Turkish guns fired without interruption - and in a week they made several gaps in the walls. Mehmed commands to start the assault - after sunset! Janissaries break into the city, approach the fortress ... and then tarred logs begin to fall from the outer walls! The bulk of the Ottoman army was cut off by a wall of fire - the Hungarians and Serbs counterattack and cleanly cut down the Janissaries that broke through ... the rest retreat ...

(The immortalized moment of this battle is the feat of a Serb Titus Dugovich... seeing that the Turks had set up their flag on one of the bastions, he tore it off - and, together with the trophy, rushed off the wall! The descendants of the hero will be granted the nobility ...)

... So, by the morning of the 22nd, the battle calmed down - and here strange things began ... For a start, the emboldened defenders of the fortress began to get out one by one. (With a simple and natural intention - to plunder! The field was littered with Turkish corpses - and, as they say, the most valuable trophies, like gold, were carried by distrustful Janissaries with them even in battle).

... It is not clear how true this is - but the fact remains: little by little, the "no man's land" was filled with so many besieged that Mehmed decided that this was an offensive! The Sultan sends cavalry... the battle begins... Both Hungarian commanders can only succumb to the elements: Capistran with his cosiners falls on the Ottoman flank - Hunyadi withdraws troops from the city. Frustrated, Mehmed rushes to the attack at the head of his Janissaries - and receives an arrow in the thigh ...

... Either the injury of the Sultan so impressed the Ottoman army, or some sudden clouding came over it - but the Turks together rushed to their heels, leaving the camp, guns - and in general, everything that could be thrown! By evening, Hunyadi will order, just in case, to retreat under the protection of the walls - but in the morning it will turn out that there is no enemy within sight! (The Sultan, having come to his senses after being wounded, wanted, out of grief, to poison himself - but changed his mind and ordered to retreat to Constantinople ...)

PS: ... After this brilliant victory, the city's defenders will suffer a plague epidemic - among others, it will take the lives of Hunyadi and Capistran ... And Belgrade will be taken only in 1521 Suleiman the Magnificent... However, this is a completely different story.

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A little background

To begin with, let's turn our attention to the state of Europe and the Middle East by the beginning of the second quarter of the 16th century. The strongest states of the continent, Spain and France, are busy sorting things out in Italy - the rich lands of the Apennines were too tasty a morsel to give them to an opponent without a fight. German lands were shaken by peasant (in 1524−25 a real war broke out here) and religious uprisings. Eastern Europe is also unsettled - in addition to an endless series of uprisings, there is a tense confrontation between Poland, Hungary and Austria.

Map of Europe in 1500

The main power of the Middle East - the Ottoman Porte, on the contrary, was in the prime of life. During the reign of Sultan Selim I (1512−20), the territory subject to the Turks doubled. The Sultan conquered vast lands in the east and south - all of Asia Minor, most of Iraq, the Caucasus, Palestine, Hijaz, Egypt, Mesopotamia became part of a huge empire. In 1520, Selim's 26-year-old son Suleiman succeeded to the Istanbul throne. The young Sultan got a vast power with a formidable and advanced army. Suleiman was a gifted politician, who was properly prepared to govern the state. Upon accession to the throne, he immediately drew attention to his European neighbors: Hungary, Moldova, Austria.

Hungarian question

By the beginning of the 1520s, only one independent state remained at the Turkish borders in Europe - the Kingdom of Hungary, however, by the beginning of the war with Turkey, it was in decline, although at the end of the 15th century Hungary was one of the most powerful states in Europe.

Suleiman I the Magnificent and Lajos II

King Matthias Hunyadi (1458−90) or Matthias Corvin (Raven) managed to carry out a whole series of state reforms, put finances and apparatus in order, and create a new army. The illustrious monarch understood that Hungary was a bastion in the fight against the Ottomans, therefore he tried in every possible way to strengthen the state, while creating a stable alliance capable of withstanding the Turkish threat. Matthias achieved great foreign policy successes, uniting under his rule Hungary, Croatia, the Czech Republic (the latter was divided between him and the Polish king Vladislav. Matthias got Moravia and Silesia) and even Austria, where Corvin moved his capital. During his reign, it was also possible to restrain the aggression of the Turks, apparently, the genes of his father, the great commander and winner of the Ottomans, affected.

Warriors of the Hungarian army

The active dynastic policy, however, played a cruel joke with Matthias: he did not leave a legitimate heir, and the Polish king Vladislav succeeded to his throne. So in Hungary, the Jagiellonian dynasty was established (albeit not for long). Vladislav (1490−1516), crowned with the support of the nobility under the name Ulaslo II, was forced to weaken the royal power in the Hungarian lands and grant more and more rights to the nobility.

Hungary was in decline, although it was flourishing 30 years ago

This was absolutely not what was required before a new aggravation of relations with the Ottomans and the growing expansion of the southern neighbor, but the peasant uprising of 1514, drowned in the blood of the nobility, deprived Hungarian society of the much-needed consolidation at that time.

young king

After the death of Ulaslo, Louis (Lajos II), who was only 10 years old, was declared the new king. For six years, Lajos was ruled by his uncle, and only in 1522 was he crowned ruler of Hungary and the Czech Republic. While the Hungarian nobility, headed by the uncle of the king, was in power, Suleiman sent ambassadors to Buda demanding tribute - the Hungarian magnates arrogantly rejected all proposals, and the ambassadors were thrown into prison. Suleiman seized the opportunity, gathered an army and went on a campaign against Lajos.

Five Years' War

In 1521, the Turkish army invaded Hungary and laid siege to Belgrade, an important fortress in the south. Despite the heroic defense of the stronghold, the city was taken and became the main base of the Turks in their subsequent operations in Hungary.

The forces of the kingdom were knocked down by the revolts of the magnates and the uprisings of the peasants

For five years there was a positional war, and while the Sultan was busy with affairs on other fronts, the Hungarians even managed to defeat Turkish troops several times in local battles. However, in 1526, Suleiman decided to take up European affairs and gathered a large army to invade Hungary - more than 100 thousand people in total (the figure for the huge Ottoman power is quite real), the army was accompanied by the sultan himself, elite Janissary units armed with firearms and fighting in the correct formation , a large number of excellent artillery for that time (about 300 guns!).

Siege of Belgrade 1521

In Buda, they were in no hurry to mobilize - the collection of the royal army began only in July, when the Sultan's army was already at the borders. The difficult political situation (social and economic problems hurt the prestige of the government) hindered the mobilization of forces - some of the magnates and nobles refused to go on a campaign at all, the Croatian contingents were still far away, and the units reformed by Matthias, recruited from commoners, could not be relied upon after the bloody massacres of the previous years.

Suleiman sent the best troops and a huge artillery park

The hastily assembled army consisted of Hungarian light cavalry (ancestors of the famous Hungarian hussars) and heavy shock cavalry units of southern Hungarian nobles and magnates and their servants. The infantry was represented by detachments of German landsknecht mercenaries; these were the most professional and combat-ready units of the Hungarian army.

Suleiman I Turkish Infantry

Over the summer, the Ottomans managed to take a number of fortresses on the border, crossed the Drava and reached the Mohacs plain, located only 250 kilometers from Buda, where Lajos was already waiting for them.

Mohacs field

At the end of the summer, the two armies met on the Mohacs Plain in southern Hungary. The troops of King Lajos - about 25 thousand people with 53 guns were built in battle order when they were discovered by the Sultan's intelligence. Suleiman invited the Hungarians to surrender, but they responded with a decisive refusal. The Sultan was not in vain confident in his superiority - he concentrated at least twice as large forces on the battlefield (and the Turks were better trained and equipped) and had a triple superiority in artillery.

Lajos tried to break the Turks in parts - at first even successfully

The battlefield was a hilly plain with a small stream in the south, where the Turkish camp was located, bounded by the Danube from the east. The hills prevented the Turks from finding out the true intentions of the Hungarians - they pretended to set up camp and were not going to fight, then part of the Turkish army (Rumeli army), which had already approached the battlefield, also began to set up camp. This was the idea of ​​King Lajos - he realized that in battle with the entire Turkish army he had no chance, then he tried to break the Sultan's army in parts.

Schematic of the Battle of Mohacs

While the Turks were setting up bivouacs, the Hungarians rushed into battle - the Ottoman soldiers did not expect such a turn of affairs at all, so the first attack of the Hungarian knights was a resounding success. The forces of the Rumelian army offered not even a shadow of resistance and immediately rushed to flee. It seemed that the adventure of Lajos could be successful and the Turks could be defeated piece by piece. At that moment, approaching Turkish corps began to descend from the slopes of the hills in the south, including regiments of janissaries and detachments of sipahis.

Janissaries armed with muskets played a significant role in the victory.

Suleiman, having learned that the enemy was the first to strike and the Rumelians had a hard time, mobilized engineering teams that quickly repaired roads in the way of the rest of the army and, at the first opportunity, sent troops into battle. The right wing of the Hungarians, where most of the shock cavalry was concentrated, stopped its attack. The reason was banal: having defeated the first echelon of the Turkish army, the knights and soldiers began to rob the enemy camp, deciding that the battle had already been won. At this time, the Janissaries hit the Hungarian center, mowing down entire ranks of the Hungarians with musket fire. Artillery, actively used on both sides, added to the turmoil - here it produced more noise and smoke, which clouded the battlefield, while its effectiveness is questioned by historians.

Duel of cavalrymen. Miniature of the 16th century.

As soon as Turkish reinforcements entered the battle, the Hungarian knights and light-horsemen realized that things were bad and rushed to flee. Only detachments of hired infantry held out, but they could not do anything, being actually surrounded. The battle turned into a rout.

Aftermath of the battle

The Hungarian army was annihilated by the Turks: about 15 thousand Christians fell, more than a thousand noble Hungarian nobles and barons remained lying on the field of the Mohacs battle. King Lajos himself died by drowning while crossing the Danube. All prominent commanders and commanders from the Hungarian side were killed or captured. No wonder the day of the Battle of Mohacs is called "the greatest tragedy of Hungarian history." The losses of the Turks are estimated at one and a half to two thousand people.

Suleiman at Mohacs. Turkish miniature of the 16th century

The political and military consequences of the Battle of Mohacs can hardly be overestimated: just a few days later, Suleiman solemnly entered Buda, three years later he laid siege to Vienna, threatening reprisals now against the Habsburgs, and not the Jagiellons. Hungary, where it was already restless, plunged into the abyss of civil war - the confrontation between the pro-German and pro-Turkish parties, each of which had its own contender for the throne, since Lajos did not leave an heir (the dynasty of the Hungarian Jagiellons, which lasted less than half a century, was cut short on it ).

The battle sentenced Hungary - there was no one to stop the Sultan

In the end, Hungary was divided between the Turks and the Austrians: southern and central Hungary became part of the Turkish vilayet of Buda (the capital of the former Hungary was finally occupied by the Turks only in 1541), and northern Hungary now became part of the Habsburg zone of influence. For a century and a half, most of Hungary was part of the Ottoman Empire, and as an independent state, Hungary disappeared from the map of Europe for a long 400 years.

Map of Hungary for 1550

In the art of war, the Battle of Mohacs most clearly demonstrated the superiority of firearms over cold weapons. Like the Battle of Pavia just a year before Mohacs, artillery, and especially infantry with muskets, were essential to achieve a quick and decisive victory. It took only an hour and a half for the Sultan's troops to deal with the Hungarians. After Mohacs, all over Europe realized that the fight against the Ottomans was a coalition affair - the victory over the Turks at Lepanto (1571) became a kind of lesson learned from the Mohacs battle.

Mohacs is called "the tragedy of the Hungarian people"

Nevertheless, in the memory of the Hungarians, the Battle of Mohacs remains one of the most notable and heroic pages in the history of the people. The image of King Lajos, who deliberately entered into an unequal battle with the Turk, is romanticized and surrounded by a halo of heroism and courage, and the word Mohacs is associated not only with a terrible defeat, but also with the courage and desperation with which ordinary nobles fought to defend their land from invaders.

Many people know about the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. But it is unlikely that so many will be able to explain why the triumphal march of the Ottoman army after the fall of the capital of Byzantium suddenly stopped. The answer is very simple: the Turkish forces suffered an unexpected and horrifying defeat at the walls of Belgrade in 1456, when the conqueror of Constantinople shamefully fled from the battlefield, having lost both his army and his military glory. It is about this - little known now, but which was of great importance then - the battle that will be our story. This battle began on 4/17 July.

Lord God! May Your hand overtake all our enemies,
and let your right hand punish all those who hate you!

May they be thrown into the heat of hell at Your presence,
for our Lord in his wrath will sweep them away, and let the fire consume them!

Our God, destroy the fruits of their deeds from the earth,
but destroy their seed from the sons of men!

For our enemies have thought evil against you,
but they conceived plans that may not be fulfilled!
For You will turn them back, and You will direct their arrows into their faces!

Rise up, O Lord, in Your strength, and we will glorify Your might with all our hearts!

The words of the prayer of the soldiers of the "army of the liberation of Belgrade" in 1456,
translation of Psalm 20 from the King David Psalter

“I arranged a feast in the capital of the Romans, and soon I will come to breakfast in Belgrade”

On May 29, 1453, the capital of Byzantium fell. On that day, the Turkish troops of Sultan Mehmed II (1432-1481) took Constantinople, turning the ancient Orthodox capital into Islamic Istanbul for centuries. And a sparkling star was added to the Turkish red flag with a white crescent - a symbol of the captured Byzantine capital, which is still present there ...

Then it seemed to everyone that the triumphal procession of the Ottomans could not be stopped. In 1448, the Muslim army won its second victory over the Balkan Christians in Kosovo; in 1453 Constantinople fell; in 1454, the Turks finally conquered almost all of Serbia and a number of territories in the Balkans.

The Sultan declared: “I will come to breakfast in Belgrade, I will have lunch in Budapest, and I will have dinner in Vienna!”

The fall of Constantinople and the death of Byzantium horrified the Eastern European rulers. The haughty Ottoman sultan declared in 1455 to the ambassadors of Serbia, Hungary, Austria and Italy: “Tell your rulers that yesterday I gave a feast in the capital of the Rumians. Soon I will come to have breakfast in Belgrade, I will have lunch in Budapest, and I will dine in Vienna! .. I can show the only way to salvation for your sovereigns: become Muslims and my tributaries - and only in this way will you avoid the death prepared for you!

War has been declared. The huge and victorious army of the Islamists, like a giant predatory beast that had made a lair on the ruins of Constantinople, began to prepare for the next throw.

Then, five centuries ago, as usual divided and not having sufficient forces to fight back, South-Eastern Europe found itself in the face of another invasion of numerous Islamic troops. Since the Sultan's plan of aggressive war at the first stage, before the invasion of Central Europe, provided for the conquest of the last Serbian territories, the Turkish forces, having set out from Adrianople (Edirne), approached Belgrade on July 1, 1456. Numerous guns, which had previously destroyed the walls of Constantinople, were brought into position, and on July 4 the shelling of the fortress began. In total, the Turks used 20 large-caliber siege guns, 7 large siege mortars, as well as a mass of smaller cannons numbering more than 200. Not a single fortress in Europe or Asia had been able to withstand the fire of the huge Ottoman siege park before.

I must say that in the few years preceding the battle, the small Belgrade castle turned into a powerful fortress. The outer ring of defense was made up of stone single walls of the "lower city" with a river port; the second line of defense was the double walls of the "upper city", and the "inner castle" was the third and last line of defense.

But the Ottoman warriors were "noble city-dwellers", and the city, besieged by a huge army with the best artillery at that time in terms of quantity and quality, was still doomed without external help.

"God's army for the liberation of Serbia" against "the army of warriors of Allah, who firmly embarked on the path of ghazawat"

So, for many reasons, the formation of the “Serbian Liberation Army” was postponed and postponed. In Europe, as usual, there was only constant talk about the need for unity, but mutual economic squabbles dominated politics. Even in the Kingdom of Hungary itself, part of the feudal lords opposed the campaign to de-blockade Belgrade, believing that the capital of Serbia was already doomed, that Catholics should not help Orthodox "schismatics" and that the Hungarians needed to save strength to defend their main fortresses.

Therefore, instead of a consolidated rebuff of large coalition European-Christian forces on the walls of Belgrade, the Turks were met by a few squads of Serbian, Hungarian and Dalmatian feudal lords. Also, the garrison consisted of a number of well-armed professional mercenaries and several thousand worse-armed militias from local peasants and townspeople. In addition, the city was defended by small detachments of volunteer knights from Austria, the Czech Republic, Poland, Germany and Italy, who served not for money, but for the fulfillment of crusading vows or simply by the call of their conscience.

The “God’s army for the liberation of Serbia,” as the forces for saving Belgrade were then called, gathered extremely slowly: in the winter of 1456, it had only 6-8 thousand soldiers, and in the spring of 1456, with great difficulty, it was possible to recruit 12-15 thousand (of which several thousand were sent to reinforce the Belgrade garrison).

In parallel with the recruitment of relatively professional troops, papal envoys and wandering monks of the mendicant orders gathered in Hungary and the surrounding countries any persons who wished to take part in the crusade - if not for the sake of the liberation of Constantinople, then at least for the sake of saving Belgrade. They recruited a fairly significant number, but they were, according to an eyewitness, "peaceful rural settlers, urban artisans and just various poor people not fit for war."

Yes, now the Europeans, who had previously abandoned attempts to counter Islamic aggression in the fields of distant Palestine and Syria, had to meet radical followers of the religion of Allah right at their own doorstep. In some ways, the events of 500 years ago resemble the affairs of our days ...

There is no exact data on the number of troops concentrated in Belgrade, but it is known that the whole city was defended by seemingly significant forces (3-7 thousand people). However, in reality, this was very small in comparison with the approaching huge Sultan's army (which, according to various estimates, numbered from 60 thousand to 100 thousand or even up to 160 thousand people in its ranks).

There are relatively accurate data only on the number of some professional units that then marched with the Ottoman army to Belgrade. In particular, 3-5 thousand soldiers out of 6 thousand then available in the Janissary infantry could march with the Sultan. Also, up to 40 thousand professional heavy cavalry "spugs" and medium cavalry "jebel" could go on a campaign (in the middle of the 15th century, the Ottomans had 22-25 thousand Rumelian and 17-20 thousand Anatolian horsemen, who were exhibited by the owners of land estates). A huge force was represented by the "kapikulu" corps - 6 "golden" regiments of the Sultan's horse guards, which at that time totaled 3 thousand highly professional heavily armed horsemen.

Thus, only professional soldiers with the Sultan under the walls of Belgrade were 45-48 thousand. The number of various cavalry and foot militias, the Yaya infantry, the Musselem cavalry, the Akynji and Yuryuk light horsemen, as well as the troops of the Ottoman vassals, without having an accurate regimental list, is currently impossible to calculate. The scale of these forces allows us to see the siege of Constantinople, which took place three years earlier, where there were about 40 thousand volunteers-"gazis" alone, not counting several tens of thousands of mounted archers "akyndzhi", etc.

Therefore, even if we refuse the estimates of contemporaries that there were 150-160 thousand or 100-120 thousand Turkish soldiers in the main Sultan's army, then the number of approximately 80 thousand Ottoman forces gathered for the campaign against Serbia and Hungary seems quite real.

The huge siege park (according to some estimates, 200 or even up to 300 trunks) was serviced, in addition to Turkish artillery servants, by numerous European artillerymen and engineers who voluntarily went to serve the Sultan for a generous salary.

To replenish artillery, as before on the eve of the siege of Constantinople, crosses and bells were removed from Christian churches in the conquered regions of Asia Minor and the Balkans, the metal of which was used to smelt guns.

The army of Y. Hunyadi, who approached with the aim of deblocking the city, was quite small; its number is estimated at approximately 22-40 thousand soldiers. Of these, in the army, which was under the direct leadership of the Hungarian regent, there were 12 thousand professional soldiers and knights, and from 10 to 30 thousand were the forces of almost unarmed militia in the army of the legate John Capistrano.

It should be said that apart from the King of Hungary and the Pope of Rome, none of the rulers of the major neighboring states of Europe provided official large-scale assistance to Belgrade. The absolute majority of the Christian troops were warriors who voluntarily, at the call of their conscience, went on a campaign, without instructions from their rulers, or at best with their approval.

No professional army of serious size was raised to assist Hunyadi's army. Only Austria, Dalmatia, the Czech Republic and Italy sent separate contingents of volunteer knights, hired detachments of mercenaries and put up formations of relatively professional warriors who fulfilled crusading vows.

The princes of Transylvania and Saxony generally refused to send aid. The rulers of Spain warmly responded to the pope's call, but in reality all their forces were involved in the fight against the Moors, and they sent nothing but encouraging letters. The kings of France, England, as well as the emperor of the German lands verbally expressed sympathy for the perishing Serbia and even announced the collection of "crusading tithes". However, they did not send any large military detachments, and these sovereigns simply appropriated most of the money collected. In general, everything was as usual in Europe, and the fate of Belgrade literally hung in the balance.

At the walls of Belgrade, Turkish troops outnumbered the Christians by at least three to one.

Accurate data on the composition of the Christian forces also did not reach us, but one way or another, according to the unanimous estimates of contemporaries, the Turkish troops outnumbered the Christians by approximately three times. And in terms of the total number of artillery barrels, the superiority of the Sultan's army was about an order of magnitude.

The cousin of the King of Hungary, Mihaly Siladzhi, known for his combat experience, was appointed to command the garrison of Belgrade, to whom the son of Janos Hunyadi Laszlo was later sent with reinforcements.

The backbone of the defenders of this fortress were the last Serbian knights and Orthodox "irreconcilable" emigrants from the Balkan and Byzantine lands already conquered by the Turks, who decided not to lay down their arms, but to continue the fight against Ottoman aggression in Europe. In addition, a detachment of Western European knights from among the crusading volunteers was sent to Belgrade for reinforcement. All together, these warriors finally amounted to a fairly impressive force, which (together with the militia from among the townspeople and peasants) numbered several thousand people; this number is roughly comparable to the garrison defending Constantinople three years earlier.

The siege of Belgrade begins

On June 3, 1456, a comet appeared in the sky over Europe, moving from east to west and having a long tail resembling a Turkish saber. Seeing this sign, the Christians realized that the invasion could not be avoided, while the Turks interpreted this phenomenon as a sign clearly expressing the will of Allah to march on Europe, indicating its direction and guaranteeing victory.

The Ottoman army, gathered in the region between Istanbul and Edirne, set out on a long, but seemingly unstoppable campaign. Approaching Belgrade, the Turks immediately established a river blockade of the fortress along the Danube, since their army was accompanied by a huge squadron of 200 cargo and combat pennants, which was marching up the Danube. However, on July 14, 1456, Christian sailors managed to break through the line of the Turkish fleet with an unexpected attack. Approximately 100 Hungarian, Austrian and German ships attacked the Ottoman squadron from the headwaters of the Danube, and 40 Serbian, Croatian and Italian pennants operated from the Sava River.

A fierce battle on the waters of the Danube went on for several hours. Finally, the Ottoman ships were nevertheless pushed back and retreated below Belgrade. 3 large Muslim galleys were sunk, 24 ships were captured, and the road to the city for Christian replenishment and supplies was opened.

Then the Sultan ordered to intensify the shelling of the fortress and appointed a general assault on July 20. Upon learning of this, the deblocking army of Christians accelerated its march and approached Belgrade on July 17, camping across the Sava River. However, frightened by the size of the Turkish army, the strength of its positions, and most importantly, the monstrous abundance of its artillery, the command of the deblocking forces decided to abandon the attack (believing that it would be doomed). In fact, the city's defenders were left to their fate... and Divine help. And this, as it turned out later, was not so little, although skeptics usually think otherwise.

True, when at the military council of the commanders of the Christian army it was decided to retreat without giving battle, and the regiments learned about this, such indecision caused a mutiny. A significant part of the crusader soldiers said that in spite of everything they would try to help the defending garrison and would not leave the Serbian and Hungarian brothers in trouble. As a result, in order to prevent a split in his already not very large army, Janos Hunyadi decided to stay and closely monitor the development of the situation.

The shelling of the fortress by the Turks continued. The small artillery of the defenders, who tried to conduct counter-battery fire, was soon almost completely suppressed by an order of magnitude more numerous and more long-range Turkish. The walls of the "lower city", although recently reinforced, but built according to medieval traditions, were pierced by Turkish guns in a few days. However, the Ottoman artillerymen coped with the double walls of the “upper city”, located on a high mountain, only on the afternoon of July 20, 1456, and they did not manage to break through a large gap in the walls of the citadel. Mehmed II, already so annoyed that the start of the assault had to be delayed, did not wait any longer and ordered the troops to attack.

On the walls and in the gaps, a fierce battle began to boil, in its intensity it was not inferior to the storming of Constantinople three years earlier. Driven by religious fanaticism, inspired by their large numbers and faith in success, constantly “pumped up” to the point of exaltation by various “dervishes” and Islamic preachers “ghazavat”, the Ottoman soldiers went on the assault in dense columns.

The European defenders of the city stood not for life, but for death. According to contemporaries, Christian clergy, both Catholic and Orthodox, stood right in the ranks of the soldiers on the walls and in the breaches, inspiring them to fight to the end.

The brutal assault lasted more than a day. And although the Turks managed to break into the city, the defenders of Belgrade did not give up

The brutal assault lasted more than a day. Starting in the afternoon of July 20, it continued all day on July 21, 1456. The Ottoman soldiers replaced each other in echelons, while there was no one to replace the Serbian-Hungarian defenders. But the defenders held out, although the attackers had a large numerical superiority (reaching up to 6:1 and even up to 10:1). However, towards the evening of July 21, the Turks broke into the fortress ...

True, this did not lead to the collapse of the defense: the defenders did not give up. They understood that they were doomed anyway, but they hoped that help from the "liberation army" would still come.

Hand-to-hand fights boiled with renewed vigor on the streets of the Serbian capital. Christians created makeshift barricades and fiercely defended every house. And the Sultan threw more and more reserves into the crucible of battle.

The city was on fire.

Here, unable to withstand the night hand-to-hand combat in the flaming streets, the Turkish troops began to retreat from the fortress. The conqueror of Constantinople decided that since the “lower city” had already been taken, and the “upper city” had almost fallen, then in the morning with minimal risk it would be possible to finish off the surviving defenders and capture the citadel without any problems.

However, the course of further events did not develop as Mehmet II calculated. As the saying goes, Allah proposes and God disposes. Even at the end of the night of July 21/22, seeing that the defense had entered the final stage, the deblocking army of Christians approached the city. First of all, reinforcements were sent to the fortress on ships, which finally replaced the surviving heroes of the defense, who fought incessantly and did not sleep for two days. However, the main forces of the "Belgrade Liberation Army" stood behind the river, so far without taking any active action.

The day when the fate of Serbia was decided

In the early morning of July 22, 1456, part of the newly arrived Christian soldiers - both from the side of the city and from the side of the Sava River - decided without an order to go to the "no man's land" in order to gain trophies and engage in single battles with the Turks, who also robbed at that time the fallen. Gradually, small clashes of individuals turned into battles of outposts, and then the forces participating in the confrontation only increased on both sides.

At the same time, a significant number of crusaders from the "Belgrade Liberation Army" "inflamed with military spirit and yearned for battle." Of their own accord, they crossed a tributary of the Danube and attacked the Turkish lines of the left flank. Part of the officers and priests of Hunyadi's army, knowing about the numerical superiority of the Turks and the strength of their position, tried to stop the violators of discipline. Moreover, they even got into boats to try to prevent the crossing of their soldiers.

However, this had the opposite effect. The Christian warriors, seeing in the predawn darkness that some of their comrades had already crossed over to the other side and were fighting the Turks, and their commanders and priests were riding in boats along the river and shouting something, decided that they were leading them on the attack. Then the whole army suddenly rushed forward, quickly overcoming the river Sava by swimming and fords.

Here the commanders of the Christian army, deciding to take advantage of the successful impulse of their soldiers, finally ordered all the regiments to attack the left flank of the Turkish siege line. The Sultan's troops, resting after the assaults and not at all expecting a blow from the small and hitherto passive Christian army, tried to chaotically counterattack.

At first, the "akynji" and other light troops from Anatolia and other Asian provinces opposed the deblocking forces, but they were quickly thrown back. However, it hasn't solved anything yet. A formidable wave of heavy Ottoman cavalry was already preparing to roll onto the Christian lines, barely entrenched on the shore. However, during their withdrawal, the light Anatolian cavalry mixed the ranks of the heavily armed horsemen "spugs" and "jebels" who came to their aid. Confusion arose in their ranks, the Ottoman commanders tried to put their regiments in order. And at this time the Christian army resolutely attacked.

The fierce onslaught of the infantry and cavalry of the crusaders intensified, and an increasing number of them were transported to the Belgrade side because of the Sava. The resulting confusion in the mess of the Sultan's troops was growing. Panic ensued and the entire Ottoman left wing force fled. An attempt by the Turkish commanders to organize a counterattack with "Rumelian spags" from the right wing, where troops from the Balkan provinces were stationed, only increased the general chaos and did not bring success.

Here Janos Hunyadi and his commanders finally took control of the army and, stopping the pursuit of the fugitives on the Ottoman left flank, hit the Turkish center and the headquarters of the Sultan with all their might.

Seeing such a success of their liberators, the remnants of the Belgrade garrison with reinforcements arrived supported the attack, hitting the Ottoman artillery in the center from the side of the city. The fire of dozens of Turkish guns this time could not stop the attackers, and as a result of a swift attack, the positions of the Ottoman artillery were taken.

Then something unprecedented happened: unable to withstand the blow from two sides - from the side of the Sava River and from the side of the city, - the Sultan's guard, including the famous Janissaries, faltered and ran, following half of the army; those of them who remained in position fell under the blows of the attacking and attacking Christians.

Seeing this, the impressionable Mehmed II wanted to poison himself with grief or throw himself on a spear, but those close to him prevented him from doing so. Then the Sultan wanted to rush into the thick of the battle on horseback with a sword in his hand, in order to stop the fleeing by his example, but he was immediately wounded by an arrow in the thigh. This arrow, oddly enough, turned out to be Turkish ... (Well, how can one not recall the words of the psalm, which was read in the "Belgrade Liberation Army" before the battle: "You will direct their arrows in their faces"!)

The Sultan wanted to stop the stampede of his army, but was immediately wounded - by a Turkish arrow

Perhaps, from the shock of an unexpected turn of affairs, or perhaps from the loss of blood, the Sultan fainted right in front of his soldiers. And the onslaught of the European regiments continued, and the Hungarian banners were already approaching the headquarters of the lord of the Ottoman Empire. Then, having barely brought Mehmed II to his senses and bandaged his wound, the retinue put the Sultan on a horse and quickly took him away in a deranged state from the battlefield ...

And as soon as the formidable conqueror of Byzantium, who seemed hitherto invincible, was saved by his entourage, the Sultan's court regiments faltered and fled under the onslaught of Christians. Now it was a real disaster.

Seeing the flight of the left flank and everything that happened in the center, the Turkish troops of the right flank decided: since even the guard was defeated, and the sultan, apparently, was killed, then "the will of Allah to win on this day is definitely not." And the "Rumelian" right-flank units, following the rest of the army, turned into a stampede, with practically no serious resistance to the advancing Europeans.

So the huge Sultan's army, which had previously taken Constantinople, was defeated by a much smaller combined army of Eastern and Western Christians in a field battle near the walls of the Serbian capital. This day will go down in history as the Miracle of the Belgrade Victory.

Results and consequences of the battle

Yes, Belgrade, unlike Constantinople, turned out to be “too tough” for the Ottoman army. Thanks to an amazing set of circumstances, the Christian army was able to stop a huge army of Islamists. Many domestic authors, describing the fall of Constantinople, following some Byzantines of that era, speak of the disastrous alliance with their European neighbors, pointing to the events of 1453. However, at the same time, they do not say anything or simply do not know about the “Belgrade Triumph” of 1456, which would have been impossible without the joint coordinated actions of Orthodox and Catholics in the face of Islamic danger. Of course, it was clearly not without a mysterious intervention from Above: just as in 1453 it was probably the will of the Lord for the fall of Constantinople, so in 1456 His will predetermined the common victory of the Orthodox and Catholics in extremely unfavorable conditions for them.

It must be said that the ruler of the Ottoman Empire repaid his entourage for salvation from the battlefield and for their care in a very specific way: when most of his senior officers arrived with him in Sofia, then, according to eyewitnesses, he seemed to be furious. In this city, the Sultan personally cut off the heads of those of his associates whom he considered responsible for the rout, and ordered the execution of many other Ottoman commanders who escaped from the battlefield (although, no doubt, he himself was the main culprit in this military collapse).

Thus, a certain, one might say, mystical twist of fate took place, and many of the Ottoman officers who took Constantinople, having escaped death on the battlefields, accepted death from the Sultan's executioners already three years after the triumph of Islam, prepared by their own hands. It’s hard not to remember the words: “Vengeance is mine, and Az will repay.”

Almost all of the Ottoman artillery siege fleet, unprecedented in its size, fell into the hands of Christians: 12 huge siege bombards, 8 somewhat smaller, but also very large cannons and dozens of guns of smaller calibers were captured (according to some estimates, 150 or even 200 artillery units became trophies ). The largest of the captured Turkish guns was 8 meters long!..

In fact, the Sultan's army lost all of its magnificent artillery, which the Turks had been creating for many years and only thanks to which Constantinople had been taken three years before. The number of Turkish guns captured near Belgrade turned out to be so large that the prices for guns and metal for them in neighboring countries fell sharply in the coming years after the Serbian-Hungarian triumph.

The numerical losses of the Turks were also very high. We do not have exact data, but, according to various estimates, they numbered from 20-24 thousand to several tens of thousands of soldiers. Ottoman accounts report the loss of about a third of the army. Infantry units, including the famous Janissaries, suffered the most. They, unlike the Ottoman horsemen, participated in all the assaults on the fortress, and in the decisive battle, it was they who, when fleeing, became victims of the cavalry pursuing the army of the Sultan.

The losses of the Christians were also significant, but much less than the Turkish ones. First of all, the garrison of the Serbian capital suffered, losing, according to some estimates, up to 80% of its defenders (mainly during a three-day melee; losses from Turkish bombardment, despite the terrible damage to the city, turned out to be relatively small). Also, detachments of weakly armed and practically unarmored crusader militias suffered quite a lot of damage.

As a result of this victory of Christian arms, the Turkish threat - both to Belgrade in particular and to Hungary as a whole - will be eliminated for 70 years. The capital of Serbia, at that time turned into a border outpost of the Kingdom of Hungary, will be captured by Ottoman troops only in 1521. But, as they say, it will be a different time and a completely different story.

After the news of the miraculous deliverance from the terrible Turkish invasion, solemn religious processions took place everywhere in the cities of Italy, Dalmatia, Austria and Hungary.

Mehmed II, who suffered a crushing defeat at the walls of Belgrade, did not lose his military fervor. A few years later, having partly restored the army and artillery, he turned his attention to other, weaker, as it seemed to him, opponents. However, taught by bitter experience, this Turkish sultan never again went on a big campaign against Serbia and Hungary.

Surprisingly, over the past five centuries, not a single Pope has withdrawn the decree of Callistus III "on the Turkish bell ringing." According to him, on the summer days of July 21-23 (when the battle was going on) and August 6 (when the news of the defeat of the Turks was received in Rome) throughout the Christian world, bells should ring at noon, prayerfully remembering the defenders of Belgrade. For today's rapidly Islamizing Europe, this is somehow very intolerant ...

Moreover, this instruction about the ringing of bells in memory of the Belgrade miracle was given to all Catholic churches "of all known countries of the world." Some missionaries reported it, for example, even to the ruler of Ethiopia.

However, in the Americas, as well as in Australia - that is, on the continents unknown to Europeans in the 15th century - many decrees of the popes issued before 1492 are not recognized by local Catholics. Therefore, the “Belgrade Victory Day” is never celebrated by Catholic parishes in the USA and other countries of the New World, and prayers for the defenders of Belgrade have never been and are not being offered in the Catholic churches of America. Accordingly, the bells announcing the ancient Serbian-Hungarian triumph over the "Saracens" and carrying for five centuries a call for the unity of Christians against the Turkish danger have never rung and do not ring there. The skeptic, of course, will consider all this just a strange coincidence, nothing more. However, modern believers Serbs, Czechs and Hungarians, who are interested in military history and remember this glorious day, do not think so.

The middle of the XV century was unsuccessful for Europe. The armies of the Ottoman Empire rushed to the North-East in order to raise the green banner of the Prophet over all European capitals. Slavic Belgrade was then a border fortress of the Kingdom of Hungary and was the key to the Hungarian lands for the Turks.

Sultan Mehmed II with one hundred and sixty thousand troops, three hundred cannons and a fleet of two hundred pennants, did not doubt his victory. These were selected and battle-tested troops. The regent of the Hungarian crown, General Janos Hunyadi, had an uncommonly smaller force. He himself gathered troops throughout Hungary, not shying away from European mercenaries. Several thousand cociners were brought to him by the Francican monk John Capistrana, who declared a crusade against the Ottomans. Under this slogan, urban and peasant squads, detachments of the Hungarian princes began to pull up. But the main forces of the Turks in the amount of 60,000 people had already approached the Belgrade fortress, and there, under the command of Captain Mihai Siladya and Laszlo Hunyadi (son of the regent), there were only 7,000 soldiers. The Turks began the siege on July 4, 1456, and on July 14 Hunyadi, at the head of the Danube flotilla, broke through the sea blockade of Belgrade with a sudden blow, sinking three Turkish ships and capturing two dozen. Reinforcements (about 10 - 12 thousand soldiers) and supplies were delivered to the fortress. The peasant detachments of Capistran also pulled up to the area of ​​​​the fortress, but the Turks did not take them seriously, but in vain.

And the siege continued, the Turks, taking advantage of the absolute advantage in artillery, broke through the outer wall by July 21 and broke into the city. But Hunyadi used a military stratagem. A lot of combustible materials were concentrated on the outer fortress wall and, at a signal from the inner city, the janissaries who had broken through were surrounded from the rear by a fiery wall, and the Hungarian knights attacked from the castle. The Turks suffered heavy losses and retreated.

When during this fight. on one of the bastions, the Turks managed to install their banner, the Serbian volunteer Titus Dugovich, cut his shaft with a saber and rushed down from the wall, clutching the enemy banner in his hands. His children were granted hereditary nobility.

The Turkish troops were upset and retreated to their camp. The Hungarians took up defense along the outer city wall. Captain Siladi, fearing a trap from the Turks, who still had a numerical advantage, forbade making sorties towards the Turkish camp, but the human factor worked. The battlefield between the fortress and the camp was littered with the bodies of the killed Turks, and all the Hungarians and Serbs knew that the Janissaries and Sipahs carried the looted gold with them, and captured weapons were not superfluous. More and more Hungarians went beyond the walls of the fortress and gradually they began to approach the Turkish camp. Sultan Mehmed decided that this was an offensive and threw several regiments of sipahs against the Hungarians, the battle began to boil. Capistran, having decided that the Turks were seriously advancing, struck with the forces of two thousand cosiners in the rear of the Turkish army, along the Sava River. Hunyadi, taking advantage of the moment, threw his troops into the Turkish batteries and captured them. The Sultan personally led his Janissary guards into battle, but was wounded. And the Turks fled again, but this time in earnest. In the morning, the Hungarians found an empty Turkish camp. Data on the number of troops and losses of the parties vary greatly depending on the sources. The number of Turkish troops is determined at 100 - 160 thousand people (with losses from 60 to 80 thousand), the number of Hungarian-Serbian soldiers in the battle zone is indicated - 40 - 50 thousand (with total losses from 6 to 10 thousand people)

There were also Turkish invasions of Europe, but the Belgrade fortress stood until 1521. And in 1529 and 1683, the Ottomans stormed Vienna.

But the 18th century, the century of Catherine the Great, shone on the horizon. And the glow of Chesma, the brilliance of Suvorov's sword and the volleys of Ushakov's cannons put an end to Turkish expansion.

As an honest Historian, I must add that there was another case of a successful secursion of a besieged fortress, similar to Belgrade. This is the sad first Narva campaign of Peter the Great. There, 12,000 soldiers, with 12 cannons of Charles of Sweden, having come to the aid of the besieged Narva, defeated the Russian army of the Duke of Kruya in 37,000 bayonets and with one and a half hundred cannons. Certainly a shame, but it was not in vain that Peter said that the students would learn and thank their teachers. And what is characteristically thanked ... Near Poltava ... And the whole Baltic region (including the Leningrad region) together with Narva entered the Russian Empire.

Thank you for not giving Gorbachev out of political correctness to the Swedes.

In the decade between 1515 and 1525, the “Turkish front” and the “wars for faith” that began after the emergence of the Reformation movement are becoming increasingly important for Europe. From the same time, large-scale colonial conquests began in America and Asia. Firearms have long ceased to be exotic in the Old World, and the colonialists have to deal with them in Asia. At the same time, in America, artillery is a significant trump card of the Spaniards in the wars with the Indian states.

New realities

In 1515, the military-political bond between the African Maghreb and the Ottoman Sultanate began, finally ending with the absorption of North Africa by the Turks. A significant role in these events is played by the Muslim naval commanders, the brothers Oruch (Aruj) and Khizir (Khaireddin), called by the Europeans "brothers Barbarossa". Oruch in 1516 arranges a coup in the Sultanate of Algeria with the help of an Ottoman detachment armed with firearms, which, as Crowley notes, is a complete resemblance to European colonial conquests in Asia and America. Firearms determine the success of the Ottoman Sultanate's capture of Syria (1516) and Egypt (1517).

The Reformation movement, launched by Martin Luther in 1517, by 1522 finds support from a number of German rulers, primarily from the Saxon elector. To the usual formal reasons for feudal strife, as in the Württemberg War of 1519 and the German wars of 1522-1523, a religious one is added. The Reformation becomes the pretext for a whole series of destructive wars of the 16th-17th centuries.

Major global trade routes of the Spaniards (in white) and the Portuguese (in blue). On the right, the European possessions of Charles V after his election as Holy Roman Emperor (shaded areas)

The great invaders of the previous decade in 1515-1519 were replaced by new ones - the French king Francis I and Maximilian's grandson Karl Habsburg. Francis fails in the imperial elections, and Charles - as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Charles V and as King Charles I of Spain - as a result of the intricacies of feudal inheritance, receives Spain, Flanders and almost all of Germany under his hand (in 1521, however, Charles gives his brother Ferdinand part of the German possessions).

Since 1521, a series of wars between the Habsburgs and the Valois began. King Francis and Emperor Charles are trying to take over the rich Northern Italy and Flanders, as well as other disputed areas of Europe, from each other. Popes and other great sovereigns support one side or the other.

Europeans in Africa, Asia and America by 1521

Colonial conquests in Asia in the 16th century do not go smoothly for Europeans. The Portuguese fail in the siege of Aden (1513), and they storm the fortress without the use of siege artillery, while the defenders, on the contrary, repel the assault with gunfire. In 1517, Aden also fails to capture. Another key port in the Red Sea, Jeddah (Jeddah), was already part of the Ottoman Sultanate in 1517, and an attempt by the Portuguese to capture it from the sea was repulsed by a Turkish squadron.

The city of Goa in India, when captured by the Portuguese in 1510, has 3,000 firearms in warehouses. The Sultan of Malacca deploys numerous cast bronze artillery against the Portuguese, although technically it is less perfect than the Portuguese. This is also true in relation to the tactics of using firearms. On this occasion, Black notes that one should not exaggerate the degree of domination of the Portuguese in Asia, at least in the 16th century.

Things are not going well for Europeans in North Africa. The countries of the Maghreb turn out to be a serious adversary, having at that time military equipment at the European level, in particular, firearms. Spanish expedition against Oruç Barbarossa (1517) is defeated. Both Spanish attempts to capture Algiers (in 1519 and 1523) end in disastrous failures. By the 1530s, Spanish possessions in North Africa were only a chain of coastal fortresses from Melilla to Tripoli and small territories around them. The Algerian possessions of the Spaniards are reduced to the island fortress of Peñon near Algiers. In Portuguese hands is the same chain of strongholds along the Atlantic coast of Morocco.

Portuguese fort in Calcutta at the beginning of the 16th century. Guns are exactly what allows such strongholds to exist.

However, colonial conquests in mainland America (since 1519) are much more successful. The local peoples do not have firearms and do not know how to resist them, so that even small contingents of Spaniards gain a significant one-sided advantage. In the autumn of 1519, the Spaniards equip Magellan's round-the-world expedition, the main purpose of which is to explore the western route to the Asian booty, which the Portuguese have until then completely disposed of.

Württemberg War of 1519

The essence of the events of the Württemberg campaign (or capture) in 1519 is that the Swabian League takes the Duchy of Württemberg from the local Duke Ulrich, who is assisted by the Swiss.

The siege on a fragment of an engraving by Burgkmair the Elder (1st quarter of the 16th century). The bombardment is carried out from a hill to add range to the guns. If there is no convenient natural elevation, a cavalier is built. Both great cannons laid on platforms and siege weapons on wheeled carriages are used. British Museum no. 1849.1031.250

During the siege of Vorndorf in April by a detachment of allies under the command of Frundsberg, only shelling from a scarf, brought up and installed at night, forces the city to surrender. During the siege of Markgroningen by the detachment of Frundsberg and the artillery of Zeichmeister Michael Ott, gunfire from two redoubts begins on May 18. May 19 summed up "one great Württemberg cannon, named "Brother"["d" Bruder"], and two mortars".

The next day, the besiegers have to remove three guns. Two of them, "Dragon" ["Drach"] from Innsbruck and a double carton, "cracked", the third, "Jester" ["Narr"] from Ulm, exploded, killing two servants and wounding the master gunner. The guns were replaced by the Württemberg Strauß, Drach and Hirsch, and on the same day a large breach was made in the wall. On May 21, the third redoubt was erected by the besiegers and armed with kartauns. Three mortars are being set up in a nearby ravine, which are firing at "stones"(fraction?) and "fire projectiles".

The breach is kept under fire day and night. Frundsberg pays half a guilder to every shooter who fires half a day from the trap. By May 23, the return fire of the fortress is weakening, and the gap is so widened that they can pass through it. "shoulder to shoulder 25 soldiers." On May 25, the fortress surrenders.

On October 3, at a review near Göppingen, the allied army has 9 thousand foot and 1.2 thousand cavalry. It has 6 breach and 32 field guns, as well as 3 mortars. Only those tools are taken on a further off-road trip, "who can shoot from the wheels"- 3 zingerins, 1 nachtigall, 14 hoses, 9 falconets, 1 "fire squeaker". Exclusively for the protection of the eight hundred "passerers" - sappers going in front, of which 200 fell trees, and the rest pave the way, 100 double hooks on the machines and 200 shooters are allocated, of which “one shoots, and the second needs to carry a squeaker”. There are no more big battles or significant sieges in this war.

Siege of Tenochtitlan (1521)

The preparation of the Spaniards for the siege of the island capital of the Aztecs of Tenochtitlan on the salt lake Teshkoko included the capture of coastal city-states friendly to Tenochtitlan (spring 1521) and the conclusion of an alliance with the enemies of Tenochtitlan, primarily Teshkoko (since the beginning of 1521). By the end of April 1521, Tenochtitlan was in isolation.

Reconstruction of the plan of Lake Teshkoko and the cities on its islands and shores. Scheme of the island, dams and bridges. The size of the island is approximately 3 × 1.5 km

When landing in Vera Cruz (1519), a detachment of Cortes of 500 people carries with them 14 cannons (10 bronze lungs, 4 falconets) and has handguns. For comparison, Pizarro's detachment in 1531 has 4 cannons for 168 people. In the spring of 1521, Cortes receives reinforcements, and his Spanish detachment has 86 cavalry and more than 800 foot, including 118 crossbowmen and shooters. It has 3 iron siege and 15 light bronze cannons.

For the siege of the island capital of the Aztecs, the Spaniards build 13 improvised gunboats ("bergantines"), which are equipped with light guns and operate from the city of Texcoco. On the side of the Spaniards, there are thousands of troops of the Tlaxcaltans, the worst enemies of the Tenochtitlans. The besiegers are supplied without hindrance.

Bronze breech-loading falconet of the early 16th century on a ship installation. Allegedly one of those that Cortes had. Arantegui y Sanz, sheet 14

In the second week of May 1521, the actual siege of Tenochtitlan begins. At that time, a smallpox epidemic was raging in the city, which in the spring of 1521 brought with it a detachment from Spain. Despite all this, the Aztecs under the command of Cuatemoc, the nephew of Montezuma (Moctezuma), defend the city for three and a half months.

To break the resistance of the defenders, the Spaniards destroy the city as they advance. The victims of battles and diseases number in the tens of thousands. After the final defeat of the defenders (the capture of Kuatemoc on August 13), it takes three days to withdraw the surviving population from the city.

The siege of Tenochtitlan in a painting of the 2nd half of the 17th century. Everything is done by the Spaniards, the Indian allies are hardly noticeable

In the colonial mythology of the 19th-20th centuries, the siege of Tenochtitlan is presented as one of the first successful confrontations between "a handful of cultured white people armed with guns and cannons" and "innumerable crowds of savages with spears and bows." Yet, as it is assessed today, firearms played a far from decisive role in the fall of the Aztec empire. Far more essential to Spanish success is the presence of numerous and reliable local allies.

Siege of Mézières (1521)

During the war between the Valois and the Habsburgs of 1521-1526, the city of Mézières in northeastern France is - after the surrender of nearby Mouzon - the only obstacle to the 40,000-strong imperial army in the rich Champagne. Since the city's fortifications are old and weak, and it has neither food stores, nor military supplies, nor a strong garrison, it is considered impossible to hold it. Therefore, the royal military council proposes to destroy the fortifications and retreat inland, destroying and burning everything behind them.

Knight Bayard is called to lead the defense of Mézières. The king immediately appoints him as his viceroy (lieutenant general) and grants him all kinds of powers. However, Bayard receives few troops - from 2 to 3 thousand (2 detachments of a hundred gendarmes at arms and about 2 thousand infantry), including the remnants of the Mouzon garrison, an inexperienced and unstable contingent.

Mézières and its fortifications in a 17th-century watercolor. "Burgundy Gate" on the right. Scale bar - 300 French fathoms (about 600 meters)

Old Mezieres is located in the bend of the Meuse (Meuse) with a width of 200 French fathoms (about 400 meters). The neck of the bend is called the "Burgundy Gate". First of all, Bayard "removes all unnecessary mouths from the city" and destroys the bridge over the Meuse. Gathering his detachment and the Mezieres philistines, Bayard makes them swear not to surrender the city and fight to the death. " And if, de, there is not enough food, we will eat horses, and after that ", he adds "with fun, which is his custom", - "Let's pickle and eat our servants".

Further, Bayard organizes round-the-clock work to repair the fortifications. He himself carries the stones and digs the earth. Following his example, all the nobles allegedly also work as sappers and workers. More significantly, perhaps, Bayard invests three thousand ecus of his own funds in paying for the work.

On August 30, the imperial army of Count Nassau and Franz von Sickingen surrounds the city from two sides. Sickingen with 15 thousand occupies the "Burgundy gate". The Earl of Nassau is stationed across the river with 20,000 men. The Imperials have over a hundred guns, including large bombards.

Imperial commanders offer Bayard to surrender the city on honorable terms and "to act as wisely as the commander in Mouzon", for, de, they respect him very much, Bayard, valor and honor. And he will not succeed in holding such weak fortifications with such weak forces.

Bayard "answers with a smile and without thinking" that he was flattered by the benevolence of the gentlemen of Nassau and Sickingen, with whom he did not even know himself properly, but the king entrusted this fortress to him. And, with God's help, the kind gentlemen will get tired of besieging the city before he, Bayard, gets tired of defending it. And he himself will leave the city only along the bridge from the bodies of enemies.

After the very first volleys of siege batteries, part of the garrison deserts (historians attribute this to the demoralized Mouzons), "some through the gate, and who - down from the wall". But Bayard, supposedly, even “I am pleased that I got rid of cowards, unworthy of sharing the honor of a glorious defense”.

In less than four days, the besiegers release through the city "more than five thousand" nuclei and bombs. There are two large gaps in the walls. The artillery of the defenders is weak, but Bayard is an experienced military leader, and over and over again arranges successful sorties. After a month of siege, supplies run low and dysentery breaks out in the city. The defenders of the Sickingen battery, who fire heavily from the high ground to the south-west of the city, are especially harmful.

Bayard, knowing about the discord between the two imperial commanders, draws up a letter, as if addressed to one of the Flemish nobles, and arranges for it to reach Sickingen. In the letter, he writes about 12,000 Swiss and four hundred men at arms allegedly going to help Mézières, who will attack the Sickingen camp within 24 hours. Moreover, the Count of Nassau, de, will not give him help, and he, Bayard, is well aware of this.

The mutual distrust of Nassau and Sickingen leads to the fact that Sickingen removes the camp and withdraws his corps across the river, which almost leads to a battle with Nassau's corps. The defenders, on the other hand, receive a thousand soldiers and a certain amount of supplies through the path opened from the side of the “Burgundy Gate”. Imperial commanders are losing hope of starving the city out.

Meanwhile, King Francis manages to gather troops. After less than six weeks, the siege of Mézières is lifted and the Imperial army retreats through Picardy, destroying and burning everything in its path. Bayard himself is richly and honorably awarded by the king, and the day the siege is lifted (September 27) becomes the city holiday of Mézières, celebrated before the Revolution and after the Restoration.

The siege, in addition to its obvious significance for France in 1521, is notable for the success of small defenders against vastly superior forces, well-armed with artillery, and the participation that the famous "knight without fear and reproach" Bayard takes in it.

Siege of Belgrade (1521)

The first European campaign of conquest by the young Sultan Suleiman, conducted under his personal leadership, was directed against the Hungarian king Louis II. Under the rule of the Hungarians at that time were Serbia and its capital - Belgrade (Hungarian Nandorfehervar), which by that time had repeatedly been in the Turkish siege, but each time stood up.

Scheme of the city and fortress of Belgrade in 1888. Two fortifications are clearly visible, the lower and upper ones, Bolshoy Voenny Island (although in the 16th century it could have had somewhat different outlines) and the place where Zemlin (Zemun) stood. On many medieval images, Belgrade is shown from the far (northern) bank of the Danube

The Turkish poet Mahremi, singing the valor of his Sultan, extols the power of the Belgrade fortress. Such a castle, according to him, has not been seen since the time of Adam. He is protected "two towers, nine planets, and angels protect him", and built, probably, not by a man, but by a genie. It is known, however, that the Hungarian kingdom at this time suffers serious financial difficulties, its army does not receive a salary. The Belgrade fortress has almost no cannons and military supplies, and its garrison has only about 700 people.

Suleiman sets out on the Belgrade campaign from Constantinople on February 19, 1521, at the head of an army of 15 thousand people, 300 guns [probably of all calibers] and 40 galleys. In Sofia, a huge convoy joins the army. Separate Ottoman corps are sent to Shabac and Transylvania (equestrian), one - to Zemlin and Belgrade, and another cavalry corps covers the movement of the main army.

Hungarian nobles notice the threat not immediately. The Diet in Buda meets at the end of June and announces the collection of troops in Tolna, all pans must send troops. For help, the Hungarians are asking the Pope and the most Christian rulers.

Archduke Ferdinand sends 3 thousand soldiers, the Polish king Sigismund - 2 thousand foot and 500 cavalry. The noble estate of Bohemia "shows shameful indifference" to the appeals of the king, and ordinary soldiers prefer, despite the royal ban, to be hired by the French king Francis or Emperor Charles - those have higher pay than the Hungarian Louis. Venice sends 30,000 ducats to the Hungarians. Only a few thousand of Hungarian troops gather in Tolna, and only when Shabac has already fallen and Belgrade is besieged.

Since June 20, the siege of Shabac (Hungarian Bogurdelen) has been led by the corps of Ahmed Pasha, the begler run of Rumelia. The defenders of Shabac are few in number, "no more than a hundred foot and horse" under the direction of Simon Logody. By July 7, the walls of the fortress were destroyed, and the Turks filled the bypass ditch with fascines. The defenders still have the opportunity to leave the castle across the river, but instead they wait for the assault and everyone dies, "killing seven hundred Turks". Logodi himself is taken alive. The severed heads of the defenders of Šabac are exhibited along the road along which Sultan Suleiman enters the castle the next day.

July 9 starts "building a castle on the water"- building a pontoon bridge across the Sava River. It lasts "day and night". Meanwhile, Zemlin Castle, on the opposite side of the river from Belgrade, was taken by the Grand Vizier Piri Pasha. The garrison of 400 sailors of the Danube flotilla under the command of Markus Skubich was killed, and two more castles (one of them, apparently, Smederevo) were taken by Bali-beg.

On July 19, a bridge 1800 cubits long (over 1 km) is ready, but stormy water breaks it, and it is possible to restore the bridge only on July 27. By August 1, the Sultan's army crosses the Sava and joins the corps of Piri Pasha at the walls of Belgrade. On the day of the arrival of the Sultan, the Ottoman army was sent to an unprepared assault, repulsed with the loss of 600 people.

The siege of Belgrade in 1521 in a later and not entirely documentary image (apparently, the 1540s). View from roughly north; on the right is the far bank of the Sava bend and, below, Voenny Island

Two Serb defectors show that the walls of the fortress are weakest on the side where the Sava flows into the Danube, so that siege batteries are set up on Voenny Island. On August 4, the bombardment of the city begins, which is very successful. On August 8, the Turks attacked from three sides, but were repulsed with heavy losses. However, after the assault, the Hungarian defenders also number no more than 400 people and retreat to the Upper Castle, where, de, "reluctantly let" and the Serbian part of the garrison (in Hammer, who seems to have little distinction between Serbs and Bulgarians, these are “Thracian (Bulgarian) mercenaries”).

The upper castle under the command of Blazius Ola, John Bot and John Morgai [the names are Latinized] is defended for another three weeks, repulsing more than twenty assaults. Finally "French or Italian apostates" as part of the Ottoman troops, they successfully lay and detonate a mine under the main tower of the upper castle bypass, called in the sources "Do not be afraid" or "Multimile" (meaning "seen from afar").

Belgrade in 1760 from an engraving by Seuter; view from approximately west-northwest. The fortifications by this time had grown greatly, but both the old walls and the Upper Castle are visible.

The Hungarian army assembled in Tolna numbers only a few thousand people. Without waiting for the arrival of the largest nobleman of Zapolya in Tolna, voivode Batory tries - already after the fall of Šabac - to lead the available forces to the Mitrovice castle, but he meets the 17,000-strong corps of the Bosnian pasha and retreats to Titel, from where he watches the Belgrade siege.

Under pressure from the Serbian population of Belgrade and having lost hope for reinforcements, the garrison of the Upper Castle surrenders on August 29 with the right to free exit. However, the Turks treacherously kill the military leaders Ola and Botha, as well as most of the Hungarians of the garrison, and the Serbs of Belgrade are resettled near Constantinople. A settlement with the name of Belgrade will subsequently arise there.

The Belgrade fortress receives a garrison of 3 thousand Janissaries at 200 "new" tools. To restore the fortifications send "20 thousand Wallachians". Šabac Castle gets 20 "new" guns. Also, the fortresses of Kulpenich, Baric, Perkash, Slankamen, Mitrovits, Karlovits, Uilok fall into Turkish hands, which the Turks partially destroy, depriving them of combat value.

Western European historians lament the unwillingness of the mighty West to save the Hungarian stronghold of Christianity. But almost more they blame for the fall of a key stronghold on the Danube "religious hatred[Orthodox] Serbs[to the Hungarian Catholics ruling over them] » and betrayal individual Hungarian aristocrats like Franz Hederwahr and Valentin Török.

The first European capture of Suleiman opens the way for the Turks to the Hungarian plain and brings them within seasonal reach of the Hungarian capital of Buda and imperial Vienna.

The title of the article shows Stöhr's engraving "Two Cannons" (1540s). The approximate content of the accompanying lubok rhyme (not shown in the illustration):

“But Master Jörg stood in a cheerful pose and aims a cannon ... aim at a Turk half a man’s height and do not be afraid of undershoots ... you will completely beat both horses and people.”

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