Study of chemistry in the tenth grade opens up previously unexplored spaces for schoolchildren, they move from inorganic chemistry to organic compounds. And here it is important not to miss the very essence, from the beginning to immerse yourself in the material, and try to delve into theory and practice.

For this, the textbook reshebnik may be useful. "Chemistry Grade 8 Textbook Gabrielyan, Ostroumov, Sladkov Enlightenment".

Why is the Reshebnik useful for students

Homework ready will help not only to avoid negative assessments and get a positive score in the subject, but will also give the following opportunities:

Support in parsing incomprehensible topics.
Assess the assimilation of the material.
Improve grades in chemistry.

Of course, it is not a solution to all problems and a panacea. Nevertheless, in practice, it has been verified that it is better with resolver than without it.

Who is the book used by

As a rule, not only schoolchildren use resolvers, it can also be useful for teachers and just adults who want, for example, to test their knowledge or lessons from children. The main advantage in any option here is a significant time saving, which allows you not to get stuck on complex tasks and delve into the essence of the matter from the very beginning.

"Gabrielyan O.S. Chemistry: textbook. for stud. institutions of environments. Prof. Education / O.S. Gabrielyan, I. G. Ostroumov. - 10th ed., Erased. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2012. - 336 p. On the..."

Gabrielyan O.S.

Chemistry: textbook. for stud. institutions of environments. Prof. education

/ O.S. Gabrielyan, I. G. Ostroumov. - 10th ed., Erased. - M .:

Publishing Center "Academy", 2012. - 336 p.

The theoretical foundations are presented at the modern level.

chemistry, the issues of the chemistry of elements (non-metals and

metals), the structure and properties of different classes of organic

connections. Control questions and tasks are given,

laboratory experiments and practical work in all areas of inorganic and organic chemistry.

Vazhenin A.G.

Social Science: textbook. manual for stud. institutions of environments.

Prof. education / A.G. Vazhenin. - 11th ed., Erased. - M .:

Publishing Center "Academy", 2012. - 368 p.

The textbook examines the formation and development of human society, state and law;

characterizes the cultural, economic, political and social spheres of society; highlights the global problems of our time.

For students of institutions of secondary vocational education.

Vereina L.I.

Technical mechanics: textbook for environments. Prof.

education L.I. Vereina, M.M. Krasnov. - 6th ed., Erased. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2012. - 352 p.

The textbook is intended for the study of the subject "Technical Mechanics" and is part of the educational and methodological set for disciplines of the general professional cycle for technical specialties.

The fundamentals of theoretical mechanics, resistance of materials, parts and mechanisms of machines are stated; examples of calculations are given. Information about the main methods of changing the mechanical properties of materials and the development trends of machine and mechanism structures are given.

The textbook can be used in the study of the general professional discipline OP.02 "Technical Mechanics" in accordance with the Federal State Educational Standard for vocational education in specialties of a technical profile.

For students of institutions of secondary vocational education.

Pevtsova E.A.

Law for professions and specialties of a socio-economic profile: a textbook for institutions early. and Wednesday. Prof. education / E.A. Pevtsova. - 4th ed., Rev. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2013. - 432 p.

The textbook is written in accordance with the approximate curriculum of the academic discipline "Law". It sets out in an accessible form the complex problems of legal science, presents practical material that will allow young people to acquire the necessary legal skills and skills to ensure legal protection in real life.

The book also contains additional material reflecting modern approaches of lawyers to the problems of science, schemes, legal documents, extracts from regulatory legal acts.

For students in professions and specialties of the socio-economic profile in institutions of primary and secondary vocational education.

Averin V.N.

Computer engineering graphics: textbook. manual for stud.

institutions of secondary prof. education / V.N. Averin. - 4th ed., Erased. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2013. - 224 p.

The fundamentals of the computer creation of design documentation based on the professional version of the KOMPAS system are presented. The interface of this system is described, examples of constructing images of the simplest geometric shapes and the possibility of their editing are considered.

Examples of creating various drawings in the KOMPAS system using the libraries of this system, specifications of assembly units and tables are given. The features and basic operations of creating three-dimensional models of parts using the KOMPAS-3D system are considered, examples of creating three-dimensional assemblies and building assembly drawings on their basis are given. Shows the ability to export drawings to the AutoCAD system and import drawings from this system.

The textbook can be used in the study of the general professional discipline OP.02 "Computer Graphics" in accordance with the Federal State Educational Standard for the specialty 151901 "Technology of mechanical engineering".

For students of institutions of secondary vocational education.

Belik V.V., Kienskaya K.I.

Physical and Colloidal Chemistry: A Textbook for Stud.

institutions of environments. prof. education. - 7th ed., Erased. - M .:

Publishing Center "Academy", 2012. - 288 p.

The fundamentals of thermodynamics, chemical and phase equilibrium, the theory of chemical kinetics and catalysis, elements of electrochemistry, thermodynamics of surface phenomena, properties and methods of dispersed systems are presented.

Processes and operations of shaping: Textbook for students. institutions of higher. prof. education / Ed. ON THE.

Chemborisov. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2012. - 320 p. - (Series Bachelor's degree).

The physical foundations of cutting materials are outlined.

Modern instrumental materials, lubricating and cooling technological means are considered. The designs of the most common general-purpose tools are given. The theoretical foundations of the formation of systems for the computer-aided design of cutting tools are given.

Tsvetkova M.S., Velikovich L.S.

Informatics and ICT: Textbook for the beginning. and Wednesday. prof.

education. - 4th ed., Erased. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2013. - 352 p.

The concept of information processes is given. Information models, number systems, programming technologies, principles of coding, storage, retrieval and processing of information are considered. The basics of algorithmization are given, examples of information processing algorithms are given. The means of information and telecommunication technologies are described. The technology of creating and transforming information objects (processing of text, graphic and tabular material, sound information, creating a multimedia presentation) is described in detail.

Dracheva E.L., Yulikov L.I.

Management: Textbook for students. institutions of environments. prof.

education. - 13th ed., Erased. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2012. - 304 p.

The history of formation, essence, basic concepts and functions of modern management are stated.

Analyzed the internal and external environment of the organization, the management cycle, strategic and tactical plans in the management system and control over their implementation. Particular attention is paid to methods of decision-making, motivation and delegation of authority, communications, conflict management, power and partnership in the system of management methods.

Grebenyuk E.I., Grebenyuk N.A.

Technical means of informatization: Textbook for students.

institutions of environments. prof. education. - 7th ed., Rev. - M .:

Publishing Center "Academy", 2012. - 352 p.

The physical foundations, hardware, design features, technical characteristics and operating features of modern technical means of informatization are considered: computers, devices for preparation, input and display of information, systems for processing and playback of audio and video information, telecommunications facilities, devices for working with information on solid media. ... Attention is paid to the organization of workplaces during the operation of technical means of informatization.

Provides information on the technology of production of processors, the main characteristics of multi-core processors, modern and promising storage media, digital sound systems, 3D sound technology, webcams, three-dimensional printers and scanners, electronic tablets, touch input devices, wireless technology Bluetooth and WiFi, smartphones and communicators.

Semenov A.L.

Modern information technology and translation:

study. manual for stud. translation. Fac. Higher. study. institutions / A.L. Semyonov. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2008. - 224 p.

The textbook presents the main theoretical provisions of translation activity as an analytic-synthetic process. The principles of computerization of text activity are stated. The theoretical foundations of the practice of using modern information technologies for written translation are considered. Along with linguistic problems, the most pressing organizational issues of translation activities are touched upon.

Kushner V.S.

Technological processes in mechanical engineering: a textbook for students. higher. study. institutions / V.S. Kushner, A.S. Vereshchak, A.G.

Skhirtladze. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2011. - 416 p.

The textbook was created in accordance with the Federal State Educational Standard in the direction of training "Design and technological support of machine-building industries"

(qualification "bachelor").

The main metallurgical and machine-building technological methods of obtaining metals and alloys, shaping of workpieces and machine parts by casting, cutting, pressure treatment, welding are considered.

The description of technological processes is based on a consideration of their physical essence and is preceded by theoretical information about thermal, mechanical and thermomechanical laws.

Grammatical aspects of translation: textbook. manual for stud. institutions of higher. prof. education / O.A.

Suleimanova, N.N. Beklemesheva, K.S. Kardanova and others - 2nd ed., Rev. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2012. - 240 p. - (Ser. Bachelor) The textbook was created in accordance with the Federal State Educational Standards in the direction of training 035700 - Linguistics (profile "translation and translation studies", qualification "specialist").

The textbook examines the grammatical aspects of translation associated with the structural and functional features of the Russian and English languages, which are due to the nature of the relationship between the grammatical, logical and informational structures of the statement. A translation strategy based on the analysis of metonymic relations within the framework of the structures of the languages under consideration and in their relationship is proposed.

Klunova S.M.

Biotechnology: a textbook for higher education. ped. prof. education / S.M. Klunova, T.A. Egorova, E.A. Zhivukhina.

- M .:

Publishing Center "Academy", 2010. - 256 p.

The textbook presents and summarizes traditional and newest technologies based on the achievements of biochemistry, molecular and cellular biology, considers socio-economic problems and prospects for the development of biotechnology in the third millennium.

Borytko N.M.

Methodology and methods of psychological and pedagogical research: textbook. manual for stud. higher. study. institutions / N.M. Borytko, A.V. Molozhavenko, I.A. Solovtsov; ed.

N.M. Borytko. - 2nd ed., Erased. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2009. - 320 p.

The manual reveals the methodological foundations and logic of psychological and pedagogical research from the standpoint of a humanitarian-holistic approach to the study of the educational process, presents a system of scientific concepts, describes theoretical and empirical methods of work; a cycle of special exercises and tests is proposed to facilitate the assimilation of the studied material.

Dracheva E.L.

Management: workshop: textbook. manual for stud.

institutions of environments. Prof. education / E.L. Dracheva, L.I.

Yulikov. - 2nd ed., Rev. and add. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2012. - 304 p.

The textbook can be used in the study of the general professional discipline "Management" in accordance with the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard of the VET in the specialties of the enlarged group "Economics and Management".

Practical tasks are proposed that characterize various aspects of management. Tasks are given in the form of real situations based on the experience of Russian and foreign companies, in the form of business games, tests, etc.

A glossary of terms used is given. The workshop is a training kit with the textbook "Management".

V.P. Grigoriev

Elements of higher mathematics: a textbook for students.

institutions of environments. Prof. education / V.P. Grigoriev, Yu.A.

Dubinsky. - 8th ed., Erased. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2013.

The textbook presents all the main sections of higher mathematics: elements of set theory, linear algebra, analytical geometry, differential and integral calculus; numerical sequences;

ordinary differential equations.

The theoretical part of the textbook is complemented by a large number of practical tasks; the appendix contains a brief description of the MAPLE software package for mathematics.

Averbukh K.Ya.

Lexical and phraseological aspects of translation: textbook.

manual for stud. higher. study. institutions / K.Ya. Averbukh, O. M.

Karpov. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2009. - 176 p.

The book examines a number of translation problems in lexical and phraseological aspects. The modern phenomenon of stratification of national languages into a general literary language and languages for special purposes is described.

Their stylistic differentiation is discussed and it is noted that the main emphasis in the description of translation features is concentrated on the so-called scientific and technical translation. The lexical composition of special texts, the problem of their division in order to highlight the most information-intensive units and their variants are considered. Provides the minimum information on terminology and terminography necessary for a translator.

V. N. Krupnov

Humanitarian translation: Textbook. manual for stud. higher. study.

institutions. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2009. - 160 p.

Textbook for the course "Humanitarian Translation"

is a critical reflection on translation activities by an experienced professional translator.

Sokolova E.N.

Materials Science: Laboratory Workshop: Textbook.

manual for stud. institutions of environments. prof. education / E.N.

Sokolova, A.O. Borisova, L.V. Davydenko. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2012. - 128 p.

The methodology and practice of laboratory work and practical exercises in materials science are described, work is proposed to test specimens for hardness and tensile strength, as well as to study the structure of steel, including after heat treatment.

Metrology, standardization and certification in mechanical engineering: Textbook for students. institutions of environments.

prof. education. - 3rd ed., Erased. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2012. - 288 p.

The main provisions of standardization and certification of products, regulatory and legal framework, functions and methods of standardization, certification and confirmation systems are considered. The basics of the interchangeability of parts are stated, the system of tolerances and fits of frequently encountered joints is described. Classifications and schematic diagrams of modern measuring and control instruments used in mechanical engineering are presented.

Chapaev N.K., Vereshchagina I.P.

Philosophy and history of education: Textbook for students.

institutions of higher. prof. education. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2013. - 288 p. - (Series "Bachelor").

The textbook presents the foundations of the philosophy of education - an integrative body of knowledge of a philosophical-pedagogical nature, which has as its subject the most general patterns of development of education, pedagogy and a person as a "subject of education" (KD Ushinsky), as well as the intellectual and spiritual foundations of such development. The process of formation and development is characterized: pedagogy as a system of scientific knowledge; the educational process itself; educational institutions.

Kholodkova A.G.

Technological equipment: Textbook for stud. higher. study.

institutions. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2008. - 368 p.

The issues of designing technological equipment for mechanical assembly production, taking into account its purpose, design features and production features, are stated. Methods for calculating the accuracy of devices, their parameters, power characteristics and economic efficiency are presented. The features of the use of universal-prefabricated tooling, devices for assembly and control, including flexible automated production, are considered.

Mkhitaryan V.S.

Probability theory and mathematical statistics: Textbook for students. institutions of higher. prof. education / V.S.

Mkhitaryan, V.F. Shishov, A. Yu. Kozlov. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2012. - 416 p. - (Series "Bachelor").

All the main sections of the course of probability theory and mathematical statistics are covered. The basic information related to the study of random events, random variables and the laws of their distribution, systems of random variables, limit theorems of probability theory, as well as the basic concepts of the theory of random functions are presented. The requirements for statistical estimates, accurate and interval estimation of distribution parameters, parametric and nonparametric methods for testing statistical hypotheses, variance, correlation and regression analysis are considered in detail.

In each section, the main theoretical provisions are stated, the prerequisites for the use of probabilistic and statistical methods are explained, detailed solutions of typical problems are given (the numerical data given in some examples are conditional), problems for independent work of students are proposed.

The application of MS Excel add-ins (statistical functions and analysis package) for solving problems of probability theory and mathematical statistics is shown.

Selevtsov L.I., Selevtsov A.L.

Automation of technological processes: Textbook for students. institutions of environments. prof. education. - 2nd ed., Rev. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2012. - 352 p.

Methods of control of technological parameters, the device of control and measuring devices, the properties of control objects and elements of automatic control of technological processes in food production, the design and principle of operation of technical means of automatic control systems, as well as their installation are considered. The rules for the implementation of automation schemes for auxiliary and main technological industries in the food industry are given.

Information management: Textbook / Under scientific. ed.

Doctor of Technical Sciences, prof. N.M. Abdikeeva. - M .: INFRA-M, 2012 .-- 400 p.

The book is devoted to a new approach in information management aimed at providing business with information services (services).

Considered:

strategy and architecture of company informatization, IT project management, information service management, information resources, IT efficiency, information security.

The book is intended for managers, business analysts, IT specialists, students of MBA programs, students and masters of universities, graduate students and teachers in the field of corporate management and corporate information systems.

Bondarenko G.G.

Materials science: a textbook for bachelors / G.G.

Bondarenko, T.A. Kabanova, V.V. Rybalko; ed. G.G.

Bondarenko. - 2nd ed. - M .: Yurayt Publishing House, 2013 .-- 359 p. - Series: Bachelor. Basic course.

The textbook examines the characteristics of metal, semiconductor and dielectric materials, which are basic for the development of quality management systems for industrial products. Information about the structure, properties and methods of obtaining materials is given.

The aspects related to the influence of the modes of production, storage and operation (temperature, mechanical, radiation and other types of effects) on the working characteristics of materials are considered in detail.

Complies with the Federal State Educational Standard of HPE of the third generation.

Ivanova E.V.

Lexicology and Phraseology of Modern English = Lexicology and Phraseology of Modern English: textbook.

manual for stud. institutions of higher. prof. education / E.V.

Ivanova. - St. Petersburg .: Faculty of Philology, St. Petersburg State University; M .:

Publishing Center "Academy", 2011. - 352 p.

The textbook examines the main issues of lexicology and phraseology of the modern English language. In addition to a detailed analysis of the basic concepts of these disciplines, it highlights controversial theoretical issues, and also describes the most relevant approaches to the study of the semantics of linguistic units.

For students of linguistic, pedagogical and translation departments of institutions of higher professional education.

Orlova I.V., Polovnikov V.A.

Economic and mathematical methods and models: computer modeling: Textbook. allowance. 0 3rd ed., Rev. and add. - M .: University textbook: INFRA-M, 2013 .-- 389 p.

The problems of mathematical modeling of economic processes based on computer technologies for preparing and making decisions are considered. A standard office program Excel is used as a modeling tool. The basic mathematical concepts and methods used in economics are stated: matrix algebra; optimization methods and solution of optimization problems; fundamentals of correlation-regression analysis; mathematical modeling and analysis of economic processes represented by time series.

Biology: textbook. manual for bachelors / V.N. Yarygin, ed. V.N. Yarygin. - 2nd ed. - M .: Yurayt Publishing House; ID Yurayt, 2012 .-- 453 p. - Series: Bachelor. Basic course.

The textbook reflects a modern approach to understanding the basic properties of life, the tasks and place of biology in the system of biomedical disciplines. The characteristics of a person as an object of biological research are given, the mechanisms of heredity and variability are considered, and attention is paid to human genetics. The organic connection between biology and medicine is shown.

Complies with the Federal State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education of the third generation.

Zaitsev V.A.

Industrial ecology: textbook / V.A. Zaitsev. - M .: BINOM. Knowledge Laboratory, 2013 .-- 382 p.

The textbook examines the definitions and basic principles of industrial ecology, waste-free (cleaner) production, methods of their organization and development.

Much attention is paid to the rational use of air and water, processing, disposal and disposal of household and hazardous waste, the organization of waste-free industrial complexes and eco-industrial parks.

The stage of the All-Russian Olympiad for schoolchildren in mathematics In accordance with the order of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation No. 1440 dated November 17, 2016 "On establishing ..." CLOUDS PODEDAKTSIEE DR ... "

To narrow your search results, you can refine your query by specifying the fields to search for. The list of fields is presented above. For instance:

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To include a value in an interval, use square brackets. Use curly braces to exclude a value.

In the textbook presented to you, based on a holistic course of chemistry, the main concepts, laws, theories, facts of chemical science are presented in an inextricable connection with other natural disciplines: physics, biology, geography, ecology. This will allow you to see the natural world in all its richness and diversity, help to form a single natural-science picture of the world.

We tried to show that without knowledge of chemistry, the perception of the world around us will be incomplete, and people who have not received such knowledge can unconsciously become dangerous for this world, since chemically illiterate handling of substances, materials and chemical processes threatens our common home with considerable troubles - planet earth.

We tried to reveal the role of chemistry in everyday life, in the non-chemical sphere of human activity, in full accordance with the statement of the great Russian scientist MV Lomonosov: "Chemistry widely spreads its hands in human affairs." After all, there is not a single field of activity in which substances, materials or chemical processes are not involved. For example, ninety percent of the energy that humankind produces and consumes is the result of chemical reactions. Almost everything that is produced by modern industry and agriculture is connected with chemistry.

A caring attitude towards the world around us, love for one's neighbor and elementary chemical knowledge, without which an economist, a lawyer, an engineer, a mechanical engineer, or a specialist in any other profession, cannot do without - this is the guarantee of the competent and effective use of the achievements of chemical science.

Physical properties of metals. Metallic luster, plasticity, high electrical and thermal conductivity, an increase in electrical resistance with increasing temperature, high values of density, boiling point and melting point, hardness, magnetic characteristics - all these practically important properties, common to all metals, are due to the metal crystal lattice and metal chemical bond.

All metals are solids except for liquid mercury, which at low temperatures becomes solid and malleable, like lead. Only brittle bismuth and manganese are not plastic.
All metals have a silvery-white or gray color (color insert, Fig. 30). Strontium, gold and copper absorb to a greater extent short wavelengths (close to violet) and reflect long wavelengths of the spectrum, therefore they have a light yellow, yellow and "copper" color, respectively. Very thin sheets of silver and gold have a completely unexpected appearance - they are bluish-green foil, and fine metal powders appear dark gray, even black. And only magnesium and aluminum, as you know, retain their silvery-white color in powder.

Classification of metals. In technology, metals are usually classified according to various physical properties:
by density - lungs (p< 5 г/см3) и тяжелые (р >5 g / cm3) metals;
melting temperature - low-melting and refractory metals.
Iron and its alloys in technology are considered to be ferrous metals, and all the rest are non-ferrous.
There is a classification of metals and chemical properties.
Metals with low chemical activity are called noble: silver, gold, platinum and analogues of the latter - osmium, iridium, ruthenium, palladium, rhodium.
Alkaline (metals of group 1A), alkaline earth (metals of group IIA, starting with calcium), as well as rare earth (scandium, yttrium, lanthanum and lanthanides, actinium and actinides) metals are distinguished by the proximity of chemical properties.

Content:
To the readers.
Section I GENERAL CONCEPTS, LAWS AND THEORY OF CHEMISTRY
Chapter 1. Basic concepts and laws of chemistry.
1.1. Chemistry subject. Basic concepts. Allotropy.
1.2. Composition of the substance. Chemical formulas. Measurement of matter.
1.3. Basic laws of chemistry.
1.4. The concept of "share" and its use in chemistry.
Chapter 2. Periodic law n Periodic table of chemical elements of DI Mendeleev in the light of the doctrine of the structure of the atom.
2.1. Basic information about the structure of the atom.
2.2. Discovery of the Periodic Law by D.I. Mendeleev.
2.3. The position of the element in the Periodic Table and the structure of the electron shell of the atom.
Chapter 3. The structure of matter. Chemical bond.
3.1. Ionic chemical bond.
3.2. Covalent chemical bond.
3.3. Metallic chemical bond.
3.4. Hydrogen chemical bond.
3.5. Disperse systems.
Chapter 4. Theory of electrolytic dissociation.
4.1. Electrolytes and non-electrolytes.
4.2. Acids.
4.3. Foundations.
4.4. Salt.
4.5. Oxides.
4.6. Salt hydrolysis.
Chapter 5. Redox processes.
5.1. Redox reactions.
5.2. Electrolysis.
Chapter 6. Chemical kinetics
6.1. The rate of chemical reactions.
6.2. Reversibility of chemical reactions. Chemical equilibrium.

Section II INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Chapter 7. Non-metals.
7.1. Hydrogen.
7.2. Water.
7.3. Non-metals are simple substances.
7.4. Hydrogen compounds of non-metals.
7.5. Nonmetal oxides.
7.6. Nonmetal hydroxides.
Chapter 8. Metals.
8.1. Metals are chemical elements.
8.2. Metals are simple substances.
8.3. Corrosion of metals.
8.4. Methods for obtaining metals.
8.5. Metal oxides.
8.6. Metal hydroxides.

Section III ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Chapter 9. Theoretical foundations of organic chemistry.
9.1. The subject of organic chemistry.
9.2. A. M. Butlerov's theory of the chemical structure of organic substances.
9.3. Isomerism of organic compounds.
9.4. The nature of bonds in the molecules of organic compounds.
Chapter 10. Saturated hydrocarbons.
10.1. Homologous series of alkanes. Isomerism and nomenclature.
10.2. Preparation, chemical properties and use of alkanes.
Chapter 11. Ethylene and diene hydrocarbons. Rubbers.
11.1. Homologous series of alkenes. Isomerism and nomenclature.
11.2. Preparation and chemical properties of alkenes.
11.3. Diene hydrocarbons.
11.4. Basic concepts of the chemistry of macromolecular compounds.
Chapter 12. Acetylene hydrocarbons.
12.1. Homologous series of alkynes. Isomerism and nomenclature.
12.2. Preparation and chemical properties of alkynes.
Chapter 13. Aromatic hydrocarbons.
13.1. Homologous series of arenas. Isomerism and nomenclature.
13.2. Preparation and chemical properties of arenes.
Chapter 14. Natural sources of hydrocarbons.
14.1. Natural and associated petroleum gases. Coal.
14.2. Oil and products of all processing.
Chapter 15. Alcohols and phenols.
15.1. Homologous series of saturated monohydric alcohols. Isomerism and nomenclature.
15.2. Obtaining and chemical properties of saturated monohydric alcohols.
15.3. Polyhydric alcohols.
15.4. Phenol and its properties.
Chapter 16. Aldehydes and ketones.
16.1. Homological series of limiting aldehydes and ketones. Isomerism and nomenclature.
16.2. Obtaining and chemical properties of carbonyl compounds.
Chapter 17. Carboic acids and their derivatives.
17.1. Homologous series of saturated monobasic carboxylic acids. Isomerism and nomenclature.
17.2. Obtaining and chemical properties of carboxylic acids.
17.3. Esters. Fats.
17.4. Carboxylic acid salts. Soaps.
Chapter 18. Carbohydrates.
18.1. Classification of carbohydrates. Monosaccharides.
18.2. Disaccharides.
18.3. Polysaccharides.
Chapter 19. Amines.
19.1. Homologous series of limiting amines. Isomerism and nomenclature.
19.2. Obtaining and chemical properties of saturated amines.
19.3. Aromatic amines. Aniline.
Chapter 20. Amino acids. Proteins.
20.1. Amino acids.
20.2. Peptides.
20.3. Proteins.
Laboratory experiments.
Practical work.
Answers.
Bibliography.

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1 Professional education O.S. Gabrielyan, I. G. Ostroumov Chemistry for professions and specialties of a technical profile Textbook Recommended by the Federal State Autonomous Institution "Federal Institute for the Development of Education" (FGAU "FIRO") as a textbook for use in the educational process of educational institutions SPE on the basis of basic general education with obtaining secondary general education Review registration number 403 dated August 19, 2015 FGAU "FIRO" 4th edition, stereotyped

2 UDC 54 (075.32) BBK 24y723ya722 G121 Reviewer teacher of the highest qualification category KMPO RANE and GS under the President of the Russian Federation, Cand. chem. sciences, associate professor E. R. Keharsaeva Gabrielyan O.S. G121 Chemistry for professions and specialties of a technical profile: a textbook for students. institutions of environments. prof. Education / O.S. Gabrielyan, I. G. Ostroumov. 4th ed., Erased. M.: Publishing Center "Academy", p., P. color silt ISBN The textbook was developed taking into account the requirements of federal state educational standards of secondary general and secondary vocational education, as well as the profile of vocational education. At the basic level, the theoretical foundations of chemistry are presented, the questions of the chemistry of the main classes of inorganic substances are considered. Particular attention is paid to the properties, industrial methods of obtaining and application in technology of metals and non-metals. The properties, production and directions of use of organic compounds are described. Control questions, tasks and design tasks are given. Recommendations are given for the implementation of laboratory experiments and practical work in general, inorganic and organic chemistry. For students of professional educational organizations mastering the professions and specialties of secondary vocational education. Legend: terms and definitions UDC 54 (075.32) LBC 24y723y722 laws, rules, regulations historical information, interesting facts The original layout of this publication is the property of the Publishing Center "Academy", and its reproduction in any way without the consent of the copyright holder is prohibited ISBN Gabrielyan O. S ., Ostroumov I. G., 2016 Educational and Publishing Center "Academy", 2016 Design. Publishing Center "Academy", 2016

3 To readers Dear friends! You have opened a chemistry textbook intended for professions and specialties of a technical profile, and you thought that this subject would not be the main one for you. And they made a mistake, because modern technology and technology without knowledge of chemistry are untenable. Suffice it to say that just listing the names of new materials widely used in modern technology can take up a whole volume. And work with these materials, largely based on knowledge of chemistry and the use of chemical transformations (reactions), allows you to achieve economic, environmental, aesthetic effects. As future highly qualified technical specialists, you need to know that there is no field of activity in which various substances, materials or chemical processes are not used. For example, 90% of the energy that humanity produces and consumes is the result of chemical reactions. Almost everything that is produced by modern industry and agriculture is connected with chemistry. Without deep knowledge of chemistry, it is impossible to master specialties included, in accordance with the classifier, in such enlarged groups as Engineering and Technology of Construction, Informatics and Computer Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Technologies of Materials, Technologies of Light Industry, etc. The textbook corresponds to the program of the general educational discipline "Chemistry", approved by the scientific and methodological council of the Center for Vocational Education of the Federal Institute for the Development of Education on March 26, 2015 and recommended for the implementation of the main professional educational program 3

4 To readers 4 secondary vocational education based on basic general education with obtaining secondary general education. In the process of studying our subject, you will not only have to master a certain amount of knowledge and skills, but also, to a large extent, learn to receive them from various sources, process them, draw conclusions and conclusions, that is, form information competence. When designing your own information product, presenting (presenting) it to fellow students, teachers and the public, you need to learn to defend your point of view, while hearing and respecting someone else's opinion, and therefore, adjust your position. This will allow you to improve your own communication competence. Mastering the discipline involves not only classroom studies, but also independent work. In accordance with the course program, the same amount of time is allocated for classroom studies and independent work. For the study of chemistry in the technical profile of vocational education, 117 classroom hours were allocated in the specialties of vocational education and 171 classroom hours in the specialties of vocational education. No more than 40% of the total classroom time is provided for lectures, the rest of the time is occupied by practical and laboratory classes. In these classes, a significant place is given to chemical experiment. It allows you to form special subject skills: work with substances, perform simple chemical experiments, safely and environmentally competently handle substances, materials and processes in everyday life and at work. Independent work involves not only doing homework, working with a textbook and other printed publications included in the educational and methodological kit, but also using an electronic textbook, as well as searching for information on the Internet. Let's name only such popular resources as ru; edu.ru; etc. Careful attitude to the world around, elementary chemical knowledge, without which no specialist in the technical field of activity, is the key to competent and effective use of the achievements of chemical science. In addition, chemical literacy is essential in everyday life. Chemically respectful handling of substances, materials,

5 pairs of household chemicals, household appliances are a necessary condition for a safe and comfortable life. The content of the textbook complies with federal state educational standards of secondary general and secondary vocational education. In addition, our textbook contains material of specialized and professionally significant content, it is highlighted in color. At the end of each paragraph, there are mandatory questions and exercises. Profiled and professionally significant assignments are marked with an asterisk. We wish you success! To readers

6 Section I General and inorganic chemistry

7 Chapter 1 Basic concepts and laws of chemistry After reading this chapter, you will learn: what is the subject of studying chemistry; what is a simple substance and what are the reasons for the phenomenon of allotropy; how the chemical composition of a substance is displayed and what the chemical formula shows; how to find the relative molecular weight of a substance; what fundamental laws are applied in chemical practice Subject of chemistry. Basic concepts of chemistry. Allotropy As early as 1748, the founder of Russian chemistry M. V. Lomonosov wrote: “Chemical science examines the properties and changes of bodies, the composition of bodies, explains the reasons 7

8 Basic concepts of what happens to substances during chemical transformations. " Compare the definition given by the great M. V. Lomonosov with the modern definition. Chemistry is the science of the composition, structure, properties and transformations of substances. Based on the modern definition of chemical science, which is surprisingly close to Lomonosov's, let us consider some basic initial concepts: matter, atom, molecule, chemical element, etc. Substance is one of the types of matter, which is characterized by rest mass. It is a collection of atoms, ions or molecules, consisting of one or more chemical elements. What kind of matter cannot be called a substance? What kind of matter has no rest mass? From the physics course, you know that this type of matter includes various fields, including electromagnetic and gravitational. An atom is an electrically neutral particle consisting of a positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons. An atom is the smallest particle of a chemical element, the limit of chemical fission of matter. A molecule is a separate electrically neutral particle formed when covalent bonds arise between the atoms of one or more elements, which determines the chemical properties of a substance. A chemical element is a collection of atoms with the same nuclear charge. 8 All elements (and simple substances) are usually divided into metals and non-metals. Non-metals include 22 elements: hydrogen, boron, carbon, silicon, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, halogens and noble gases; all other elements to metals. A substance formed by one chemical element is called simple. The same chemical element

9 can form several simple substances. This phenomenon is called allotropy, and various simple substances formed by one element, allotropic modifications, or allotropic modifications (for example, diamond and graphite are simple substances formed by the same element carbon). It is very interesting, and at the present time and practically significant, the transformation of one allotropic modification of carbon (graphite) into another (diamond): C (graphite) C (diamond) This process is used to obtain artificial diamonds. In 1954, scientists from the laboratory of the famous American company General Electric obtained black crystals of artificial diamonds weighing 0.05 g under extreme conditions: pressure of atm and temperature C. Such diamonds were hundreds of times more expensive than natural ones. But already for 10 years, technologies have been developed that make it possible to obtain 20 or more grams of diamonds in one chamber in a few minutes. Modern production of artificial diamonds is based on their production from graphite not only at ultrahigh, but also at low pressures. Such diamonds are relatively cheap, but they are mainly used for technical purposes in metallurgy and mechanical engineering, radio electronics and instrument making, geological exploration and mining. The reason for the tragic outcome of some expeditions, the conquerors of the polar (Arctic and Antarctic) "caps" of the Earth, was the fact that the researchers did not take into account the interconversion of allotropic modifications of tin: Sn (white) Sn (gray) White tin is a soft plastic metal with which we most often and collide. However, when the temperature is lowered, it can turn into gray tin powder, which has the properties of non-metals. Such a transformation is accelerated by the gray tin itself: it is enough for just one speck of gray tin to appear, and a process that can no longer be stopped begins. In this case, the product from white shiny metal turns into a gray nondescript powder. This process is figuratively called "tin plague". It was he who caused the death of the expedition of R. Scott, who tried to conquer the South Pole in 1912. Scott's Expedition used 9 Basic Concepts

10 Basic concepts 10 iron cans sealed with tin for storing food and kerosene. In the severe frost, the tin solder of the canisters crumbled, and the expedition was left without fuel. For many other chemical elements, the phenomenon of allotropy is also characteristic. So, oxygen forms two modifications: oxygen O 2 and ozone O 3 (Greek ozon smelling). Ozone is found in the upper atmosphere and intensely absorbs ultraviolet rays. Thus, the atmosphere protects life on Earth from shortwave radiation. At the same time, the atmosphere transmits infrared radiation from the Sun, but due to the ozone, carbon dioxide and water vapor contained in the atmosphere, it is opaque to the infrared radiation of the Earth. If these gases were not contained in the atmosphere, the Earth would turn into a lifeless ball, the average temperature on the surface of which would be 23 C, while in fact it is +14.8 C. Humanity has an urgent task to preserve this life-supporting screen from destruction , since alarming data are coming from space satellites about a decrease in the thickness of the ozone layer in the atmosphere of the so called ozone holes (color insert, Fig. 1). Ozone and oxygen, being simple substances formed by one element, nevertheless have different properties. Oxygen is odorless and ozone smells fresh. Ozone, unlike oxygen, is bactericidal; this property is used for the disinfection of drinking water (ozonation of water is much safer for human health than chlorination). Ozone is a much stronger oxidizing agent than oxygen, so it vigorously discolours paints, oxidizes silver, and destroys organic compounds. The latter property allows it to be used to eliminate unpleasant odors, i.e. deodorization. Allotropy is one of the factors that determine the variety of substances. It is caused by two main reasons: 1) the transition of quantitative changes to qualitative ones, which is easy to see on the example of oxygen allotropy; 2) different crystal structure of allotropic modifications; for example, all modifications of carbon have an atomic crystal lattice, but for diamond it is tetrahedral in volume, and for graphite it is layered, therefore the properties of diamond and graphite are so dissimilar.

11 Control questions and tasks 1. What is the subject of chemistry? Give a definition of the concept of "substance". How are the concepts of "substance" and "matter" related? 2. What particles are called atoms and molecules? 3. Give a definition of the concept of "chemical element". 4. What substances are called simple? Give examples. 5. Describe the phenomenon of allotropy. What factors cause it? Give examples of allotropic oxygen modifications. Compare them. Indicate the factor that causes the allotropy of this element. 6. Tell us about the allotropy of carbon. Compare the allotropic modifications of carbon. What are the main areas of their application? * 7. Describe the technical significance of tin and the field of application of this metal. *eight. Prepare a report on the history of obtaining artificial diamonds and name their areas of application. *9. Prepare a report on the topic “Disinfection of drinking water: ways and perspectives”. Basic concepts 1.2. Composition of the substance. Measurement of substance Simple substances are substances formed by one chemical element. However, there are many more complex substances. Substances consisting of two or more chemical elements are called complex. Distinguish between the qualitative and quantitative composition of substances. A qualitative composition is a set of chemical elements and (or) atomic groups that make up a given chemical substance. The quantitative composition is indicators that characterize the number or number of atoms of a particular chemical element and (or) atomic groups that form a given chemical substance. The composition of substances is displayed by means of chemical symbols. At the suggestion of J. Ya. Berzelius, elements are usually denoted by the first or the first and one of the subsequent letters of the Latin names of the elements. eleven

12 Basic concepts A chemical sign (symbol) carries significant information. It denotes the name of an element, one atom of it, one mole of atoms of this element. The symbol of a chemical element can be used to determine its atomic number and relative atomic mass. A chemical formula is a way of displaying the chemical composition of a substance. Like a chemical sign, a chemical formula carries a lot of information. It denotes the name of a substance, one molecule of it, one mole of this substance. The chemical formula can be used to determine the qualitative composition of a substance, the number of atoms and the amount of substance of each element in one mole of a substance, its relative molecular and molar masses. Formulas of substances are made on the basis of another most important concept of valence chemistry. Valence is the ability of atoms of one chemical element to combine with a strictly defined number of atoms of another chemical element. For example, a hydrogen atom is monovalent, therefore, in a hydrogen molecule H 2, it combines with only one of the same hydrogen atom. The oxygen atom is divalent, therefore, in the H2O water molecule, it combines with two hydrogen atoms. The tetravalent carbon in the methane molecule CH 4 combines with four hydrogen atoms, and in the carbon dioxide molecule CO 2 with two divalent oxygen atoms. Several types of chemical formulas are widely used. 1. The simplest (empirical) formula shows the qualitative composition and ratios in which the particles are located: atoms, ions, groups of atoms that form a given substance. For example, the simplest formula of ethane (organic matter) CH The molecular (true) formula reflects the qualitative composition and the number of particles constituting the substance (for example, for ethane C 2 H 6), but does not show the order of bonds of particles in the substance, i.e., its structure. 3. The graphic formula reflects the order of connection of atoms, that is, the connection between them; for example, for ethane: 12

13 In addition to formulas for clarity, models of atoms and molecules of simple and complex substances are often used. The masses of atoms and molecules from which substances are built are extremely small. However, modern research methods make it possible to determine them with great accuracy. Thus, the mass of the carbon atom 12 C is 1 kg, the mass of the oxygen atom of the isotope 16 O is 2 kg, and the mass of the lightest hydrogen atom 1 H is 1 kg. It is inconvenient to express the masses of atoms using the generally accepted mass units of kilograms, grams, or even milligrams due to their very small values. Therefore, in chemistry, not absolute, but relative mass values are traditionally used. In 1961, a single carbon atomic mass unit (a.u.) was adopted in chemistry and physics, representing 1/12 of the mass of a carbon atom 12 C: 1 a. e.m. = 1/12 m (12 C) = 1, kg. Basic concepts The relative atomic mass (Ar) of a chemical element is a value that shows the ratio of the average atomic mass of the natural isotopic mixture of an element to 1/12 of the mass of a carbon atom 12 C. Relative atomic mass is one of the main characteristics of a chemical element (Fig. 1.1). The relative atomic mass of the lightest chemical element hydrogen is 1. Therefore, the relative atomic masses of other elements can be compared with the relative atomic mass of hydrogen (Fig. 1.2). The relative molecular weight (M r) is equal to the sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms that form the molecule of the substance. Rice. 1.1 Each chemical element has its own relative atomic mass. Fig. 1.2 A carbon atom is 12 times heavier than a hydrogen atom 1 H 13

14 Basic concepts Fig. 1.3 This is how the relative molecular weight of carbon dioxide is calculated. 1.4 A molecule of carbon dioxide CO 2 is 44 times heavier than a hydrogen atom 1 H ). The amount of a substance (n or ν) is characterized by the number of atoms, molecules or other formula units of a given substance. Since a substance consists of a huge number of particles, it is convenient to measure the amount of a substance in large units containing a large number of particles. In the International System of Units (SI), a mole is taken as a unit of the amount of a substance. A mole is an amount of a substance containing as many formula units as atoms contain 0.012 kg of carbon isotope 12 C. 14 To find one mole of a substance, you can follow the following simple rule: a mole is the amount of a substance whose mass, expressed in grams, is numerically equal to the relative molecular weight ... The mass of one mole is called molar mass and is denoted by the letter M: M = M r 1 g / mol. The units of measurement for molar mass are g / mol, kg / kmol or mg / mmol. Molar mass can be expressed in terms of the number of molecules (or atoms) in one mole of a substance (NA) and the mass (m 0) of an individual molecule (or atom): M = m 0 N A. The mass of a molecule (atom) in kilograms can be calculated using the equation m 0 = M r 1 a. units = M r 1, kg,

15 hence M 10 3 (kg / mol) = N A M r 1, (kg / mol). From this expression, you can determine the number of molecules or atoms contained in one mole of any substance, which is called Avogadro's constant. Basic concepts Avogadro's constant (N A) the number of atoms or molecules (or other formula units) contained in one mole of a substance; it is always equal to N A = 6, mol 1. The amount of a substance is measured in moles, kilomoles or millimoles. The amount of a substance is calculated as the ratio of the mass m of the substance to its molar mass; the number N of molecules, atoms or formula units to Avogadro's constant; the volume of gas V under normal conditions (n. at.) to the molar volume V m: m N V n = = =. M N V A m Control questions and tasks 1. What substance is called complex? 2. What information can be obtained by analyzing the qualitative and quantitative composition of a substance? 3. What does the chemical formula show? 4. Describe the concepts "relative atomic mass of a chemical element", "relative molecular weight of a substance". How are these characteristics calculated? 5. What kinds of chemical formulas do you know? 6. Find the relative molecular weights of substances, the composition of which is described by the formulas: O 3, H 2 SO 4, Ca 3 (PO 4) 2, Cu (OH) 2. * 7. Calculate the relative molecular weights of copper sulfate CuSO 4 5H 2 O and crystalline soda Na 2 CO 3 10H 2 O. 8. Give the definition of the concept of "amount of substance". What are the units for measuring the amount of substance? 9. What is the difference between the relative molecular mass of a substance and the molar mass? Find the molar mass of nitric acid, sodium hydroxide, aluminum sulfate. 10. How many molecules are contained in 32 g of sulfur dioxide SO 2? 11. What is the mass of 1, ammonia NH 3 molecules? 15

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