During the sub-Atlantic period, several particularly cold winters were recorded, in particular, in Rome, the Tiber completely froze in 398, 396, 271 and 177 BC. In subsequent centuries, during rainy winters, the Tiber did not freeze, but overflowed. Confirmation that the climate in the period from 600 to 100 BC. was cooler, are the ruins of ancient harbors in Naples and the Adriatic, which are one meter below the current water level.
During the reign of Emperor Augustus (63 BC - 14 AD), the climate warmed up, the average air temperature rose and became one degree higher than today. Pliny the Younger wrote that grapes and olives began to be grown at this time in the more northern parts of Italy.
The wind rose in the Roman Empire of the 1st century was somewhat different from the modern one: in those days, the invasion of wind from the north was quite rare in winter, while the northwest winds, which blew regularly in July, are now practically absent. Interestingly, the sea breeze began to blow a month earlier than now, that is, in April.
The geographical position contributed to the fact that the ancient Romans actively explored the sea. During the Second Punic War there were such severe storms on the Mediterranean coast that the Roman fleet was destroyed twice, in 249 and 225 BC. In 226 BC. Italy had a six-month drought. In December 170 B.C. in Rome there was a so-called "bloody rain". Written sources from 75 BC to 175 AD Particular attention was paid to the frequent floods of the Tiber in Rome, in particular, serious floods occurred in 5, 15, 36, 51, 69, 79 and 97. Judging by the records of Lucius Columella (1st century), in his time in the summer in southern Italy, that is, in Rome and Campania, it rained more often than now.
In the year 30, Egypt was annexed to the Roman Empire, in which, judging by Ptolemy's weather diary, it rained every month. Egypt even began to be called the "barn of Rome", because they collected incredible grain harvests for modern conditions.
In short, in the I millennium BC. the climate in Italy (and in Rome in particular) was colder and wetter than today, then warmed up in the 1st century, and began to cool by the 4th century.
www.historicus.ru
Natural and climatic conditions of Ancient Rome Natural conditions
natural conditions Apennine peninsula more favorable for development human society than many of the neighboring areas of the Mediterranean. Even in ancient times, the Greeks began to call it Italy. Initially, Italy meant only the south of the peninsula, replete with rich pastures. This name arose from the word "Vitulus" - a calf, a bull. Hence the name Vitalia, or Italia, - literally "Country of calves". In the III century. BC e. this early name was extended to the entire Apennine Peninsula, and in the 1st century. BC e. the concept of "Italy" included the northern part of modern Italy up to the Alps.
The natural northern border of Italy is the Alpine mountains. From the east, Italy is washed by the Adriatic, from the south - by the Ionian, and from the west - by the Tyrrhenian and Ligurian seas.
In the first half of the 1st millennium BC. e. Italy's climate was wetter and cooler than it is today. The northern regions were in the temperate zone. The rest of Italy, lying in the subtropics, was dominated by a warm, mild climate. Precipitation fell in the now arid south. Bad weather was rare, the sky was almost always blue and clear, and the sea was warm.
Vegetation in ancient Italy was diverse and richly represented. The steep Alpine mountains at an altitude of up to 1700 m were covered with coniferous trees - pine, fir, spruce. Below them were replaced by broad-leaved species - beech, oak, noble chestnut. In Central Italy, they mixed with evergreen cypresses, pines, oleanders, and myrtle and laurel grew on the slopes of the Apennines.
Southern Italy is characterized by evergreen vegetation. Since ancient times, apple trees, pear trees, and grapes have grown in Italy; in the middle and southern parts of the peninsula, olive and pomegranate trees, almonds generously bore fruit. Barley, wheat, spelt, and millet were cultivated from cereals. The ancient Romans sowed flax, grew legumes and garden crops.
Rome (Italian Roma [ˈroːma]) is the capital of Italy, the administrative center of the province of Rome and the region of Lazio. Situated on the Tiber River.
Rome is one of the oldest cities in the world, the ancient capital of the Roman Empire. Even in antiquity (3rd century AD), Rome was often called the Eternal (lat. Roma Aeterna). One of the first to call Rome so was the Roman poet Albius Tibull (1st century BC) in his second elegy. Ideas about the “eternity” of Rome were largely preserved after the fall ancient roman civilization, bringing the appropriate epithet to modern languages. Rome is also called "the city on seven hills". Initially, the settlements were located on the Palatine hill, later the neighboring hills were settled: the Capitol and the Quirinal. Somewhat later, settlements appeared on the last four hills (Caelius, Aventine, Esquiline and Viminal).
The climate of Rome is subtropical Mediterranean. The maximum precipitation is observed in winter, in summer precipitation is relatively rare. Climatic winter (that is, the period when the average daily temperature is steadily below zero) is absent; during the winter months, the temperature usually stays between 5 and 10 degrees. In general, the climate is characterized by very long and hot summers and mild rainy winters. In winter, frosts and snowfalls are rare, and in summer the temperature can exceed 40 degrees.
Rome climate Indicator Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Absolute maximum, °C 20, 8 21, 6 26, 6 27, 2 33, 1 37, 8 39, 4 40, 6 38, 4 30, 7 26, 5 20, 3 40, 6 Average maximum, °C 12, 0 12, 8 15, 4 18, 1 23, 1 27, 0 30, 2 30, 4 26, 4 21, 9 16, 5 12, 8 20, 6 Average temperature, °C 8, 1 8, 5 10, 8 13, 6 17, 7 21, 4 24, 2 24, 5 21, 1 17, 4 12, 7 9, 3 15, 8 Average minimum , °C 3, 3 3, 4 5, 5 8, 0 12, 0 15, 8 18, 5 18, 8 15, 7 12, 2 7, 8 4, 9 10, 5 Absolute minimum, °C - 11 - 6, 9 - 6, 5 - 2, 4 1, 8 5, 6 9, 1 9, 3 4, 3 0, 8 - 5, 2 - 5, 6 - 11 Precipitation rate, mm 55 59 53 63 32 20 13 18 63 105 94 89 663
The climate of peninsular and insular Italy is Mediterranean, which means that for 2/3 of the year there is a clear blue sky, and summers are hot and dry (+26 C in July), and warm mild winters (from +8 C to +10 C in January) . In the south of the peninsula, from March to October, dry hot winds blow from the Sahara - sirocco. During this period, the temperature rises to about +35 C. The sea breeze softens the summer heat (increasing near the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea and weaker near the Adriatic). Largest number sunny days per year recorded on the southeastern coast of Sardinia. Table of average monthly temperatures in Rome Month January February March April May June July August September October. November December Day +11 +13 +15 +19 +23 +28 +30 +27 +22 +16 +13 Night +5 +5 +7 +10 +13 +17 +20 +19 +17 +13 +9 + 6
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4 seasons in Rome: spring, winter, summer, autumn
The Italian capital is amazing at any time of the year. The climate of Rome is characterized as typical Mediterranean in areas located in close proximity to the sea.
With hot, dry and long summers and rainy winters. In the interior, the climate is more temperate without sudden temperature changes.
Rome enjoys warm weather throughout the year, except for a few weeks during the winter months, but temperatures rarely drop below 8°C.
Snow does not fall often and melts almost immediately.
In areas close to the sea, it is usually cooler in summer and warmer in winter. In summer, the thermometer rises to +40? C, precipitation is possible, but quite rare.
2538 fell to the lot of the city sundial in a year. Spring and early autumn are the best times to visit Rome.
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There is no summer heat, thunderstorms are possible, the weather is comfortable for walking. The temperature fluctuates from +15 to 23?С.
The weather in Rome is determined by the winds.
In the spring they are predominantly western, in the summer the hot and dry sirroco wind comes to the city, bringing heat.
In autumn, southerly winds mix with cold Atlantic winds, contributing to frequent rains.
In winter, there comes a time of strong cold winds called "trimontana".
The warm Mediterranean climate of Ancient Rome, caused by the winds blowing from the Tyrrhenian Sea and the Apennine mountain range, contributed to the active settlement of the territories.
People were attracted by the fertile soils of the coast, mild winters and dry hot summers.
Rome in winter
The climate during the winter months can be very humid, with occasional snowfall, but turns to water within a few hours.
The city turns gray from prolonged rains, but its charm still does not leave it.
The Roman population puts on coats and scarves at the beginning of September, when the temperature drops at night, but not significantly.
Although the true winter in Rome comes in mid-November and continues until March, in rare cases until early April.
The weather in Rome in winter can be very humid, with the rainiest months being November and December.
But it is possible that drizzling rain will continue until March.
On days when the sky is not overcast, the city comes alive and the colors become fresher and brighter.
The coldest month of the Roman winter is January, with averages from +1?C to +12?C. Snow is an exceptional phenomenon, but once every few years, and sometimes decades, it falls in a fairly thick layer and lasts for several days.
This is an unheard of phenomenon, leading to the closure of major historical monuments.
The weather in Rome in January is cold and windy with frequent fogs, bright sunshine lasts no more than 4 hours a day if the sky is not covered with clouds.
The daily temperature is kept at around +7?C.
The second half of the month is warmer and drier, the air warms up to +12?С, the sun shines intermittently for snow and rain. At night it gets very cold up to +1.9?С, the length of the day gradually increases.
February in Rome is no less cold than January, and only at the end of the month it becomes warmer and sunnier.
Rome in spring
The most unpredictable weather in Rome falls on March, when the bright sun shines more and more, but rains and cold winds continue to spoil the mood.
But it tends to be more at the beginning of the month.
The second half fills the city with warm air, the heyday begins, indicating that the dull winter days are over.
This is the best period to visit Rome.
The weather in Rome in March is favorable for walking with the right equipment.
During the day it's about 15?C, but it happens that it can warm up to 20?C.
Spring gradually comes to the city, the sun warms the air during the day, although the evenings are still cold and the mercury thermometer drops to +5?C.
The Roman spring is almost always accompanied by a light, short rain, refreshing the blooming vegetation.
April pleases with the arrival of real spring with a large number of sunny days, a pleasant warm breeze, the thermometer is growing rapidly upwards, fluctuating between + 10? С ... + 18? С.
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Sometimes the sky is covered with clouds and intermittent rain and cold gusts of air remind of a recent winter. Every day it gets hotter and drier, but at night it is still cool + 8?C.
For the past few years, the weather in Rome in May has become more and more like summer.
Only cold evenings + 13 ... + 15? C remind of the end of spring. May is a fantastic month to visit the Italian capital.
Warm and dry weather is occasionally overshadowed by a short rain quickly replaced by a bright sun.
In the second half of it sunlight are filled 12 hours a day, delighting with almost summer weather and air warmed up to +20?
Weather in Rome in summer
June announces the onset of summer in Rome, the pleasant daytime coolness is replaced by suffocating heat, and the entire population rushes closer to the coast. The night breeze cools the red-hot city to + 20?C, while during the day it stably keeps +27 ... + 30?C.
June weather does not spoil Rome with rain, but those infrequent rains pleasantly cool the streets.
The sun rises as early as half past six in the morning and illuminates Rome for 13 hours.
The closer the end of the month, the less often the sky is covered with clouds.
Thunderstorms with short-term warm rain are typical for the beginning of June; they are almost not observed at the end of the month. The wind blows from the sea, rarely rising more than 5 m/s.
The hottest and driest month of the Roman summer is July, the temperature exceeds +40?C, the city is hot and stuffy, accompanied by high humidity.
Even at night it is not possible to rest, but +25? C and the absence of the sun make it possible to take a breath.
Rome, whose climate reaches its peak in July in terms of heat and exceptional rainfall, makes visitors and the indigenous population leave the city.
August is not much different from July, and does not even allow thoughts that the end of summer is just around the corner. The city is hot, sunny and dry, but at night comes a life-giving coolness, which was not there in July up to + 16?C ... + 19?C. Rains happen no more than 2 days a month.
Autumn Rome
Autumn in Rome does not come until the end of October, September is still warm, but the heat is gradually leaving the city.
The thermometer gradually drops to + 26? C, the evenings become a little cooler and more windy.
Short rains occur more and more often, especially towards the end of the month, reminding of the end of summer and the imminent approach of autumn.
October is a velvet season for visiting Rome, the situation is overshadowed only by frequent rains.
It blows in the city autumn freshness, during the day it is still warm + 22? С ... + 25? С, it gradually becomes colder.
The very high humidity of October makes it a sweltering month despite the cold snap. At night, you can not do without a warm sweater.
Italy is the most favorite holiday destination due to its characteristic hot summers and warm winters.
Rome, which has the most diverse weather due to its long longitude, is beautiful at any time of the year.
Each season is distinguished by its unique features. A long summer, smoothly turning into a short autumn and a moderate spring will find their fans.
Read also:
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Climate: Rome - Climate graph, Temperature graph, Climate table
The city of Rome has moderately warm climate. In winter, there is much more rainfall in Rome than in summer. There is little rainfall throughout the year in Rome. According to Köppen and Geiger, this climate is classified as Csa. The average temperature in Rome is 15.7 °C. About 798 mm of precipitation falls annually.climate graph
The driest month is July, with 17 mm of precipitation. Most of precipitation falls in November, with an average of 114 mm.
temperature graph
July is the warmest month of the year. The temperature in July averages 24.4 °C. The average temperature in January is 7.7 °C. This is the lowest average temperature during the year
climate graph
en.climate-data.org
Rome City Guide (Italy)
Rome is one of the most ancient cities in the world, in the past the center of the great and powerful Roman Empire, and now Rome is the capital of Italy and an incredibly popular tourist city. Guests from all countries of our vast world come here in droves to see the famous "city on seven hills" with their own eyes, visit the Vatican, wander through the ruins of the ancient Forum, where the political and public life ancient Rome, and of course visit the famous Colosseum, one of the most recognizable architectural structures in the world.
Modern Rome opens wide its figurative gates for tourists, providing them with all the best for a pleasant pastime in the city. Visitors to the capital will find excellent hotels, fascinating excursions to countless sights, the best restaurants with traditional Italian cuisine and great shopping opportunities.
According to the official version of historians, Rome was founded in 753 BC. The first ruler of the city was King Romulus. Over time, the Roman state began to expand rapidly, and an extensive network of roads was built around Rome, linking the city with the provinces. Roman paved roads were the best and most quality roads in the world.
During the reign of Emperor Nero, part of Rome was almost completely destroyed by the Great Fire. Shortly after the fire, the city was rebuilt again, but with some changes in the architectural style. While the heyday of the Roman Empire lasted, Rome prospered. However, since 476, after its collapse, hard times have come for the city.
In the 5th century AD Rome, being under the rule of the Byzantine Empire, was repeatedly subjected to siege and often passed under the rule of the Ostrogothic kings. At this time, the popes managed to get huge power in Rome, who, in fact, ruled the city, although they were formally subordinate to the Byzantine Empire. In 1798, Napoleon's army captured Rome and proclaimed the Roman Republic. In 1870, royal troops entered Rome and the city became the capital of the Italian kingdom. From 1943 to 1944, Rome was occupied by fascist troops.
Rome is located on the banks of the Tiber River, near the Tyrrhenian Sea. The area of the city is about 1287 sq. km, the population is 2.8 million people.
How to get to Rome
By plane
Rome's main international airport, Leonardo da Vinci Airport, also known as Fiumicino, is located 30 kilometers southwest of the city center. It serves flights of such companies as Alitalia, Aeroflot, Transaero and others. You can get from da Vinci airport to the center of Rome in about half an hour by the high-speed express train "Leonardo Express" or by a simple train, but a little longer. Also in the Lazio region there is an airport named after Giovanni Battista Pastine, or simply Ciampino Airport. It serves international flights of EasyJet, Wizz Air and Ryanair.
Tickets to Rome
By train
Train Station Termini, located on the Esquiline hill, is the largest railway station in Europe. It has flights to most cities. European countries.
By bus
The main bus station in Rome receives regional and international bus services. It is located in Piazza dei Cinquecento.
Climate of Rome
The climate of Rome is Mediterranean subtropical. It has low rainfall, especially in summer. In winter, snow cover is extremely rare, the average temperature in the coldest month of the year is 3-5 degrees Celsius. Summer in Rome is very hot, in July the air usually warms up to 25-30 degrees Celsius, but there are also days when the thermometer shows up to 40 degrees.
Roman transport
Roman transport is represented by metro, trams, buses and fixed-route taxis. The metro in Rome has two lines: A and B, which intersect at the Termini interchange station. The stations have platforms on both sides of the train, so you need to be careful when transferring. There are not very many tram lines in Rome, and it is most convenient to get to most places in the capital of Italy by bus or minibus. Buses do not always stop at stops, so in order for the bus to pick you up, you need to actively signal the driver with your hand. Universal tickets for travel in public transport are sold in special machines at metro stations, as well as in newsstands. For a tourist who came to see Rome, a good option is to buy a Roma Pass card, which gives the right to travel in public transport.
Excursions and tours in Rome
Culture of Rome
In Rome, there are many interesting museums dedicated to the history of the Roman Empire, as well as various types of art. Of particular interest are the Capitoline Museums. It is a museum complex consisting of the Palazzo Nuovo Museum and the Palazzo dei Conservatori Museum. In these museums you can see a collection of bronze statues, a collection of Italian paintings and a collection of ancient sculpture. It is also worth visiting the Vatican Museums - they contain collections dedicated to various eras, ranging from exhibits from ancient Egypt to contemporary items art, such as paintings by Salvador Dali.
Things to Do in Rome
In their free time from excursions to sights and Roman museums (if there is such a thing, given the number of them), tourists, as a rule, go shopping. The quality of branded Italian goods is beyond praise; shoes from Italian designers are especially popular. The highest concentration of shops and boutiques in Rome is found on Via del Tritone and Via del Corso.
When is the best time to visit Rome?
The best times to visit Rome are from May to June and from September to October. At this time, there is no sweltering summer heat, and it rains relatively rarely. You can also come in the winter months, there are practically no frosts in Rome, and hotels in winter provide rooms with good discounts.
en.advisor.travel
§ 44. Natural conditions of Italy and the emergence of the city of Rome
Topic 9. Ancient Rome in the VIII-IX centuries. BC.
§ 44. Natural conditions of Italy and the emergence of the city of Rome
1. Nature and population of the Apennine Peninsula
Italy is located on the Apennine Peninsula. From north to south it stretch Apennine mountains. The peninsula is washed by five seas: from the south - the Ionian and Mediterranean, from the west - the Tyrrhenian and Ligurian, and from the east - the Adriatic. Nearby are large islands - Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia. The climate of Italy is milder than in Greece. High mountains in Europe - the Alps - protect from cold northern winds. The amount of precipitation in Central and Northern Italy is sufficient. Fewer occur in Southern Italy. Quite large rivers flow through the territory of the country - Po, Arno and Tiber. Unlike Greece, Italy has many territories suitable for agriculture and cattle breeding. The ancient Greeks called this country "Italy" - the country of calves. In the Apennine mountains there are deposits of copper, tin, iron, gold and silver. Rich Italy and building stone and clay.
The oldest population of the Apennine Peninsula is considered to be the tribes of the Ligures, Sikulivs, Sikans, etc. Other tribes came here later. Among the alien peoples, italics are distinguished, who may have given the name to the country. Over time, nine tribes were formed on the basis of local and alien tribes. Among them are Latins, umbers. Sabina and others. All these are agricultural tribes that had developed metallurgy, pottery and other crafts. The island of Sicily was inhabited by settlers from the city of Carthage.
ancient italy
2. Etruscan civilization
In the X century. BC. the Etruscans (Rasenians) appeared in Italy. They arrived in the Apennines by sea and gradually captured the territory from the Tiber to the Alps. The lands inhabited by them were called "Etruria".
The Etruscans developed agriculture, cattle breeding and handicrafts. They skillfully dry swamps, build irrigation canals. On their fields they grow linseed, oats, barley, flax, pomegranate and other crops. The Etruscan artisans were also famous. Weavers skillfully made linen fabrics for clothes, sails, etc. Potters produced beautiful dishes and exquisite sculptures. The real masterpieces were the works of Etruscan jewelers. From the finest silver and gold elements, amber and precious stones, they made jewelry.
The Etruscans were skilled navigators, their ships crossed the expanses of the Mediterranean Sea, reaching the shores of Greece, Carthage, and Phoenicia.
The ancient people founded many cities. All of them had solid stone walls and towers. The Etruscan cities were clearly planned. Stone houses and temples were located on straight paved streets. The Etruscans had their own written language. More than 9,000 inscriptions have been found on the territory of the former Etruria, and today it has not been possible to decipher. One can only guess what the writings about the life of this mysterious people could tell.
It is known that Etruria for a long time fought with the Latins for the preservation of theirlands. And even after their conquest by the Latins in the III century. BC. they tried to free themselves from their power. The last uprising of the Etruscans was suppressed by the Latins in the 1st century. BC.
The Etruscans are considered the founders of the city of Rome, which gave the name to the future powerful empire. Archaeologists have found in Rome the remains of a stone fortress built by the Etruscans in the 8th century. BC.
3. The emergence of the city of Rome
The legend connects the origin of the city with the names of two twin brothers Romulus and Remus. Their grandfather was a king, who was deprived of power by his own brother. And he ordered the twins to be thrown into the Tiber in a basket. And the kids didn't die. They were raised by a she-wolf and raised by a shepherd. When the brothers grew up, they, having learned about their royal origin, regained the throne.
Capitoline Wolf
The brothers did not manage to rule together. Romulus, chosen by the gods, became king. The brothers decided to build a city where their she-wolf fed them. But they quarreled, and Romulus killed Remus. Founded in 753 BC. he gave his name to the city, Rome.
Document
Dionysius of Halicarnassus on the power of the king
“... Romulus gave the king such rights: to lead the priesthood and sacrifices, to keep the laws and customs of his parents, to deal with serious crimes himself, and entrust light ones to the senate; gathered the senate and convened the people and had the highest power during the war ... "
Question to the document
What duties did the king have to society?
4. Ancient Roman society
Members of the ancient Roman community were divided into patricians, plebeians and slaves. Patricians belonging to the Latin clans had the right to own land and take part in the popular assembly. The plebeians belonged to the peoples conquered by the Latins(In particular, the Etruscans) or settlers. They, unlike the patricians, did not have the right to own land and participate in popular assemblies. Marriages between plebeians and patricians were forbidden.
In ancient Roman society, even then there was a rather complex system of governance. From the 8th century BC. the Roman community was headed by the king - Rex, who was elected at the popular assembly. He was also a military leader and priest. The throne, decorated with ivory and 12 guards - lictors. The great pontiff was the keeper of customs and traditions, the compiler of a special calendar, which reflected favorable and unfavorable days for Rome.
Lictors, honorific stands of officials of Rome
Another body of power was the Senate. The Senate - the Council of Elders, which included the heads of clans - patricians. Whose composition included 300 patricians from 300 ancient clans. Since it was believed that it was these 300 clans that founded the Roman state, the senators were called "fathers." Their main duty was to protect the law from the king and the citizens of Rome themselves. The Senate could refuse to make a decision to the people's assembly or the king if it was contrary to custom. The positions of senators were for life. At the head of the Senate was the princeps - the oldest senator in age. The Senate declared war or made peace, discussed bills, was in charge of the treasury. When the tsar died, until the election of a new ruler, the senate determined the "acting" by lot every day. He was given the keys to the treasury, the seal of Rome, symbols royal power.
But all the fullness of power in Rome was concentrated not in the rex or the senate, but in the popular assemblies. They passed laws and carried out legal proceedings. Here they chose the king, rejoiced the condemnation to death. Each curia belonged to 38 genera. The meeting took place in the center of the city. More than half of the votes were needed to make a decision.
Concepts and terms
Proletarians - The poorest citizens of Rome, whose wealth were only their descendants.
Ace - Ancient Roman copper coin.
ancient roman coin
5. Reforms of Servius Tulia
From 753 to 509 BC Rome has six kings. The penultimate of them, Servius Tullius (578-534 pp. BC), carried out reforms aimed at improving the administration of the state. Creformia, the Roman state was divided into 30 curia according to tribal affiliation. This was not always convenient for management, since the genera could be located territorially far from each other. Servius Tullius defined four territorial districts (tribes). An assembly of hundreds (centuries - military-territorial sergeants) was added to the national assembly. Now the Romans voted in centurial comitia - an assembly of soldiers. had one vote in the popular assembly.Servius Tullius divided all Roman citizens into classes.Depending on property and income, cavalry, proletarians, and five more classes were allocated.The duty of each class was to provide a certain number of centuries for the army, i.e. hundreds of soldiers.More were provided by riders - 80 centuries, I class - 18, II class - 22, III class - 20, IV class - 22, V class - 30, proletarians - 1 centuria Soon after the completion of the reforms, Servius Tullius was killed by Tarquinius. Tarquinius tried to deprive the Romans of the right to participate in government. With him, the role of the people's assembly fell. wounds, he sought sole power. In 509 BC, when the rebellious people expelled Tarquinius the Proud, the royal era in the history of Rome ended.
Interesting to know
The classes of Roman society according to the reforms of Servius Tullius
Riders:
1st class - 100,000 aces
2nd class - 75,000 asses
C class - 50,000 asses
4th grade - 25,000 asses
5th grade - 11,000 asses
Questions and tasks
1. Describe geographical position Italy.
2. Why Etruscan civilization is considered highly developed?
3. What rights did the king, the senate, the people's assembly have?
4. What were the reforms of Servius Tullius?
5. What was the difference in social status between plebeians and patricians?
ukrmap.su
Climate. Greece and Rome, an encyclopedia of military history
Before embarking on the study of Hannibal's route through southern Gaul and through the Alps, the climate of the time should be considered. It is now taken for granted that Hannibal went through a very high pass, those who claim that the climate then was practically the same as it is now. But is this assertion supported by anything? In 1966, selected works of the eminent meteorologist X. X. Lamb, entitled "The Changing Climate", were published. The description given there of climatic conditions in Hannibal's time is very different from the present, and is of particular value due to the fact that the scientist was not at all interested in Hannibal's crossing of the Alps. Here is what, in brief, according to Lamb, prehistoric and ancient Europe looked like. Dry and warm period between 4000 and 2000 BC, which came after the departure of the last ice ice age, is known as the post-glacial climate optimum. At that time, the temperature in the world was 2-3 degrees Celsius higher than the current one. However, in the following millennium, the climate worsened. Between 900 and 500 BC. temperatures quickly dropped to about 3 degrees Celsius below today's mark. The drop in temperature was followed by heavy rains. Rainfall then reached unprecedented levels, and the arid lands of the southern Mediterranean flourished. But what was a blessing for Greece, Italy and Spain turned out to be a curse for the rest of Europe. By about 400 B.C. rainfall peaked. All the lowlands first turned into swamps, and then simply flooded. The paths known since prehistoric times turned out to be closed, and water became the main mode of transport. Due to the drop in temperature, not only did the level of evaporation in the lowlands drop significantly, but the level of re-glaciation of the highlands also increased significantly. This means that along with the growth of swamps in the valleys, the size of glaciers also increased. Incredible rains have led to the overflow of lakes in Switzerland - the water level in Lake Baden has risen by ten meters, an amount almost impossible, given that the Rhine flows from this lake. The lake dwellers had to leave their trees
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history.wikireading.ru
Each of the illustrations below refers to one of the topics listed in the list. Establish a correspondence between themes and illustrations: select one illustration for each topic.
Write down the numbers in response, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:
| A | B | IN | G |
Explanation.
A) Phenicia - dishes (illustration 3).
B) Ancient Rome - the assassination of Caesar (illustration 1).
C) Assyrian state - a winged bull (illustration 2).
G) Ancient Egypt- extraction of the heart in the afterlife of Anubis (illustration 4).
Thus, A - 3, B - 1, C - 2, D - 4.
Answer: A - 3, B - 1, C - 2, D - 4.
Answer: 3&1&2&4
Read the passage from the legend and determine which of the given topics it refers to. In your answer, write the letter that represents this topic.
From that part of the original matter that was still floating between heaven and earth, Ment, the creative spirit, and Ptah, the primeval fire, little by little formed two large world bodies - the sun, the god Ra, and the moon, the god Eag.
When the sun and moon came into existence, there could also be talk of a division of time; for with the god and through the god Ra, two goddesses occurred simultaneously: Sate, the day, the bright half of the world, and Gattar, the night, the dark half of the world.
Explanation.
God Ra - Egypt.
Answer: G.
Answer: G
Choose one topic from the list, and then complete tasks 3-6, only on the topic you have chosen.
Read the list of words and write a word related to your chosen topic.
Plebeians, Poseidon, Nineveh, building cedar, Tao, Thoth.
Explain the meaning of this word.
Explanation.
1. Correspondence of topics and words: for topic A - building cedar, B - plebeians, C - Nineveh, D - Thoth.
2. Explanation of the meaning of words:
building cedar- valuable wood supplied by the Phoenicians to neighboring countries;
plebeians- originally inferior (ignorant) inhabitants of Ancient Rome (early Roman Republic);
Nineveh- the capital of the Assyrian state;
That- the god of wisdom in ancient Egypt.
Choose one topic from the list, and then complete tasks 3-6, only on the topic you have chosen.
Read the list of events (phenomena, processes) and write an event (phenomenon, process) that relates to the topic you have chosen.
The floods of the Nile, the invention of porcelain, piracy, the strengthening of the army by King Tiglath-Pileser III, the rise of Gaius Julius Caesar, the activities of the "father of history" Herodotus.
Using knowledge of history, tell about this event (phenomenon, process). Your story must contain at least two historical facts.
Explanation.
The correct answer must contain the following elements:
1) compliance with topics and events (processes, phenomena): for topic A - piracy; B - the rise of Gaius Julius Caesar; B - strengthening of the army by King Tiglath-Pileser III; D - floods of the Nile;
2) a story about the specified event (process, phenomenon)
Choose one topic from the list, and then complete tasks 3-6, only on the topic you have chosen.
Shade on contour map one quadrilateral formed by a degree grid (parallels and meridians), in which the country indicated in the topic of your choice was located in whole or in part.
Explanation.
A) Phoenicia - red.
B) Ancient Rome - black.
C) Assyrian state - green.
D) Ancient Egypt - blue.
Explanation.
The influence of the geographic environment on the occupations and life of people in ancient class societies
| TYPES OF GEOGRAPHICAL ENVIRONMENT | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ancient oriental (valleys of large rivers) | ancient greek | Old Italic | |
| Agriculture | Agriculture (grain farming, vegetable growing, viticulture) has become the main occupation under the influence of favorable factors: 1) hot climate; 2) soft and fertile soils; 3) full-flowing rivers (spills that restore soil fertility; opportunities for irrigation). Factors unfavorable for agriculture: 1) lack of rain during the ripening of cereals; 2) oversaturation of some areas with moisture and insufficient saturation of others as a result of a spill. | The hot climate favored viticulture and olive growing. Factors unfavorable for grain farming: 1) infertile soils; 2) lack of land, 3) drought during the period of grain ripening; 4) lack of rivers suitable for irrigation. | The hot climate, the abundance (compared with Greece) of land suitable for cultivation, evenly falling rainfall favored the cultivation of cereals, grapes, olives, vegetables and fruits. |
| For the development of agriculture big influence had the appearance of iron tools | |||
| Cattle breeding | The development of cattle breeding was favored by the abundance of wild plants that were fed to animals. | ||
| Food (including wild) was in abundance. This contributed to the breeding of various animals: bulls, donkeys, buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs, etc. | There was not enough feed for cattle. Small cattle grazed on the slopes of the mountains, eating bushes and stunted trees. | Feed was in abundance (cattle grazed on pasture all year round). | |
| crafts | The presence of minerals (clay, stone, ores) contributed to the development of pottery, construction, metal processing | ||
| Exchange | Navigable rivers contributed to the development of exchange between different regions of the country. In the Southern Mesopotamia, natural conditions contributed to the creation of an economy in which some products (grain, dates, woolen fabrics) were produced in excess and were partially intended for exchange for others exported from foreign countries (metals, timber, stone). | The mountainous terrain hindered inter-regional exchange by land. Maritime position, bays and islands favored the development of exchange between different regions and with other countries. Natural conditions contributed to the creation of an economy in which wine, oil and handicrafts were produced for exchange for grain, slaves, etc. | Maritime position favored the development of trade. However, a small number of islands off the coast of Italy made navigation difficult. For the Romans, the provision of fertile lands and raw materials did not cause an urgent need for exchange with neighboring peoples. Therefore, the Romans were not originally navigators (until the 3rd century BC) |
| Life | Clothing, compared with the northern countries, was lighter, leaving a significant part of the body exposed. The windows in the dwellings were small (sometimes absent), which created coolness and darkness inside the house. People spent a lot of time in the courtyard, in the garden near the house, on its roof. Get up early, in hot weather the hours of the day rested |
||
General characteristics of ancient Italy. If the Mediterranean is rightfully considered one of the most fertile places in the world, then Italy can be called the pearl of the Mediterranean. The story about this country in all ancient and many modern writers resembles an enthusiastic panegyric. Addressing her, Virgil, the most brilliant of the Roman poets, wrote:
“Hello, Saturn earth, great mother of crops!
mother and husbands.
The magnificent geographical position, the wealth of natural resources necessary for agriculture, the wonderful climate - all this made Italy the most prosperous and populous country in the Mediterranean in ancient times, and even today it surpasses all other countries of the Mediterranean in population, including those of them. , which is much larger than its territory.
While in Balkan Greece only a fifth of the whole country could be used for agriculture, which is quite typical for the Mediterranean, in Italy more than half. It is not surprising, therefore, that many ancient writers called Italy a country of abundance, likened it to "a continuous orchard." And in our time, Italy is called the main garden of Europe. In terms of olive harvest, it ranks second in the world (after Spain), and in terms of grape harvest and wine production, it shares first and second places with France.
Italy consists of two parts: the mainland, located in the valley of the Po River (ancient Pad) at the foot of the Alps, the highest in Europe, and the Apennine Peninsula, narrow and long, resembling a boot. To the south of it stretches the vast island of Sicily, separated from Italy by the narrow Strait of Messina. In fact, it is a continuation and part of the Apennine Peninsula.
Geographic location of Italy. If you look at the map, it immediately catches your eye that the Apennine Peninsula with Sicily occupy a central position in the Mediterranean, separating its western part from the eastern one, so it is equally easy to get to any area of this region from Italy. Over time, this strategically advantageous position of the country provided the Romans with the best conditions for their conquests in the Mediterranean and for control of the captured areas.
The Alps, protecting Italy from the cold northern winds, were not an insurmountable obstacle either to the movements of peoples and armies, or to trade. Through the mountain passes in the northwest and northeast, Italy was connected by a whole network of trade routes with vast areas located in the Rhine and Danube basins.
At the same time, through Sicily, which was only 160 kilometers from the African coast, Italy was closely connected with Africa. The Apennine Peninsula, stretching for a thousand kilometers from northwest to southeast, is only 70 kilometers away from the western coast of the Balkan Peninsula. Since the ancient sailors preferred not to lose sight of the land, the most convenient routes for merchant and warships sailing from Europe to Africa or from Greece to Spain passed along Italy and Sicily.
Thus, the geographical position of Italy was very advantageous, since it was at the crossroads of the most important trade and strategic routes, representing, as it were, a colossal bridge connecting Europe with Africa, the Western Mediterranean with the Eastern.
However, these advantages could only be used by the inhabitants of Italy over time. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. the country, located far from the centers of ancient civilizations of the East, was a remote corner of the Mediterranean. And later it tended towards isolation and conservatism, since it was abundantly provided with natural resources, but due to the lack of convenient harbors and a developed system of islands, it has little connection with the sea. Italy has long remained a relatively backward peasant country, located on the periphery of the prosperous progressive Greek and Hellenistic world.
The main regions of ancient Italy. Italy was located not only at the junction of the most important sea and land routes, but also at the junction of two different worlds: the world of Western Europe and the world of the Mediterranean. In terms of natural and climatic conditions and the appearance of its inhabitants, the Po Valley looked more like Western Europe than the South, and the Apennine Peninsula was part of the Mediterranean world. Italy, thus, was, as it were, a miniature copy of the entire Roman state.
Po is a large, full-flowing navigable river, the largest in Italy, along with numerous tributaries, flows along the most extensive fertile plain in the Mediterranean, which in ancient times was covered with dense oak forests. Large herds of cattle and horses grazed on vast pastures and flood meadows, and herds of pigs feeding on acorns grazed on the forest edges.
By the beginning of our era, when fields, gardens and vineyards appeared on the site of many forests, this area became the breadbasket of all Italy, supplying it with wheat and meat, and remains so to this day.
The climate in Northern Italy is not Mediterranean, but temperate, as in the countries of Western Europe, although in a milder version: the winter is not as cold as behind the Alps, and the summer is not very hot due to the proximity of the Mediterranean Sea.
The Gauls who inhabited the Po Valley from the end of the 5th century BC. BC, in appearance and way of life they were very different from the inhabitants of the Apennine Peninsula and, until the Roman conquest, were more closely connected with their brethren beyond the Alps than with their neighbors in Central and Southern Italy. The difference in appearance and life of the inhabitants of the north and south of the country persists to this day. By the name of the people who inhabited it, Northern Italy was called the Romans. Gaul of Cisalpine, that is, "Gaul on this side of the Alps." And the country, located on the other side of the Alps, on the site of modern France, was called Gaul Transalpine
Along the entire Apennine Peninsula, closer to its eastern coast, low Apennine mountains stretch. Together with the spurs extending from the main ridge, the Apennines occupy most of the peninsula. They are not as steep and rocky as the mountains of the Balkan Peninsula, and have never been an obstacle to merchants and shepherds, and in the mountain valleys and hilly foothills, farmers harvested rich crops.
The eastern dry coast stretches in a narrow strip between the Apennines and the sea. There is almost no bay convenient for sailors on it, besides, there are a lot of sandbanks near the coast, which are very dangerous for sailors. Small non-navigable rivers flowing into the sea south of the Po often dried up completely in summer and could be used instead of roads. This poor, backward, poorly connected area with the outside world was the backyard of Italy.
Balkan Greece faces east while Italy faces west. The most fertile, densely populated areas of the Apennine Peninsula are located on its western coast. As elsewhere in the Mediterranean, they suffer less from drought than areas located on the east coast, since clouds carrying rain moisture usually come from the west from the Atlantic Ocean and, having stumbled upon mountain ranges, are poured with rain.
On the west coast there are several bays convenient for ships, and the sea here is quieter and more welcoming. Several large rivers flow into it, which in ancient times were full-flowing and navigable. The largest of them is the Tiber, which flows in the central part of the Apennine Peninsula.
The most fertile regions of Italy were the three vast hilly plains of the West Coast with very fertile volcanic soil: north and west of the Tiber lay Etruria(modern Tuscany), to the south - Latium, and further south, in the Gulf of Naples, Campaign.
Etruria was famous for its abundance of fertile land and water: because of the numerous rivers, streams and marshes, its inhabitants had to worry not so much about irrigation as about draining the soil. It was also considered a pantry of metals for the whole country: the best iron in Italy was mined there, as well as copper and such a rare metal as tin.
The campaign was called the Happy Campaign (lit. the happy country of the fields). It was the most fertile place in the entire Mediterranean. An amazing combination of the most fertile soil and a wonderful mild climate made it possible to harvest from its fields not one or two, as in other places, but three or four of the richest crops during the year. The best varieties of wheat, grapes and olives in Italy grew in Campania, the richest and most flourishing cities of the country, such as the famous luxury of Capua, were located on its territory.
On the coast of Campania there were many bays and bays convenient for sailors, away from the coast there were a lot of warm thermal springs that are good for health. It is not surprising that for a long time Campania was a bone of contention for many local and alien tribes and peoples who wanted to establish themselves on its fertile land, and when it came under the rule of the Romans, it turned into an area where fashionable resorts and villas of the most influential and powerful aristocrats were located and even emperors.
Fertile Latium, located in the very center of the Apennine Peninsula, did not have any deposits of metals, like Etruria, or such a fertile climate as Campania, but it was located at the intersection of the most important land, river and sea routes connecting the northern and southern, coastal and inland regions of the country . Latius occupied the same position in relation to Italy, as that - in relation to the entire Mediterranean. In Lazia itself, the most advantageous location was at Rome, which quickly turned into one of the largest cities in Italy.
The southern coast of Italy was called Great Greece, since on the fertile coastal plains there were Greek policies founded during the Great Greek colonization. The largest and most powerful of them was Tarentum, famous for its craft and trade, the large number and prosperity of its citizens.
The population of Italy in antiquity Italy, with a population of 7-8 million people, was the most populous country in the Mediterranean, home to many different tribes and peoples.
By the beginning of the 1st millennium, most of the Apennine Peninsula was occupied italics, who moved there, as they assume, from their ancestral home in the Danube region. They were divided into many tribes who spoke languages close to each other. These included the Latins, who settled in hilly Latium, the Sabines, who lived to the north of them in the rocky foothills of the Apennines, and the Osci, who established themselves in Campania.
In the mountains of the central part of the Apennines, opposite Latium and Campania, there lived tribes of pastoralists and farmers who united in unions. The strongest of them was Samnite, therefore this whole area was called Samnium.In the mountains of southern Italy opposite Magna Graecia lived Lucans and Bruttii.
These kindred tribes belonged to different worlds: by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. sedentary farmers, Latins and Oscans, already had cities - states, writing and laws, and the mountaineers, Samnites, Lucans and Bruttii lived in the old fashioned way with a harsh tribal life. The warlike highlanders had neither cities nor a state. They spent most of their time with herds, always moving from place to place. They often replenished their meager incomes by robbery, attacking wealthy neighbors who lived on the fertile plains.
The most advanced and cultured people of Italy were Greeks, who lived in Magna Graecia and Campania. Their city-states by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. reached the highest flourishing and prosperity and even eclipsed their own metropolises with wealth, beauty and luxury. Greek legislators, philosophers and orators from Italy were the adornment and glory of the entire Hellenic world.
The mysterious Etruscans settled around the 8th century. BC. on the vast plain of Etruria. It is still unknown where they came from. Many modern scholars associate their origin with Asia Minor. Since the writing of the Etruscans has not yet been deciphered, it remains unclear to which language family belongs to the Etruscan language.
12 wealthy Etruscan city-states constituted a single religious union. Etruscan aristocrats, lukumons, owned large estates in which dependent, in fact, serfs worked. Etruria was famous throughout Italy for its artisans (especially metal craftsmen), painters and sculptors, prophetic priests, merchants and pirates.
The Etruscans sought to subjugate and colonize the richest regions of Italy. By the 5th century BC. they founded many colonies in the Po valley and in Campania, established control over many city-states of Latium. In alliance with the powerful Carthage, they waged a successful struggle against the Greeks, who also sought to expand their possessions in Italy and on the nearby islands - Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica.
But from the 5th c. BC. the successes of the Etruscans are replaced by failures. They lose influence on Latium and Campania, and at the beginning of the next century they are forced to leave Northern Italy, which was captured by the tribes Celts (Gauls).
The Gauls, who for a long time maintained a harsh tribal life and a passion for wars and robberies, in the 4th century. BC. begin to make devastating raids on Etruria and other regions of Italy. At the same time, the Samnites, Lucans and Bruttii sharply intensified, plundering and ruining Campania and Great Greece. Peace ancient civilization was under threat.
However, by the middle of the III century. BC. this threat disappeared due to the conquest of the entire Apennine peninsula by Rome. At the beginning of the II century. BC. The Romans finally conquered Cisalpine Gaul. Civilization has conquered barbarism.
Gradually, peace, tranquility and prosperity are established throughout this vast country. But the price of this was the disappearance of many peoples, languages and cultures by the beginning of our era. All the inhabitants of Italy become Romans, speak Latin and differ little from each other.
The only exception to general rule there were Greeks living in Campania and Southern Italy. All of them are in the 1st century. BC. became Roman citizens, but retained their native language, customs and traditions in their cities. Until the 18th century spoken language in some areas of southern Italy, Greek remained.
Periodization of the history of Ancient Rome. Brief description of each period.
periodization
1. Royal Rome. VIII-end of VI centuries BC.
04/21/753 BC- Founding of Rome.
509 BC- the exile of the last king Takrvinius the Proud.
2. era of the Roman Republic. 5th-1st centuries BC. (until 30 BC - the end of Greek Hellenism).
· Early RR (V-III centuries BC - the foundation of the community).
Late RR (II-I centuries BC - Rome conquers the Mediterranean).
3. The era of the Roman Empire.
· Early RI. Principate period. (until 192 AD - the death of Commodus).
3rd century crisis
Late RI. The period of dominance (IV century - 476 AD - the death of the ZRI).
The concept of "Ancient Rome" is a state, society and civilization, the history of which is from 753 BC to 476 AD. Main periods:
1) Royal Rome (VII - VI centuries BC; April 21, 753 BC - the foundation of Rome): the decomposition of tribal structures, the emergence of an early class society, the beginning of the formation of state institutions;
2) The period of the Early Republic (V - III centuries BC; 509 BC - the expulsion of the 7th king Torquinius the Proud): intensive development of the slave-owning society and the state, the conquest of Italy by Rome;
3) The period of the Late Republic (II - I centuries BC): the time of classical slavery and the formation of the Roman Mediterranean power;
4) Early empire, or principate (I - II centuries AD): the heyday of the ancient civilization of the Mediterranean, the rise of the economy and culture $
5) Crisis III in AD: struck all the structures of the Roman Society and led to the collapse of the empire;
6) Late empire, or dominance (IV - V centuries AD): the period of expansion of the slave-owning society, the emergence and development of proto-feudal type relations in its depths.
Natural conditions and their influence on the development of ancient Roman civilization.
The Apennine Peninsula deeply protrudes into the Mediterranean Sea in its center part; from the north, a wide river valley adjoins it. Po, enclosed from the mainland by the arc of the Alps; the Apennines mountain range stretches along the entire peninsula (in the north and south, the mountains approach the western coast of Italy, and in its middle part - to the east coast); The Apennine Peninsula is washed by the Adriatic, Ionian, Tyrrhenian and Ligurian seas, which are parts of the Mediterranean Sea.
The conditions for the development of navigation are worse than in Greece: there are few islands near Italy, the largest of them is Sicily - the bridge between Italy and North Africa, but two other large islands - Corsica and Sardinia - lie quite far to the west.
The coastline of the Ap-th Peninsula is slightly indented: there are few convenient bays (especially on the east coast)
There are more fertile lands in Dr. Italy than in Greece: in the valley of the river. Po, in Etruria, Campania, Sicily; in ancient Latium, many lands were swampy, but with the creation of a drainage system in the form of sewage channels, this area also became quite suitable for agriculture; the soils were less fertile in the center and in the south of the eastern part of the peninsula; Italy abounds in rivers (most of them are now shallow in the summer, but in ancient times they were fuller due to the abundance of forests, later cut down). There were few minerals in Dr. Italy: they mined marble and other types of building stone, as well as clay suitable for pottery production; at the mouth of the Tiber there were deposits of table salt; but there are almost no ore deposits; only in Etruria copper was smelted and on the island of Ylva (Elba) - iron.
Favorable for the life of primitive people, the natural conditions of Italy, which has been inhabited since the Paleolithic era, for a long time contributed to a certain isolation of its historical development, while, for example, the need for bread for the Greeks, associated with relative overpopulation, drove even more from the 8th century BC. The impossibility before the advent of steel or at least bronze tools of the widespread development of agriculture in Italy with its dense forests and predominantly heavy soils excluded the creation of a more or less highly productive economy and class society at its base.
Tin appeared here only from the end of the 2nd millennium BC, it may have been imported from Spain and Britain. Accordingly, only from that time did the production of bronze begin in Italy. The production of iron, especially steel, spread even later. The great remoteness of Italy from the advanced civilized countries of the East, compared with Greece, also slowed down the pace of its historical development in ancient times.
Rome of the royal era.
Royal Rome (753-510 BC)
Ancient Rome - one of the cities of Latium (the area of settlement of the Lat tribes south of Erturia), arose as a result of synoikism (the merger of small tribal settlements).
In VIII BC, 30 cities - the Latin Federation, headed by Alba Longa (the founder of Alba Longa - Ascanius-Yul, son of the Trojan hero Aeneas). The grandsons of the 14th king of Alba Longa, Numitor, Remus and Romulus founded the city of Rome on the Palatine Hill on the banks of the Tiber. In a quarrel, Romulus killed his brother and became the first of the 7 Roman kings. Under him: Roman-Sabine synoykism, the population of Rome - 30 curia each, the expansion of Roman possessions at the expense of neighbors (Latins and Sabines), victory over Veii, the creation of a personal royal guard of 300 celers.
The second Roman king - Numa Pompilius (715-673 BC): disbanded a squad of celers, deified Romulus under the name of Quirinus, established cults of the gods, created craft and priestly colleges, established bargaining days (nundins).
Numa's successor - Tullus Gostilius (673-641 BC): destroyed Alba Longa, resettled its inhabitants in Rome.
The fourth king - Ankh Marcius (641-616 BC): fought with the Latins, Sabines and Volsci, built a 1 tree bridge over the Tiber, expanded the territory of Rome, founded the first Roman colony of Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber, took possession of the salt pans.
The next king, a native of Etruria, Lucius Tarquinius the Ancient (616-578 BC): covered with stone and began to build up the Forum, erected the Great Circus m / d with Palatine and Aventine hills, prepared a site for the construction of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol (built by his grandson Tarquinius the Proud ), erected city fortifications and conolization; under him, Rome began to dominate Latium.
Servius Tullius (578-534 BC): fought with Veii and other Etruscan cities, surrounded Rome with a wall, carried out a series of state reforms.
The last - Lucius Tarquinius the Proud (534-510 BC): a tyrant, numerous wars of conquest, was expelled from Rome with offspring => the establishment of a republic in Rome.
The population of ancient Rome: cattle breeding (main), agriculture (less important) and craft; divided into 3 tribal tribes (Titsiev, Ramnov and Lutserov), 30 curia and 300 genera. Members of the clan had a collection of land properties, had a family cemetery and their own cult. At the head of the tribal community is the Senate. Issues discussed by 300 senators - at the national assembly, convened by the curiae (=> curiat comitia).
King: fullness of the military, will execute and judicial power + high priest; had 12 lictors (bodyguards).
The members of the tribal organization are the Roman people of the Quirites. The Roman civil community (originally replenished by settlers who were distributed among the curiae) closed in under Ancus Marcius, because. the reserves of the community have dried up land fund=> fixing 2 classes-estates: privileged patricians (access to the communal land fund, the right to participate in curate comitia; patrician clans were headed by tribal elders and were divided into the patriarch of the family ao hl with householders) and plebeians (having retained their clans, they stood outside the Roman tribal org -tion; impoverished plebeians became clients of the patricians (they joined the family of their patron, obeyed him in everything; patron - protection and patronage)).
Servius Tullius: military and qualification reforms => all men of us - into 6 property classes (the poor are proletarians; each class put up a certain number of centuries (hundreds) in the army). Also, Servius Tullius introduced centuriate comitia (property and age qualification; one centuria - one vote; plebeians participated); admin-ter ref (=> Rome - 21 district (trib)); army - from 4 legions under the commands of the king. As a result, the beginning was laid for the gradual inclusion of the plebeians into the Roman civil collective.
By the end of the tsarist period - the formation of a Roman polis - civitas (civil community with an ancient form of property). In 510 BC - a conspiracy of the aristocracy and the expulsion of the king's ambassador from Rome => 2 annually re-elected magistrates - consuls (first consuls: Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus).
The climate of ancient Rome varied throughout the existence of this civilization. In the first half of the 1st millennium BC Italy's climate was wetter and cooler than it is now, and the currently arid south has seen more rainfall. The northern regions were located in the temperate zone, while the rest of Italy was in the subtropics, having a warm and mild climate. During the annual mountain snow melt, even small rivers will overflow, swamping the area (Tuscany and the Pontic Marshes were considered impassable in antiquity). The existence of Roman civilization (including the Eastern Roman Empire) spanned three climatological periods: Early Sub-Atlantic (900 BC-175 AD), Mid-Sub-Atlantic (175-750) and Late Sub-Atlantic (from 750) .
Written, archaeological and natural-scientific evidence evidence alone but consistently shows that during the period of the Roman Empire's maximum expansion and final crisis, the climate underwent a change. The greatest extent of the Empire under Trajan coincided with the Roman climatic optimum. Climate change occurred at varying rates, from seemingly near stasis during the early Empire to sharp fluctuations during the late Empire. However, there are some inconsistencies in the concept of a usually period in the wetter eastern Mediterranean in c. 1 AD-600 AD due to conflicting publications.
stable climate
In the winter of 69/70 AD was arid, as Tacitus is known, when he wrote his histories about 100 AD; at exactly the same time, the dry season persisted in Northern and South America. Dry conditions returned during the reign of Hadrian. In Timgad - on the visit of Hadrian to this city in 133 rain fell for the first time in five years. Some parts of the empire, however, saw better rainfall. A meteorological diary, compiled by Ptolemy in Alexandria in about 120, mentions rain in every month except August and thunder throughout the summer. This helps to explain the agricultural prosperity of Roman Africa (Rome's breadbasket) as well as the prosperity of southern Spain during the Roman era. According to Rhoads Murphey, the total annual supply of grain from North Africa to Rome, "estimated as enough to feed about 350,000 people, by no means should it be produced for export under modern conditions." Columella's weather calendar suggests that summer rainfall in southern Italy, especially in Rome and Campania, occurred more frequently than now. unusual high level rainfall was in Roman Spain during the so-called Iberian-Roman Wet Period.
Roman Spain went through three main phases: the wettest interval in 550-190 BC, the dry interval in 190 BC-150 AD. and still wet period in 150-350. In 134 BC. Scipio Aemilian's army in Spain had to march at night due to extreme heat when some of his horses and mules died of thirst (even if earlier, in 181 BC, heavy spring rains prevented the Celtiberians from lifting the Roman siege of Contrebia). Through the 2nd century AD warm temperatures prevail especially in the Austrian Alps, punctuated further by cool spells from c. 155 to 180. After about 200 temperatures fluctuated, the trend towards steep.
Environmental issues and climate change
According to Sheldon Judson, in the 2nd century B.C. the rate of soil erosion in Latium increased tenfold, due to the increase in the number of settlements in southern Etruria. Also, from the founding of Rome BC, perhaps 165, the Romans cut down vast areas for arable land. In 61 AD, Seneca the Younger described the high levels of air pollution in Rome, which was associated with burning extensive woods for fuel.
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