The development of Greek society from patriarchal structures and proto-states of the Homeric era to classical slavery and the flourishing of ancient democracy reveals some patterns in the development of political life and in the change in the very forms of organization of city-states. At the end of the 11th millennium BC, as evidenced by the Homeric epic, in the Greek world there was a relatively general tendency towards strengthening the power of the king as a military leader, judge, supreme leader of the palace economy, etc. In the methods of his rule, the despotic features inherent in ancient monarchs, especially eastern ones, increasingly appeared. A similar picture can be seen several centuries later in Rome during the era of the kings.
The collapse of patriarchal-communal ties, on which the sole power of the king (basileus, rex) rested, the growth of opposition from aristocratic families possessing great wealth and social influence, resulted in the destruction of royal power, accompanied in a number of cases (as was the case in Rome with Tarquin the Proud) by the murder of the king himself.
The liquidation of the monarchy led to the victory of the republican system in the ancient world, as well as to the final establishment (before the era of crisis and decomposition of the slave society) of the polis system of state organization. But in the early republican period, the democratic potential inherent in the polis system, which included elements of direct democracy (people's assemblies, etc.), did not receive full development. The common people in the city-states, who had no political experience and drew their ideas about power from the patriarchal-religious past, ceded the reins of government in almost all ancient city-states to the clan, priestly and new propertied aristocracy. This is precisely what state power was like in Athens on the eve of Solon’s reforms, in the early period of the patrician republic in Rome, etc.
The process of democratization of political life in ancient city-states was accompanied by an intensification of the struggle between the aristocracy, which held power in its hands and sought to preserve the old polis orders, and the people (demos), increasingly aware of their civil unity. The result of this struggle (eupatrides and demos in Athens, patricians and plebeians in Rome, etc.) was a series of legislative reforms that undermined the monopoly of the aristocracy in government bodies and created the basis for the development of democratic institutions.
The purpose of our research is to reveal the essence of Solon’s reforms, the significance of Solon’s personality for the state and law of ancient Greece. Based on the stated goal, objectives of this work are as follows:
determine the socio-political situation of Greece before the reforms;
explore the content of Solon's reforms;
consider the impact of reforms on life in the state;
highlight the significance of reforms on the history of law in general.
In the 2nd millennium BC. e. Greek tribes settled in the south of the Balkan Peninsula. Fenced off from each other by the natural barriers of the mountainous country, they began to protect their isolation with all the greater zeal. Within the close confines of each of these regions, a capital will grow over time: Corinth, Megara, Thebes, Sparta, etc.
At the end of the 2nd millennium, the Greeks, uniting into a single army and choosing one leader, besieged the Asia Minor city of Troy. The events of this most famous of wars are narrated in the Homeric epic poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey”.
In ancient Greek society, as Homer depicts it, complex processes take place. There are no classes yet, but the division between the common people and the clan nobility is deeply rooted. The best lands, large herds, all the main posts are in the hands of the latter.
There is no state yet. The tribe is governed by a national assembly, a council of elders, and a leader - the basileus. The national assembly is at the same time an army, and the basileus and elders are mainly military leaders. American historian of the last century L.G. Morgan called this system a military democracy.
By all indications, the period of military democracy is the last period of the primitive communal system. Agriculture becomes the main branch of the economy, pushing aside cattle breeding. The craft stands out as an independent industry. The exchange of goods becomes regular. Merchants appear. Slavery is increasingly taking root, and no longer only in the homes and households of the nobility. A family is formed with male dominance. The ancient clan organization still exists, but has already been undermined. Numerous strangers settled on the territory of phratries and tribes, that is, although they were compatriots, they belonged to other tribes, phratries and clans. The population mixed and therefore the old forms of government became impossible. All this, taken together, serves as the basis for the transition to the state as a new, higher stage of social development.
The most interesting and at the same time the most studied is the process of state formation in two famous Greek city-states - ancient Athens and Sparta. The first was an example of slave-owning democracy, the second - of aristocracy.
During the resettlement, the Ionians, as the union of four tribes was called, inherited an infertile region washed by the sea - Attica. Agriculture here was limited to a relatively small area, but there were favorable conditions for crafts and maritime trade.
The rural community, so stable in the East, did not find favorable conditions here and began to quickly disintegrate. Land plots became the private property of individual families.
In the 8th century BC. e. V. Attica grew (around the ancient fortress) a city that was destined to become the greatest center of ancient and world culture. It was named after the patron goddess Athens.
The city became a center of people belonging to different tribes, clans, phratries: instead of a simple neighborhood of tribes, they merged into a single people. The old division is being replaced by a new one. The nobles form the class of eupatrides ("noble"), small farmers receive the common name of geomors, and artisans - demiurges.
Filling all important positions became the privilege of the eupatrids. As a result, the council of elders turns into a purely aristocratic assembly, elected by no one and accountable to no one. It sat on the hill of the war god Ares, and therefore it was called the Areopagus. The Areopagus legislates, administers the highest court, and oversees the actions of officials, the first place among which belongs to a college consisting of 9 elders - archons. They are elected by the Areopagus for a period of one year.
The dominance of the landed aristocracy had a detrimental effect on the position of the people. “The poor,” writes Aristotle, “were enslaved not only themselves, but also their children and wives. They were called... hexagonists, because under such conditions they cultivated the fields of the rich (that is, they received one-sixth of the harvest for their labor. - 3.4). All the land in general was in the hands of a few. Moreover, if the poor did not pay rent, it was possible to take them and their children into bondage."
There were foundation stones everywhere in the fields. It was written on them who the plot was mortgaged to and for how long. This form of collateral - mortgage - was an early invention of Greece. The land was given for the use of the debtor, but in case of delay in payment - so common - it passed to the creditor.
“...The developing money economy,” F. Engels rightly writes, “penetrated rural communities, acting like a corrosive acid on their primordial way of life based on subsistence farming.”
Since the 6th century BC. e. new people became more and more actively involved in the political life of Athenian society social element. Relatively high level productive forces achieved in the area Mediterranean Sea in the VIII-VI centuries BC. e. and especially favorable natural conditions Attica itself (with its small land fund and a convenient location for trade) contributed to the emergence of a significant craft and trading population. Its combat unit consisted of sailors from the large Athenian fleet. In contrast to the aristocracy, all these new people (as well as peasants) called themselves “demos” - “the people”.
Demos was in constant enmity with the aristocracy, which despised him. Step by step he snatched from her political power. When he succeeded, slave-owning democracy was established in Athens, and therefore the state in its initial, not yet completed form.
By the 6th century BC. An extremely difficult situation is developing in Athens. The development of commodity-money relations led to further social stratification of the free population. Among the eupatrids and geomors, rich landowners stand out, some of the eupatrids become poor, and the geomors turn into farm laborers cultivating someone else's land, receiving 1/6 of the harvest for this, or fall into debt bondage, lose their freedom and are sold into slavery abroad. The economic role of the wealthy trade and craft elite of the townspeople, still excluded from power, is growing. The number of poor Fet people is also growing. The position of medium and small landowners and artisans is becoming increasingly unstable. As a result, a whole complex of contradictions arises among the free - between the rich and impoverished eupatrides, who still hold power, and the rich among landowners, traders and artisans, striving for power and taking advantage of the discontent of the poor and medium and small owners. These contradictions crystallized as contradictions between the rich clan aristocracy and the people (demos), led by the rich.
In 594 BC. e. general discontent resulted, according to Aristotle, in “great turmoil.” "The vast majority, and besides, people are big physical strength, writes the Greek historian Plutarch in his " Comparative biographies", - they gathered and persuaded each other not to remain indifferent spectators, but to choose one leader, a reliable person, and free the debtors who missed the payment deadline, and redistribute the land and completely change the political system."
Finding yourself in such difficult situation, the contending parties agreed on the candidacy of the poet and politician Solon. It was known that he was not “an accomplice of the rich in their crimes” and at the same time “not oppressed by need.” Elected archon, Solon was endowed with extraordinary powers, among which the most important was the right of legislation. Experiencing pressure from some who sought to establish autocracy, and others who were striving for the broadest rule of the people, Solon chose the policy of the “golden mean.”
To soften the contradictions and unite all free people into a single ruling class, deep social and political transformations were required. Solon was a eupatride, he became rich in trade and enjoyed trust among the general population. The main goal of Solon's reforms was to reconcile the interests of various warring free factions. Therefore, they were of a compromise, half-hearted nature.
Solon's reforms were an important stage in the formation of the state in Athens, and their results can be compared with political revolution. First of all, Solon carried out sisakhfiy - a debt reform, which meant direct intervention in property relations. The debt of the poor was canceled. Athenians who were enslaved for debt were freed, and those sold abroad for debt were ransomed. Debt slavery was henceforth abolished in Athens.
Sisakhthiya encroached on the interests of the clan nobility and was a concession to the demos. At the same time, Solon did not fulfill the important demand of the poor - he did not redistribute the land, although he established the maximum size of land ownership. But by allowing the free purchase and sale of land and the fragmentation of land holdings in the interests of the rich Athenians, he made further landlessness of the poor inevitable.
The name of Solon is also associated with the census reform, which was aimed at eliminating the hereditary privileges of the nobility and replacing the privileges of origin with the privileges of wealth. Solon established the division of citizens into four categories based on property.
The richest citizens were classified in the first category, the less wealthy in the second, etc. Each rank had certain political rights: public positions could only be held by citizens of the first three ranks, and the position of archon (and therefore member of the Areopagus) only by citizens of the first rank. The poor, who were in the lowest, fourth category, were still deprived of this right. But they could participate in the people's assembly, the role of which is increasing. The assembly began to develop laws, elect officials and receive reports from them.
At the same time, Solon made concessions to both the poor and the eupatrides; the interests of the former were reflected in the creation of a new judicial body - the Heliea, to which any Athenian citizen could be elected, regardless of his property status. In the interests of the latter, a new governing body was established - the Council of Four Hundred, elected from citizens of the first three categories, 100 people from each tribe, where tribal traditions and the influence of the Eupatrides were still preserved.
Since inequality between rich and poor had then reached, so to speak, its highest point, the state was in an extremely dangerous position. All the common people were in debt to the rich: some processed money, paying the rich a sixth of the harvest... others took money from the rich as collateral for their bodies: their lenders could convert them into slavery, while some remained slaves in their homeland, others were sold to foreign lands. Many were forced to sell even their own children (no law prohibited this) and flee their fatherland due to the cruelty of lenders. But the vast majority... gathered and persuaded each other not to remain indifferent spectators, but to choose one leader for themselves. A reliable person and release debtors who missed the payment deadline, and redistribute the land and completely change the political system.
Then the most sensible people in Athens, seeing that Solon. - perhaps the only person for whom there is no guilt, who is not an accomplice of the rich in their crimes and at the same time is not oppressed by need, like the poor, they began to ask him to take state affairs into his own hands and put an end to the discord. However, Fanius of Lesbos /writer of the 4th-3rd centuries. BC / says that Solon himself resorted to deception on both sides: he secretly promised the division of the land to the poor, and to the rich people - security for debt obligations.
... He was chosen as an archon / the highest officials of Athens, who made up a college of 9 people /, and at the same time a mediator and legislator. Everyone received him with pleasure: the rich - as a wealthy man, and the poor - as an honest one... His first act government activities there was a law by virtue of which existing debts were forgiven and in the future it was forbidden to lend money “on the security of the body”...
... Solon proudly says that from the previously mortgaged land he “removed a lot of mortgage stones ...” and that from among the citizens enslaved for debts, he returned from a foreign land “... the Attic speech of those who had forgotten” ... “And those who are at home in grave slavery are a shame endured,” he, according to him, made them free.
Solon did not please either one. Not the other side. He embittered the rich by destroying debt obligations, and the poor even more by not redistributing the land they had hoped for.
... Wanting to leave all the highest positions for the rich, as it was before, and to allow them to be included in other positions in the performance of which the common people had not previously participated, Solon introduced an assessment of the property of citizens. Thus, he placed first those who produced a total of five hundred measures of products, both dry and liquid, and called them “pentakosiomedimna” / five hundred measures /, he placed second those who could keep a horse or produce three hundred measures; these were called “belonging to the horsemen”; “Zevgits” (owning a team of oxen, horses, mules) were people of the third qualification who had two hundred measures of those and other products combined. All the rest were called "fetas"; he did not allow them to perform any position; they participated in government only in that they could be present in the people's assembly and be judges (we are talking about geliz, jury trial). The latter seemed at first to be a meaningless right, but later became highest degree important because most of important cases went to the judges. Further. And the verdicts in those cases, the decision of which Solon left to the officials, he also allowed to appeal to the court.
Solon formed the council of the Areopagus from annually changing archons: he himself was a member of it as a former archon. But, seeing daring plans and arrogance among the people. Prompted by the destruction of debts, he established a second council, electing one hundred people from each of the four phyla. He instructed them to preliminarily, before the people, discuss matters and not allow a single matter to be submitted to the people's assembly without preliminary discussion.
Solon's reforms seemed to be the height of political wisdom, the triumph of the policy of compromise. At the same time, it is Solon’s reforms that convincingly prove the fragility of the policy of compromise.
The struggle between the demos and the clan nobility did not end with an amicable deal. Athens is experiencing an acute political crisis that culminated in the establishment of tyranny.
The reforms dealt a blow to the clan organization of power and the privileges of the tribal aristocracy. They were an important stage in the formation political organization in Athens. But the compromise nature of the reforms prevented the resolution of acute contradictions. The reforms caused discontent among the clan aristocracy and did not completely satisfy the demos. The struggle between them continued and after some time led to the establishment of the tyranny of Pisistratus, and then his sons (560-527 BC), who consolidated the successes of the demos in the fight against the aristocracy and strengthened the political system created by Solon. The existing governing bodies continued to function, but now under the control of the tyrant who had seized power. A tyrant in Athens was considered an illegitimate ruler who did not necessarily establish a brutal regime. Pisistratus eased the situation of small landowners by providing them with credit. An active foreign policy and the creation of a navy attracted Athenian merchants to his side. The large scale of construction of public buildings that beautified the city provided a means of subsistence for the poor. Quite a lot important role Observance of the laws in force in Athens also played a role.
However, these events required ever-increasing amounts of money, the replenishment of which was entrusted to the wealthy Athenians, which ultimately caused their discontent. With the support of Sparta, who feared the strengthening of Athens, the tyranny was overthrown. The subsequent attempt by the aristocracy to seize power ended in failure. Relying on the poor, the rich trade and craft elite of the Athenian slave owners, headed by Cleisthenes, expelled the Spartiates and consolidated their victory with new reforms. Cleisthenes' reforms carried out in 509 BC. e., eliminated the last remnants of the clan system in Athens. They destroyed the old division of the population into four tribes.
After Solon's death, for a long time politicians turned to his constitution, using it as an authoritative source of law.
So, we examined the activities of Solon as an archon. One cannot but agree that any reforms carried out by individuals endowed with powers of power cannot satisfy the interests and demands of all segments of the population, and Solon was no exception.
Solon's reforms were an important stage in the formation of the state in Athens, and their results can be compared with a political revolution.
First of all, he abolished debt bondage and canceled all land debts. Mortgage stones were removed from the fields, citizens who had become slaves for debt were set free, and those who were sold abroad were redeemed at the expense of the state.
Since the time of Solon, slaves in Athens could only be foreigners captured in war or bought on the world slave market of that time.
To prevent the plunder of peasant plots in the future, Solon established a maximum size of land holdings in private hands.
At the same time, broad testamentary freedom was sanctioned. Family estates, like peasant households, could be passed on to the heirs at the will of the testator. The land holdings of the nobility - the basis of their power - were included in the general civil circulation.
The most important political reform Solon was the establishment of a property qualification. The richest were ranked in the first category. Simply rich - to the second. Both of these categories of citizens received the right to hold all the most important posts in the state apparatus, but only representatives of the first category could become archons and treasurers.
Thus, instead of the aristocratic principle (belonging to certain families), the property principle, the principle of wealth, was approved. Merchants and moneylenders benefited from this, while the clan nobility lost.
The third category consisted of citizens of average income. All others - fetas - were enrolled in one fourth and final category.
The medimn was chosen as the unit for calculating wealth - a measure of bulk solids (approximately 50-60 l). To enroll in the first class, an income of 500 medimns of grain annually (or the corresponding equivalent) was required; for enrollment in the second - three hundred, for enrollment in the third - two hundred medimni.
The first two ranks served in the cavalry. This service required large expenses, but was less dangerous in war. The third category - heavily armed hoplites - infantrymen became the true glory of the Athenian army. The fourth category, initially excluded from military service, then became lightly armed infantry.
According to Solon's constitution, the Athenian People's Assembly became the highest authority. To counterbalance it, two new bodies were created: the council of four hundred and the so-called heliia - a jury.
The Council of Four Hundred was elected by the old Ionian tribes, which continued to exist despite all the changes. Each of them sent 100 people to the council. Playing an important role in the legislative procedure, in charge of all current affairs, the council of four hundred had a restraining influence on the popular assembly and directly limited the power of the Areopagus.
Helieia was a judicial and legislative body at the same time.
All classes of the free population, including the Fetov, participated in the people's assembly. This was a clear concession to the demos. But the elections to the council of four hundred were in the hands of those who controlled the old tribes, that is, in the hands of the clan nobility. Helieia, with its wide circle of participants, was established to the greater benefit of the demos. But the Areopagus remained untouched.
1. Textbook on the history of state and law foreign countries/ Ed. O.A. Zhidkova, N.A. Krasheninnikova. – M. Yurist, 2000.
2. General history of state and law / Ed. Z.M. Chernilovsky. M. Beck, 1997.
3. Course of lectures on the history of state and law of foreign countries / Ed. Kuznetsova, Alekseeva and others - M. Yurayt, 1998.
4. Plutarch on Solon / Monuments of legal literature. – M. Legal Library, 2000.
An incomparably greater victory was won by the Athenian demos in its struggle against the aristocracy in 594 BC. e., when the so-called reforms of Solon were carried out.
Solon’s performance in the political arena is described by Aristotle as follows: “The majority of the people were enslaved by a few. The people rebelled against the nobles. The turmoil was strong and for a long time some fought against others; finally, they jointly elected Solon as mediator and archon and entrusted him with the organization of the state.”
By origin, Solon belonged to the Eupatrides, but he went bankrupt and, in order to improve his affairs, took up trade, and therefore visited many cities. Solon and his associates were not interested in full preservation privileges of the family nobility and were prone to some compromises.
Solon's main goal was to, at the cost of certain concessions, satisfy the most persistent demands of the demos and in this way increase the well-being and defense capability of Athens.
To achieve this goal, a number of reforms were carried out: the land debts that weighed on Attic farmers were abolished.
This measure was called seisakhteya, i.e. “shaking off the burden.” Special stones placed on the debtor's land were now thrown down as a sign of release from the debt burden.
Debt bondage was abolished forever, and the Athenians sold into slavery for debts were ransomed and returned to their homeland; freedom of will was established, by virtue of which escheated property no longer necessarily fell into the family of the deceased, but everyone was given the right to bequeath property at their own discretion. A number of measures were also implemented to encourage crafts and promote the development of trade.
Finally, Solon carried out the so-called timocratic, or census, reform. According to this reform, all Athenian citizens, regardless of their origin, were divided according to their property status into 4 categories. The measure of capacity used for grain, the medimn, was adopted as a unit of measurement of income.
The Athenians, who had an annual income of Agriculture 500 medimni of grain were classified as 1st category (pentakosiomedimni), those with an income of 300 medimni or capable of maintaining a war horse - to the 2nd category (horsemen), those with an income of 200 medimni - to the 3rd category (zeugites) and, finally, with an income of less than 200 medimnov - to the 4th category (feta).
Citizens of the first two categories enjoyed full political rights, but bore responsibilities associated with the greatest expenses: the first performed liturgies, i.e., duties in favor of the state in the form of building ships for the Athenian fleet at their own expense, organizing public holidays, etc. ; the latter served in the cavalry.
The Zeugites were somewhat limited in their rights; they, for example, could not be elected to the archons and, therefore, end up in the Areopagus. In the militia they constituted heavily armed infantry. Like other warriors, they had to arm themselves at their own expense.
Finally, the fetas only had the right to elect officials in the national assembly, but could not themselves be elected; in the militia they served as lightly armed warriors.
Solon's reforms also affected the political structure of Athens: on the basis of the ancient 4 phyla, a new body was created - the “council of four hundred”, to which 100 people were elected from each phylum.
This council existed in parallel with the Areopagus, but differed from it in its composition. If only the highest property ranks were represented in the Areopagus, then everyone could be elected to the Council of Four Hundred except the Fetes; its composition, therefore, was more democratic.
Regarding the functions of these two councils, the Areopagus retained its importance, exercising general control over state affairs and being supreme court; the council of four hundred, during the breaks between national assemblies, apparently decided for him the current affairs of government.
The People's Assembly, which had almost lost all significance in the political life of Athens during the period of unlimited rule of the Eupatrides, now again began to play a prominent role in it. Aristotle also associates the name of Solon with the establishment of a people's court in Athens - the heliai. In his opinion, this was one of Solon’s most democratic reforms, since even the fetas participated in the helium.
Thus, Solon’s reforms significantly modified the entire structure of the socio-political life of ancient Athens, created the prerequisites for the development of slave ownership, and put forward a new principle of property qualifications.
All this, taken together, dealt a blow to the remnants of the clan system and the dominance of the clan aristocracy, which hampered the formation of the Athenian slave-owning society.
Solon's reforms, however, did not complete the work begun and in this sense were of a compromise nature. The upper strata of the demos gained access to power, but the qualifications were determined by income from land, and therefore rich representatives of the demos had to share power with the same tribal, landowning aristocracy.
The Attic small farmers achieved much: they were freed from debt, freed from the danger of debt slavery, many of those who fled returned to their homeland and, since the foundation stones were thrown down, apparently regained their land. However, the demos did not achieve a general redistribution of land.
Meanwhile, the agricultural clan aristocracy, forced to make concessions, subsequently discovered a desire to regain what was lost and restore its former dominance.
Therefore, soon after the reform, the socio-political struggle in Athens resumed with renewed vigor.
Athenian society in the 6th century BC. e. underwent a number of changes. This time was called the “great period of Athens” and was characterized by an increase in the part of the population that was engaged in trade and craft. This new type of people, different from the aristocracy of that time, was called demos, which translated means “people”. Demos was at odds with the aristocratic strata of society, trying to come to power, which was necessary to combat the disastrous state. Solon's reforms played a huge role in this, the results of which were equated to a political revolution.
Solon was one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece. He was a famous reformer who changed the understanding of political life in Athens. The democracy established with his participation made it possible for society to become more developed. What preceded this? Historians describe this time period as follows. The economic situation in Attica deteriorated for a whole century, and the discriminatory policies of the authorities towards the common people forced people to live in poverty and eke out a miserable existence. The peasants constantly lived in debt, not knowing where to find funds to provide for their families. They were placed in conditions in which there was no way out. Poor residents had to mortgage their lands, sell their children into slavery, and even mortgage themselves. This all led to protest moods in society and social upheaval. Any questions common man questions asked to the owners were ignored. The conflict between rich and poor became increasingly worse. Not only the poor residents were dissatisfied, but also those who had become a little richer and were not looking forward to Solon's reforms.
The last point of the people's patience was the defeat in the war with Megara for the right to own the island of Salamis. This happened in the 7th century. An interesting fact is that after this in Athens it was forbidden to mention the very name of the island. But there are always people who violate prohibitions. It was Solon who became the mediator between the demos and the aristocracy. He was respected by both. He wrote poems that were received differently by people. Reading them in the square, he appealed to the consciousness of the Athenians, calling on them to wage war against Megara. Fearing severe punishment, he spread rumors about his madness. He later led the army and navy and started the second war with the Megaras. This time Athens emerged victorious. This brought him popularity, he became a mediator in the decision social issues. This was followed by Solon's reforms. What were they?
First he canceled all debts. This was Solon's first reform - sisakhthia. The peasants were able to return their land plots. In addition, freedom of will was introduced. This undermined the main role of the clan nobility. The sage's main goal was democracy in Athens. His role was recognized and appreciated.
The next reform of the Salon concerned the country; it helped provide bread to low-income residents. Great changes also took place in politics and the social structure; a population census and recording of the income of the country's citizens began. The Areopagus became the highest body in the country, and the Pentacosiomedimni were included in its composition. Solon's reforms affected and became accessible to everyone from now on, which indicated the democratization of Athens. The significance of the activities of the Athenian sage is great. Of course, not everything that Solon did satisfied all categories of people in Athenian society, but what he could compare to was a political revolution that changed the political system. Through the efforts of such figures, it rotates faster.
The executive authorities included the college of strategoi and the college of archons.
The main functions of the college of strategists were the supreme leadership and command of all the armed forces of Athens.
The college consisted of ten strategists, who, according to Athenian laws, enjoyed the same rights and had the same duties. But in practice, a custom was established according to which one of the strategists occupied first place not only in the college, but in the entire state. The strategoi were elected from among the richest and most influential citizens by open vote by show of hands.
The competence of the college of archons included religious and family matters, as well as matters relating to morality.
The College of Archons consisted of nine archons and a secretary, elected by lot, one from each phylum. All archons, except the secretary, passed two tests - in the Council of Five Hundred (the so-called dokimasia) and in the heliei.
The highest judicial body was helium, acting under the direction
college of archons. The Gelieus consisted of 6 thousand people (600 from each phylum), annually elected by lot as archons from among full citizens at least 30 years old.
Helieia dealt with the most important private affairs of Athenian citizens, state affairs, controversial matters between allies and all important affairs of citizens allied states. In addition to judicial functions, the Geliea also performed functions in the field of legislation.
Other judicial bodies in Athens were several other colleges, each of which tried only certain cases: the Areopagus (court of elders), four colleges of ephetes, court of dietetes, and the college of forty.
3. Solon's reforms, dividing society into categories. Tyranny of Pisistratus. Cleisthenes' reforms. Athenian democracy: Ephialtes and Pericles.
The situation of peasants in Attica in the 7th-6th centuries BC. e. it was extremely difficult. The main problem of the village was usury, which was practiced by some of the eupatrids. They gave loans secured by land. If a community member did not pay his debt on time, the land actually became the property of the creditor, although legally the debtor continued to own it. The peasants left without land were forced to take money as security for their personal freedom. If the debt was not paid on time, the creditor could sell both the debtor and his family members into slavery.
Solon was a descendant royal family Medontidov and gained fame throughout Greece. After the victory of the Athenians, commanded by Solon, over Megara in 594 BC. e. Solon was elected the first archon, archon-eponymous. He set the task of calming the peasantry and preserving the political and economic dominance of the Eupatrides. For this reason, Solon's first and largest reform was sysachthiya, “shaking off the burden.” She freed a mass of debtors from slavery, the same ones who were sold into slavery abroad, the state bought at its own expense; prohibited personal bondage and the sale of insolvent debtors into slavery.
At the same time, Solon issues laws restricting land ownership, a law allowing the export of olive oil abroad and prohibiting the export of grain. With his decrees, Solon encourages the development of handicrafts and trade, and carries out monetary reform. The logical crown of Solon's reforms is timocratic (Greek ʼʼtimeʼʼ property, qualification), which established a property qualification that began to determine the political rights of citizens.
All citizens were divided into four classes. The first class consisted of pentacosiomedimni, that is, citizens who received an annual income of 500 medimn (1 medimn equaled 52.5 liters) of grain. The second class, horsemen, belonged to citizens who had an income of 300 medimn.
Both of these classes received the right to fill all the most important government positions, but only representatives of the first class could become archons and treasurers.
The third, most numerous, class consisted of 2,200 medimns of annual income. All others were enrolled in the fourth class of fetov. The division into property categories pursued not only political, but also military goals. Citizens of each rank had the obligation of military service.
Under Solon, the role of the people's assembly grew, in which all adult Athenian citizens, without exception, could now participate. For the preliminary consideration of cases submitted to the people's assembly, a council of four hundred was established, 100 people from each category. This council had a restraining influence on the national assembly and on the council of the Areopagus.
At the same time, the fetes could be elected to the Heliaeum jury created by Solon, which was the highest judicial body of Athens. Solon's reforms were of a compromise, half-hearted nature.
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Plutarch in “Comparative Descriptions” writes: “... Fanius of Lesbo says that Solon himself, in order to save the fatherland, resorted to deception on both sides: he promised the poor the division of the land, and the rich people the provision of debt obligations” 1
Neither the demos nor the eupatrides were satisfied with the reforms. The struggle between these sectors of society continued and led to the establishment of the tyranny of Pisistratus.
Tyranny of Pisistratus. Later (560-527 BC) comes the reign of the tyrant Pisistratus and his sons - the Pisistratids, who basically continued the policies of Solon. All previously existing institutions were preserved: archons were still elected annually, the Areopagus and the people's assembly met. The tyrants only cared about having their followers in government positions.
Pisistratus seized power based on the dissatisfied peasantry, and although in his social position and in his aspirations Pisistratus was a proponent of the same policy as Solon, he took a number of measures aimed at alleviating the situation of the peasantry. Peasants were provided with cheap credit. Some taxes were eased, traveling judges were introduced, which were supposed to free peasants from the extreme importance of traveling to the city on their business.
Pisistratus led foreign policy large scale, meeting the interests of the trading circles of the slave-owning class (creation of a navy, capture of the island of Naxos). He sought to capture the Dardanelles (Hellespont). In Athens, he erected a number of buildings that beautified the city and at the same time gave employment to the unemployed urban poor. The sons of Pisistratus basically continued the policy of their father, but conducted it less successfully. They had to increase the tax burden to raise funds. Influential slave owners began to be burdened by the regime of tyranny, in which all power was actually concentrated in the hands of one person. There was an open indignation of the nobility against the tyrants. The movement was also attended by the widest circles of Athenian society, led by _________________________
1 Reader on the history of Ancient Greece / Ed. S. L. Utchenko. M, 1962. P. 41..
Cleisthenes, who came from the noble Alcmaeonid family. With the assistance of the Spartan king, it was possible to expel the pisistratid Hippias and put an end to tyranny. The subsequent attempt of the aristocracy, with the help of Spartan troops, to retain power in their hands ended in failure. A revolt of the people rose against the nobility. The Spartans were expelled from Athens and power was transferred to Cleisthenes.
The most important reform of Cleisthenes was the introduction of a new administrative division of Attica into three territorial districts:
1) the city of Athens and its suburbs;
2) inner central stripe;
3) coastal strip.
Each district consisted of 10 trittia, 3 trittia, one from each district, made up a phyla, and thus 10 phyla were made up. Such a territorial organization made it possible to mix the population, separate clans, and, consequently, weaken the eupatrids. Trittiyas broke up into small rural deme units, each of which was an administrative, military and political unit. In the demes, elections took place for members of the jury and the Council of Five Hundred, which replaced the former Council of Four Hundred. 50 people from each phylum were elected to the council of five hundred. At the same time, Cleisthenes created a board of ten strategists, who took turns performing the functions of commanders-in-chief of the troops. To prevent the possibility of establishing tyranny, Cleisthenes introduced a procedure of ostracism, which could remove from Athens for a period of 10 years any citizen who, in the opinion of society, could pose a threat to civil liberties .
Emergence - has 2 stages it arose: it arose on the Balkan Peninsula and the Perenean Peninsula - with legal equality and civil society 1. Creto-Mecenaean civilization until the 15th century. BC. with the center on the island of Crete - then the Okhetes came; the process has begun...
Socio-economic situation. The destructive Peloponnesian War had a great impact on the situation of the Greek city-states in the first half of the 4th century. BC e. The defeat of Athens and the dissolution of such an economic and political association as the first Athenian naval... .[read more]
Question No. 5 Features of the formation of the state in Athens. Unlike other East structures, the structure-forming element ancient civilization there was a polis, which historians defined as a city-state. Ancient states were formed in the Mediterranean... .
594g. - Solon's reforms. Areopagus – where the meeting takes place. Solon became famous in the battle for Fr. Salamis. 1. division of Attica into 4 phyla. 2. Prohibition of making an Athenian citizen a slave. 3. introduction of industrial crops (olives and grapes) 4. A son can refuse food to his father if he does not... .
Athens in the 8th-6th centuries BC. The institutions of statehood in Athens developed later than the Peloponnese, but Athens gradually became the most important center of statehood and the personification of the polis system. Its origins occurred through the transformation of clan institutions, the role of the military... .
Reasons for reforms:
The development of commodity-money relations led to further social stratification of the free population. The economic role of the wealthy trade and craft elite of the townspeople, still excluded from power, is growing. The number of poor people - fetov - is also growing. The position of medium and small landowners and artisans is becoming increasingly unstable. As a result, a whole complex of contradictions arises among the free - between the rich and impoverished eupatrides, who still hold power, and the rich among farmers, traders and artisans, striving for power and taking advantage of the discontent of the poor and medium and small owners. These contradictions crystallized as contradictions between the rich clan aristocracy and the people (demos), led by the rich.
Socio_Economic areas
First of all, Solon carried out sysakhfiy - a debt reform, which meant direct intervention in property relations. “Solon freed the people both now and for the future, forbidding the provision of loans through personal bondage.
He then legislated and carried out the cancellation of debts, both private and public.” Athenians who were enslaved for debt were freed, and those sold into slavery outside the country were redeemed at the expense of the state. Sisakhthiya encroached on the interests of the clan nobility and was a concession to the demos. At the same time, Solon did not fulfill the important demand of the poor - he did not redistribute the land.
The removal of debt stones and the abolition of debt slavery were a heavy blow to the clan aristocracy, i.e. because it was with the help of these measures that she increased her land holdings and enslaved farmers, turning them into dependent tenants. In order to prevent such a situation from returning so easily later, Solon decreed that henceforth no one should dare to “borrow on the security of his body,” or to pledge his identity when receiving money. Such a pledge had no political legitimacy. The sale of an Attic citizen into slavery was prohibited under penalty of death penalty. With Sisakhthia, Solon gave the impoverished people a new existence and peacefully brought them benefits that in other areas were obtained through bloody unrest. 30 At the same time, the abolition of debt slavery was of fundamental importance for the entire further development of the Athenian economy, since it oriented the developing large farms (both estates and craft workshops) not towards the labor of dependent bonded fellow tribesmen, but towards the labor of slaves purchased in markets or captured during military campaigns, i.e., opened the way to classical slavery.
The law of Solon is also known, which prohibited the acquisition of land above a certain norm, that is, the law that established the maximum size of land ownership.
All these measures - the abolition of debt slavery, the limitation of loan interest, the transition to the Euboean system of measures, the reform on the introduction of a land maximum - were successful, because later, throughout the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. Attica remained predominantly a country of medium and small landownership, in which even the largest slave holdings did not exceed several tens of hectares in area.
However, with these measures “Solon did not please either side: he embittered the rich by abolishing debt obligations, and the poor even more by not redistributing the land as they had hoped...” (Plutarch, Solon, 4, 16).
Solon attached great importance to marriage alliances, preventing those that took the form of a purchase. He wanted marriage to represent “a close union of husband and wife, the purpose of which is to found new families and enjoy the sweetness of mutual tenderness.” To achieve this, Solon forbade old men from marrying rich heiresses for selfish purposes - “being incapable of cohabitation, they marry heiresses for the sake of money and, taking advantage of the law, rape nature.” and brides should bring their husbands a dowry of more than three dresses and a small amount of inexpensive household utensils.
The family was respected by everyone, and no one, not even the government, had the right to penetrate the secrets of the sacred family hearth. Solon obliges his adult son to feed his sick father. And before electing a citizen to a high position as required by the law, it was necessary to find out whether he was a good son: whether he respected his parents during his life, whether he honored his memory after death.
Until the age of 16, parents raised the child as they wanted. At the age of 16, the Athenian became a student of the state and entered a public gymnasium, where until the age of 18 he studied under the supervision of officials and was subject to strict discipline
At the age of 18, i.e., in the year of his civil majority, the young man had the right to take possession of the family estate. At the same time, he entered military service. At the age of 20, the year of political majority, he became a full citizen. He took part in the national assembly, where he already enjoyed the right to vote. At the age of 30, a citizen had the right to enter the Senate. For 60 years he left military service and was able to rest.
Wanting to boost the country's industry, Solon in every possible way encouraged trade and crafts. According to one of Solon's laws, a father who did not teach his son a craft had no right to demand that his son support and feed him in old age, and the Areopagus, who monitored the activities of citizens, had to punish the idle. In the economic field, Solon pursued the goal of intensifying the economic life of Athens as a whole. Measures were taken to regulate the water supply in Attica, which usually suffered from drought. Particular attention was paid to the development of olive growing: the export of olive oil outside Attica for the purpose of profit was allowed, while the export of grain was prohibited by law. This law was directed against the tribal nobility, who, owning arable land and exporting grain outside of Attica, arbitrarily set prices for bread on the domestic market.
Political districts:
At first, many were dissatisfied with these laws. First of all, he proclaimed a general amnesty or forgiveness, from which traitors and murderers were excluded. From the ancient constitution, he retained only some provisions, and abolished the rest. In the distribution of public offices, Solon was careful not to make a sharp leap from a system in which they were all the exclusive privilege of the nobility, to a democratic regime that would make them available to all citizens. he gave the right of citizenship to those foreigners who settled in Attica with families and property. He legitimized two main innovations: according to the first, every citizen had certain rights that his title gave him; second, he divided the entire population into 4 classes according to their condition. The four classes were organized as follows. The first included all citizens who had an annual income of 500 medimns of wheat or a corresponding amount of oil or wine. They were called pentacosiomedimnes. From among them, archons, chief officials, and leaders of the army and fleet were chosen.
The second class - horsemen or hypei - had to have an income of more than 300 medimni - a condition recognized as necessary to maintain a horse. This class supplied the cavalry and, in addition, it was given secondary positions.
The third class were the Zeugites or owners of two mules: their wealth was from 150 to 200 medimni, they supplied heavily armed infantry and occupied lower positions.
The fourth class are fetas or day laborers; it included all those who had less than 150 medimni; from them recruits were recruited for the light infantry and navy. They were not allowed to public positions and honors, and could not participate in the national assembly and courts.
This inequality in social position was rewarded by the distribution of state taxes: the fourth class paid nothing, and this was real satisfaction. The first three classes occupied corresponding positions and paid taxes corresponding to their condition; it was so distributed that it could not give rise to misunderstandings. It must, however, be noted that state taxes were levied only when necessary; constant customs duties on imported goods were paid by both the poor and the rich.T. Thus, now it was not belonging to one clan or another, but the amount of private property that determined the importance of a person. The old family nobility remained dissatisfied, having lost their privileged position, full power and part of their wealth. According to Solon's constitution, four political institutions governed the government of the country: the archons, the Senate, the People's Assembly and the Areopagus.
There were always nine Archons, and they were divided as before. They also performed judicial duties, but did not take part in jury trials, the members of which were selected by lot from all three classes. Upon taking office, the archons swore to carry out the laws; leaving her, they gave an account of their activities in the people's assembly. While they were exposed to power, their person was considered sacred. According to Plutarch, “those two anchors that held the ship of state of Athens, even during a storm, were the Areopagus and the Senate, or Council of Four Hundred. “Four hundred senators were chosen from the first three classes. Each tribe supplied one hundred members, elected first by the number of votes, and later by lot; their deficiencies were corrected by the rigorous tests to which they were subjected while still candidates. There is one difference in the organization of the Athenian Senate from the Spartan Senate, which serves as a striking characteristic of both republics. In Sparta, senators were elected for life, they had to be at least 60 years old, and individual members were not responsible for the decisions of the assembly. In Athens the prescribed age was 30; the composition of the Senate changed annually, and its members were responsible; it was quite democratic. The Senate in Athens drafted and discussed laws before submitting them to the popular assembly for approval; managed financial and administrative affairs; promulgated regulations that had the force of law for a year and had the right to impose monetary fines. The Senate was divided into twelve commissions with the same number of members; these commissions were called prytania, and each of them had primary importance for one month, both in the Senate and in the popular assembly. Each phartania, during its activities, looked for ways to satisfy the urgent needs and interests of the state. She was supported by government funds.
The popular assembly, always convened by the Senate, consisted of all citizens, the number of which fluctuated between fifteen and twenty thousand.
R-m value:
First of all, he abolished debt bondage and canceled all land debts. Mortgage stones were removed from the fields, citizens who had become slaves for debt were set free, and those who were sold abroad were redeemed at the expense of the state.
Since the time of Solon, slaves in Athens could only be foreigners captured in war or bought on the world slave market of that time.
To prevent the plunder of peasant plots in the future, Solon established a maximum size of land holdings in private hands.
At the same time, broad testamentary freedom was sanctioned. Family estates, like peasant households, could be passed on to the heirs at the will of the testator. The land holdings of the nobility - the basis of their power - were included in the general civil circulation.
Solon's most important political reform was the establishment of a property qualification. The richest were ranked in the first category. Simply rich - to the second. Both of these categories of citizens received the right to hold all the most important posts in the state apparatus, but only representatives of the first category could become archons and treasurers.
Thus, instead of the aristocratic principle (belonging to certain families), the property principle, the principle of wealth, was approved. Merchants and moneylenders benefited from this, while the clan nobility lost.
The third category consisted of citizens of average income. All others - fetas - were enrolled in one fourth and final category.
The medimn, a measure of bulk solids (approximately 50-60 liters), was chosen as the unit for calculating wealth. To enroll in the first class, an income of 500 medimns of grain annually (or the corresponding equivalent) was required; for enrollment in the second - three hundred, for enrollment in the third - two hundred medimni.
The first two ranks served in the cavalry. This service required large expenses, but was less dangerous in war. The third category - heavily armed hoplites - infantrymen became the true glory of the Athenian army. The fourth category, initially excluded from military service, then became lightly armed infantry.
According to Solon's constitution, the Athenian People's Assembly became the highest authority. To counterbalance it, two new bodies were created: the council of four hundred and the so-called heliia - a jury.
The Council of Four Hundred was elected by the old Ionian tribes, which continued to exist despite all the changes. Each of them sent 100 people to the council. Playing an important role in the legislative procedure, managing all current affairs, the Council of Four Hundred had a restraining influence on the national assembly and directly limited the power of the Areopagus.
Helieia was a judicial and legislative body at the same time.
All classes of the free population, including the Fetov, participated in the people's assembly. This was a clear concession to the demos. But the elections to the council of four hundred were in the hands of those who controlled the old tribes, that is, in the hands of the clan nobility. Helieia, with its wide circle of participants, was established to the greater benefit of the demos. But the Areopagus remained untouched.
Date of Solon's reforms— 594-593
Euboean monetary system - its weight value is 655 g;
five hundred- A person who had 500 medimn income (medimn is a measure of bulk solids, about 50 l)
riders- one of the privileged classes (those without a rich pedigree, but with large financial assets)
zeugites- representatives of the third (after the pentacosiomedimni and horsemen), the most numerous, class of citizens, who received an annual income of 200 medimni (1 medimni equaled 52.5 liters of grain) per year.
Feta- slaves
Sisachria- eliminating debt slavery. the previously taken land was returned to the liberated owners.
national assembly- The main and decisive authority
advice 400- state advice exercising control and performing various political and administrative functions.
Phil- tribal associations
Gerusia- council of elders
Areopagus- ancient criminal court in Athens
Archon- ruler
democracy- People power
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