Religious wars of France in the 16th century. Religious (Huguenot) wars

Calvinist 16th century. represented a practically established type of new person who could become an ideal for new churches: confident in the correctness of his teaching, hostile to secular life, focused on prayer and spiritual activity. Calvinism created an extensive literature, which includes theological polemics, satire, political pamphlets, and treatises. Geneva remains the center of Calvinism, but the doctrine itself is widely spread throughout Europe, although its fate in different countries and ambiguous. While Lutheranism was conquering Scandinavia, Calvinism found its followers in the Rhine Valley of Germany, in France, the Netherlands, Scotland, Northern Ireland, Hungary, Moravia, and even for a time in Poland. It "became a buffer between the Lutheran north and the Catholic south."

French Calvinism in its ideas and organization was closest to Swiss Calvinism. The interest of French humanists in the history of early Christianity and Lutheran influence became factors that stimulated the emergence of their Protestant sentiments. John Calvin became exactly the man who was missing at the first stage of the French Reformation. Calvin's ideas began to spread widely in France under King Henry II. Unlike Francis I, who often used Protestants in his struggle with Emperor Charles V, this king directly set himself the task of eradicating this heresy. He issued a number of strict decrees against the French Protestants (Huguenots) and established special chambers in parliament for the trial of heretics (chambres ardentes). The result, however, was just the opposite. It was under Henry II that Calvinism in France reached its greatest spread. The persecution itself inspired Calvin to write his first essay, Institutes of the Christian Faith, in 1536.

Religious wars in France

This work was a traditional apologetics, in which the author tried to defend French Christians, prove their loyalty to the state and called for an end to persecution. The Waldensians in Southern France were the first to accept Calvinism. By the end of the 50s, there were up to 2 thousand Calvinist communities in the country (according to some sources, up to 400 thousand French were Protestants), and in 1559. The first church synod met in Paris and adopted the Gallican Confession of Faith, the first draft of which was prepared by Calvin. It outlined a detailed plan for the creation of a church organization that was supposed to cover the whole of France. Neighboring communities united into colloquies, and colloquies into provinces. Each group had its own meetings, its own consistories, its own elected pastors and elders. Provincial and general assemblies of community representatives functioned. J. Calvin strongly supported the French Protestants and “was as much the leader of the French Protestants as the Protestants of Geneva.” More than 150 pastors trained in Geneva were sent to France in 1555–1556.

Calvinism had its greatest success in the south and southwest of France and in Navarre, neighboring France. The King of Navarre, Antoine Bourbon, became one of the leaders of the Huguenot party. The nobility especially readily accepted Calvinism, among whom purely religious aspirations were intertwined with political goals and social ideals. Calvinist ideas seemed to be a convenient means for returning to the feudal nobility the political rights and privileges they had lost over the previous century. Weakening royalty under the sons of Henry II, the political claims of the feudal aristocracy were favored and the struggle for religious freedom merged with the struggle for power.

So, with the transition of the Huguenots to political goals, the principles of the Calvinist organization were used in party building. This work was especially active after the Night of St. Bartholomew (1572). In the south and west of France, the Huguenots found support in the separatist aspirations of part of the nobility and townspeople and created a federation of regions with representative institutions. A number of talented publicists and historians (François Hautman, Agrippa d’Aubigné, etc.) develop republican and constitutional theories using Calvinist ideas and prove the originality of representative institutions in France. The Huguenots perceived their king Henry of Navarre as a constitutional sovereign.

Chapter 2. Confrontation between Catholics and Huguenots in France in the 16th century

2.1 Main stages of religious wars

Throughout the second half of the 16th century. France was shaken by turmoil, which are usually called religious (or Huguenot) wars, although contemporaries preferred a different, more correct name - civil wars.

The feudal nobility split into two large groups. The powerful house of the Dukes of Guise, which had vast estates in Lorraine, Burgundy, Champagne and Lyon, became the head of the Catholic nobility. The Calvinist noble party, called the Huguenot in France (probably this name comes from the German word Eidgenossen, meaning “united by union*; this was the name of the Swiss, in whom Calvinism took its most complete form), was led by princes from the house of Bourbon (King Antoine of Navarre, then his son Henry - later the French king Henry IV, princes of Condé), as well as representatives of the noble family of Chatillon (Admiral Coligny, etc.).

Diverging on ecclesiastical issues, these two camps of aristocratic opposition, partially supported by the nobility, differed little from each other in resolving basic political issues. Both put forward demands such as the revival of the General and Provincial States as a body limiting royal power, the cessation of the sale of government positions and the provision of these positions to persons of “noble* origin, the expansion of local noble liberties at the expense of the central government.

At this time, in the thinned camp of defenders of absolutism, the most stable force was the “people of the robe” and partly the “nobility of the sword” of Northern France, to which, for the time being, a significant part of the northern bourgeoisie was attached. From the "people of the robe" and the bourgeoisie at the beginning civil wars A Catholic party of so-called politicians emerged, which was also supported by some sections of the ordinary nobility. Despite the rather significant differences between the noble and bourgeois elements of this party, all “politicians” generally put the interests of the French state above the interests of religion (hence the name of the party); they defended the political achievements of France associated with the development of the absolute monarchy: the political unity of the country, the centralization of power and the liberties of the Gallican Church, formalized by the Blon Concordat of 1516 and providing France with significant independence from the papal throne.

The “politicians” and that part of the “nobility of the sword”, which was a supporter of royal power, were joined by one or another (mostly Catholic) nobles who found it beneficial for themselves this moment maintain strong royal power. However, these aristocratic elements showed political instability and often went over to the opposition camp.

The First War of Religion (1562–1563). March 1, 1562 François Guise attacked the Huguenots worshiping in the town of Vassy (Champagne). The triumvirs captured Charles IX and Catherine de' Medici at Fontainebleau and forced them to repeal the Edict of January. In response, Conde and F. d'Andelot occupied Orleans, making it their stronghold; they entered into an alliance with the English Queen Elizabeth I and the German Protestant princes. The triumvirs took Rouen, preventing the unification of the forces of the British and Huguenots in Normandy; Antoine of Navarre died during its siege. Having received reinforcements from Germany, Conde approached Paris, but then moved to Normandy on December 19, 1562, at Dreux he was defeated by the troops of the triumvirs and captured; in turn, the Catholics lost Marshal Saint-André and Constable Montmorency (the first was killed, the second was captured). captivity). Admiral Coligny, who led the Huguenots, took refuge in Orleans. He besieged the city, but soon died under its walls at the hands of an assassin. The death of Guise opened the way to negotiations. In March 1563, the leaders of the Huguenots and Catholics, through the mediation of Catherine de Medici, concluded the Peace of Amboise. in its main points confirming the January Edict.

Second War of Religion (1567–1568). The aggravation of relations between the Huguenots and the royal power led to the gradual retreat of Catherine de Medici from the policy of religious tolerance. Taking advantage of the campaign of the Spanish army of the Duke of Alba in the Netherlands (1566), the regent gathered a large army under the pretext of protecting the French borders, which she suddenly moved against the Huguenots (summer 1567). Their leaders, warned of this, made an attempt to capture the king and his mother at the Burgundian castle of Monceau. They, however, managed to escape to Meaux, and then, thanks to the courage of the Swiss Guard, they broke through to Paris. Conde besieged the capital, but on November 10, 1567 he was defeated by Constable Montmorency at Saint-Denis; Montmorency himself fell on the battlefield. Pursued by Catholic troops under the command of Henry of Anjou, the king's brother, the Huguenots retreated to Lorraine, where they united with the army of German mercenaries of Count Palatine Johann Casimir. At the beginning of 1568, their combined forces pushed the Catholics back to Paris and besieged Chartres. Under these conditions, Catherine agreed to conclude peace in Longjumeau on March 10, 1568, which confirmed the provisions of the January Edict; she also provided Conde with a large loan to settle accounts with Johann Casimir.

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HUGENOTS- the name of the Reformed or Calvinists in France. The origins of this word are quite obscure. French Protestants received at different times various names, applied to them mostly in mockery, such as: Lutherans, Sacramentarians, Christians, Religious, etc. Actually, the word “Huguenots” came into general use no earlier than the Amboise Troubles of 1566 and is probably a distorted form of the German Eidgenossen (sworn allies, conspirators), which was the name of the patriotic party in Geneva already a quarter of a century earlier. In the history of the Huguenots in France, five periods can be distinguished: 1) the period of persecution under the guise of law, until the first recognition of the Reformed religion by the January Edict (1562); 2) the period of civil wars under Charles IX, which ended with the massacre of St. Bartholomew's Night (1572); 3) the period of struggle to achieve complete religious tolerance during the reigns of Henry III and Henry IV, before the proclamation of the Edict of Nantes (1598); 4) the period of the revocation of this edict by Louis XIV (1685), and 5) the period of complete prohibition of Protestantism, ending with the issuance of the Edict of Toleration by Louis XVI (1787), just before the first French Revolution.

The beginning of the reform movement in France can be considered in 1512, when a professor at the University of Paris, scientist Jacques Leffevrd Etaple, in a Latin commentary on the Epistles of St. Paul began to clearly preach the doctrine of justification by faith. In 1516, Wilg was appointed bishop of Mo. Brisonnet, patron of literature and supporter of the moderate reformation. He soon gathered around him a group of scholars, including Leffevre and his disciples, William Farel, Martial Masurier, Gerard Roussel, and others, who preached the gospel with great zeal in the churches of his diocese. In 1523 Leffevre published a French translation of the New Testament, and in 1528 a translation Old Testament. This translation, made from the Latin Vulgate, served as the basis for the subsequent translation by Olivetan, the first French translation from the Greek and Hebrew original. Since Bishop Brisonnet, under threat of persecution, had to abandon his intention, the reformation movement in Mo ceased along with the dispersion of the teachers themselves, although the seed had already been thrown into the soil and was only waiting for favorable conditions for growth. Although Francis I found himself favoring the cause of the Reformation under the influence of his sister, the educated Margaret, Duchess of Angoulême, this was more out of interest in learning and ambition than out of real sympathy for the movement itself. This was soon revealed by the "Affair of the Placards" (1534), when a strong proclamation against the papal mass was found nailed to the door of the king's bedroom at the castle of Amboise. During a large penitential procession, shortly afterwards organized (Jan. 1535), six Protestants were burned alive in front of the king, and Francis expressed his intention to exterminate heresy in his dominions. He was ready, he said, to cut off his own hand if it were infected with this poison. The executions, which followed for several months, were the first serious attempt to exterminate the Reformed people. More and more harsh laws began to be issued. In 1545 there was a massacre in Merindol and Cabriel. Twenty-two towns and villages on the Durance River, inhabited by French Waldensians, of the same origin as the Waldensians of Piedmont, were destroyed by an armed expedition equipped at Aix (Aich), with the approval of the Provençal parliament. The following year witnessed the martyrdom of the "Fourteen Martyrs at Mo". Despite these harsh measures, reforms. the movement, however, continued to grow during the reign of Henry II, the fanatical and dissolute son of Francis (1547-1559). Reform Center. movement began in Geneva, from where John Calvin, through his books and enormous correspondence, as well as indirectly through his former disciples, exerted an extremely big influence. Strict laws against the import of any books from Geneva did not achieve their goal. In 1555, an attempt to introduce the Spanish Inquisition failed due to the enlightened and determined opposition of the Parisian parliament, led by its president Séguier. The first national synod of the French Reformed people met secretly in Paris (May 25, 1559). He accepted the confession of faith, which later became the “creed” of French Protestants. He also established in his "Ecclesiastical Discipline" a representative form of church government, with its courts, consistory, provincial conferences and national synods. Over the next hundred years, 28 more national synods met. After 1659 the government refused to allow further national synods to meet. Under Francis II, a sixteen-year-old youth (1559-1560), the position of the Huguenots was uncertain, but signs of an inclination towards tolerance began to appear. Thus, at a meeting of notables in Fontainebleau (in August 1560), Admiral Coligny presented petitions for freedom of worship in favor of the Huguenots, and two prelates, Archbishop Marillac and Bishop Montluc, openly insisted on convening a national council to heal the ailment depressing the church. Under Charles IX, a ten-year-old boy, the tolerant policy of Chancellor L'Hôpital was established for a time. A conference was held in Poissy (Sept. 1561), at which the Huguenots for the first time took the opportunity to defend their religious views in the presence of the king. The main speakers on the Protestant side were Theodore Beza and Peter Martyr, and the Cardinal of Lorraine was the most prominent representative of the Roman catholic church.

On January 17, 1562, the famous edict, known as the “January Edict,” was issued. It contained the first formal recognition of the Reformed faith, the adherents of which were given freedom to assemble for worship, without weapons, in all places outside the walled cities. The Edict of January was a great charter of Huguenot rights. Its violation was the source of a long period of civil unrest, and for a whole century the efforts of the Huguenots were almost exclusively directed towards maintaining or restoring its provisions.

But as soon as the edict was signed, there was an unprovoked massacre in Vasea, committed by the Duke of Guise over a meeting of Reformed pilgrims, which served as the reason for the first internecine war (1562 - 1563). The Huguenots were led by Admiral Coligny and the Prince of Condé; and the chief Roman Catholic commanders were the Constable of Montmorency, the Duke of Guise, and the Marshal of Saint André. The war raged across much of France, with uneven success on both sides. Both Montmorency and Condé were captured, and Saint André was killed at the Battle of Dreux, where the Huguenots were defeated and their rights were significantly curtailed. Instead of an unlimited right to meet for prayer outside the walled cities throughout France, the Huguenots were now allowed to meet only in the suburbs of one city in each district, and in such cities as were in their possession at the conclusion of peace. Several nobles received the right to worship in their own castles. Soon the second and third internecine wars broke out (1567-1568 and (1568-1570), of which the latter was particularly bloody. The Huguenots were defeated in two fierce battles - at Jarnac and Moncontour, and in the first of them Louis, Prince of Condé, was killed. But Coligny, with his military valor, not only saved the Huguenots from destruction, but also gave them the opportunity to achieve peace on favorable terms. Two years of general calm followed, and at this time, apparently, the wounds caused by the civil strife began to heal. on Margaret of Valois, the younger sister of Charles IX. During the festivities that took place on this occasion, Coligny was wounded by some assassin. This event was followed, lasting for two days, by the massacre of St. Bartholomew's Night (Sunday, August 24, 1572). the blow was intended to completely destroy the Huguenots, who proved impossible to exterminate in an open struggle, and many of the most famous leaders, along with many of their co-religionists, were mercilessly beaten. The number of victims in Paris and throughout the rest of the state is variously determined from 20 to 100 thousand people (see under the words St. Bartholomew's Night). The Huguenots, however, were not exterminated during the fourth internecine war (1572 - 1573): they not only successfully defended La Rochelle against the king, but also achieved peace on honorable terms.

The fifth civil war, which began a few weeks before the accession of Henry III, continued until the new king was convinced of the hopelessness of exterminating his Protestant subjects, reinforced by a strong German auxiliary army. A peace was concluded, usually called La Paix de Monsieur (Edict of Beaulieu, in May 1576). This peace was more favorable for the Huguenots than all the previous ones, since by virtue of it they were allowed to perform divine services everywhere in France, except Paris, without limitation of time and place, unless the nobleman on whose land it was supposed to be performed protested. But the liberality of the new resolution led to its immediate cancellation. At the insistence of the Roman Catholic clergy and the Guises, this name was formed. The “Holy and Christian League,” which set as its goal the extermination of heresy, and its branches spread throughout France. At a meeting of the States General in Blois, the king agreed to become the head of this league.

RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE

From here arose the sixth civil war, which, however, lasted only a few months, since the king found that the states did not want to give him the means to wage this war. Was imprisoned new world(Edict of Poitiers, September 1577), which again introduced restrictions regarding cities where Protestants could worship; and the nobles were given the right to perform worship in their castles. As in the previous world, eight cities were left in the hands of Protestants as a guarantee of the exact fulfillment of the terms of peace, and mixed courts were established to resolve cases in which the parties may belong to different religions.

The king's only brother died in 1584. Since Henry III was childless, Henry of Bourbon, the Huguenot king of Navarre, was made heir to the throne of France. The mere thought that the throne might pass into the hands of a heretic once again revived the activities of the league. The Guises, with the help of Philip II, raised a war against Henry III, and after a struggle in which the Huguenots took no part, forced the king to undergo reforms. religion was prohibited by the Edict of Nimur (July 1585). The Eighth Civil War (1585-1589) followed. The most outstanding event during it was the Battle of Coutras (1587), in which the Roman Catholics, under the command of the Duke of Joyeuse, were defeated by the Huguenot troops of Henry of Navarre, and the Duke himself was killed. This victory of the Huguenots made such a strong impression on their enemies that subsequently the very sight of Huguenot soldiers kneeling in prayer before the start of the battle, as they did at Coutras, struck with horror the Roman Catholic soldiers. In 1589, the Protestant sovereign Henry of Navarre ascended to the throne of France, under the name of Henry IV, who, finding active support from the Huguenots, decided to reward them with the announcement of a law on complete toleration. This was the famous Edict of Nantes (in April 1598), which ensured freedom of conscience throughout the kingdom and recognized the Reformed right to gather for prayer on the lands of nobles who had the right of supreme jurisdiction (there were about 3,500 of them), and they were also granted various civil rights, as the right to occupy civil positions, access to universities and schools on equal terms with Roman Catholics, etc.

The edict of Henry IV, after his death (1610), was solemnly confirmed by subsequent declarations of the regent, Marie de Medici, Louis XIII and Louis XIV. Nevertheless, the Huguenots soon had reason to complain about various annoying violations for which they could not achieve satisfaction (such was the destruction of the reform churches in Béarn in 1620). At this time, the Huguenots showed extraordinary mental activity. They moved their worship, in the neighborhood of Paris, at first in the village of Ablonay, quite remote and inaccessible, to the closer and more convenient Charenton. This place became the center of strong religious and philosophical influence, which made itself felt in the capital of the kingdom and at the royal court. There were many outstanding writers and preachers here. As many as six theological seminaries or "academies" were founded in various parts of the kingdom, of which the most important were those at Saumur, Montauban and Sedan.

Although violations of the spirit and even the letter of the Edict of Nantes were frequent, it was only after the death of Cardinal Mazarin (1661) that those restrictions actually began, the logical consequence of which could only be the complete abolition of the edict. From that time on, the Huguenots, although they were more than once highly praised by the king himself for their devotion to the crown during the troubles of the Fronde, were given almost no rest. Through various annoying decrees, places of worship were gradually taken away from them, they were expelled from their positions, or, under the guise of legal measures, property and even children were taken away from them. Under the pretext of a planned uprising, terrible dragonades were sent against them and all kinds of brutal violence were carried out against those who did not want to renounce their faith. Finally, in October 1685, under the pretext that the measures taken had been completely successful and that the Reformed religion no longer existed in his dominions, Louis XIV signed the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. By virtue of the new law, the Reformed faith was declared intolerant in France. All Reformed pastors were required to leave the kingdom within two weeks. No one could be evicted from other persons, under pain of exile to the galleys for men, imprisonment and confiscation of property for women.

Despite the prohibition, the immediate result of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes was a mass exodus of Huguenots to foreign countries. The entire number of those who fled cannot be determined with certainty. It was determined at 800,000; but this figure is undoubtedly higher than the actual one, and their entire number was probably between 300-400 thousand. As a result, the country lost the most industrial and prosperous part of the population. For a hundred years, the Huguenots who remained in France suffered all sorts of hardships and persecution. They began to perform divine services only in secret, in deserts and forests, and the pastors who performed them and were captured at the scene of the “crimes” were subjected to the wheel. So, on February 19, 1762, one pastor named Rochette was beheaded with the approval of the Toulouse parliament for preaching, performing marriages and performing the sacraments of baptism and the Eucharist. In 1767, for the same crimes, another pastor, Bérenger, was sentenced to death and executed in effigy. But these cruelties finally outraged society, and under its pressure, Louis XVI issued (in November 1787) an edict of toleration. Although this document declared that “the Catholic Apostolic Roman religion alone will continue to enjoy public worship,” it, at the same time, recognized the registration of Protestant births, marriages and deaths, and forbade the oppression of Protestants in any way for their sake. faith. The National Assembly, in 1790, took measures to restore the confiscated property of the Protestant fugitives, and the law of 18 Germinal X (1802) formally organized the Reformed and Lutheran churches, whose pastors henceforth began to receive salaries from the state.

Meanwhile, the Huguenots who fled and were expelled from France were met with sympathy everywhere. All the Protestant countries of Europe were glad to take advantage of their industriousness and knowledge to revive their trade and industry. The very name “Huguenot” acquired an honorary meaning and everywhere served as a kind of recommendation certificate. So they first moved to Switzerland, “intended by providence to serve as a place of refuge,” where they especially moved after the massacre of St. Bartholomew’s Night and after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The Huguenot fugitives were also received with great sympathy in Holland, where public services were held for them and collections were made in their favor, and all city rights and tax exemptions were granted (in Utrecht) for twelve years. And other countries of northern Europe also opened their doors to fugitives, like Denmark, Sweden, etc. Even in Russia, by a decree signed by Tsars Peter and John Alekseevich (1688), all provinces of the empire were opened to fugitives and positions in the army were offered to officers. Voltaire claims that one third of the 12,000-strong regiment founded by the Genevan Lefort for Peter consisted of French fugitives. But England took advantage of both the mental and material wealth of the Huguenots more than anyone else. Since the time of Edward VI, the English kings, with the single exception of Mary, have always patronized them. When rumors of the horrors of the Dragonads reached, Charles II issued (July 28, 1681) a proclamation offering refuge to the Huguenots, promising them rights of naturalization and all kinds of benefits in trade and industry. After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, James I also made similar invitations to them. The number of Huguenots who fled to England in the decade following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes rose to 80,000, of whom about one third settled in London. A general collection was made in favor of the fugitives, which gave about 200,000 pounds. With. And the services provided by the Huguenots of England were very significant. In the army of William of Orange, when he marched against his father-in-law, there were three regiments of infantry and cavalry, consisting exclusively of French fugitives. The Huguenots rendered even more important services in the field of industry, since they introduced many branches of it that had hitherto been completely unknown in England. Even mentally, the influence of the fugitives was very significant. It is enough to mention the names of Denis Papin, the first researcher of steam power, and Rapin-Theur, whose “History of England” had no rivals until the appearance of the work of David Hume. Some of the Huguenots also went to America, and they were the founders of the city of New Amsterdam (now New York), where French speech and the Huguenot faith dominated from the very beginning. The French parish in New York, which had long flourished and had considerable influence, had a number of talented Reformed pastors, of whom the last received episcopal consecration in 1806, when the Huguenot community generally merged with the Episcopal Church and began to be called the “Church of the Holy Spirit.” Many parishes and churches were scattered throughout other cities and countries of America. It is difficult to determine exactly how many Huguenots moved to America; but, undoubtedly, their number must be determined in thousands. They had a considerable influence on the character of the American people, far more than their numbers would suggest; and in the list of patriots, statesmen, philanthropists, ministers of the gospel, and generally distinguished persons of every rank in the United States, the Huguenot names occupy a very important and honorable place. Finally, some of the Huguenots subsequently, especially from Holland, headed to the free lands South Africa, and there they became the main founders of the two republics, the Orange and the Transvaal, and put up a number of eminent figures who became famous especially in Lately in the fight against England; These are the names of Cronje, Joubert, De Vette, which have a purely French character.

* Stepan Grigorievich Runkevich,
Doctor of Church History,
Secretary of the Holy Synod.

Source of text: Orthodox Theological Encyclopedia. Volume 4, column. 782. Petrograd edition. Supplement to the spiritual magazine "Strannik" for 1903. Modern spelling.

The Religious (or Huguenot) Wars that rocked France from 1562 to 1598 were merely a regional instance of the global ideological conflict that played out in Europe in the 16th century. It is necessary to understand that this conflict, which initially arose on religious grounds, also depended on many political and socio-economic reasons.

Background

In France in the 16th century, two faiths were widespread: Catholicism and Protestantism. The French kings strove for the unity of the nation, not wanting a split along religious lines. Therefore, both Henry II of Valois (1547-1559) and his son Francis II (1559-1560) decided to rely on Catholicism and not give Protestants (or Huguenots, as they were called in France) the same rights as supporters of the Roman Church. During the reign of Francis, Protestants tried to carry out Ecumenical Council, at which representatives of the two faiths could reach a compromise. However, the powerful family of staunch Catholics, the Guises, who ruled the royal court, prevented this plan. And soon Francis II died. The throne was taken by his young brother, Charles IX.

Since Charles was too young to rule independently, his mother, Catherine de Medici, became regent under the young king. Catherine's first events were quite democratic. By her decree, a congress of Protestant and Catholic theologians was held in Poissy in 1562. As a result of the congress, the Queen Mother and the Estates General made two decisions: to give Protestants the right to hold their services and meetings, and to begin the sale of church property, which caused discontent among the Catholic clergy and many senior dignitaries, who felt that they were losing their former influence on royal family. The response to the actions of Catherine de Medici was an anti-Protestant triumvirate, which included Francois de Guise, Marshal de Saint-André and Constable de Montmorency.

Soon, the offended Catholics turned to armed action against heretics, who they considered the Huguenots to be.

Causes of religious wars

The French Wars of Religion were caused by a whole range of reasons:

• The main cause of the conflict, of course, was religious contradictions and the oppression of Protestants in France;
• No less important role played and economic relations: Protestants, raised on Calvinist morality, were actively engaged in business and accumulated considerable wealth. The “old” Catholic aristocracy could not compete with Protestant businessmen and was losing its financial power. The wealth collected by the Catholic churches was also a cornerstone issue. Protestants did not agree with the church owning too much money and advocated secularization.
• A separate group of reasons are internal political reasons. In France, there was a struggle for power: the Guises, kings from the Valois dynasty and representatives of the Bourbon family sought to become the sole masters of the state and for this they used one or another opposing religious groups.
• In addition, the situation in France was influenced by the foreign policy situation. Europe experiencing the Reformation was seething: on the one hand, the powerful Spanish kings - defenders of the Catholic faith, on the other - England and a number of German princes who recognized Protestantism. France was faced with an important historical choice, and not only the religious, but also the military-political situation on the mainland directly depended on the step it took.

In total, between 1562 and 1598, France experienced 8 civil wars.

First wars

The first three clashes between Catholics and Protestants were quite similar. Already during the very first religious war, two centers of warring parties emerged:

• Catholic Paris;
• Protestant Orleans.

The First Huguenot War occurred in 1562-1563, when the men of Guise attacked a group of Calvinists praying. These events went down in history as the “Wassy Massacre” and marked the beginning of a whole series of civil wars.

After the incident at Vassy, ​​members of the Catholic triumvirate captured Catherine de' Medici and the child king, forcing them to abolish previous liberties for Protestants. At this time, Protestants, led by Prince de Condé and Admiral de Coligny, also began to take active action. The war was successful for the Catholics, however, after the death of Guise and Saint-André, as well as the capture of Montmorency and Condé, military operations came to naught.

Catherine de' Medici felt free and immediately issued the Edict of Amboise, which proclaimed freedom of conscience throughout France, except for Paris (where only the Catholic faith could be professed). For all its apparent democracy, the edict had an important drawback for the Huguenots: Protestant churches could only be opened in major cities, therefore, the bulk of the masses could not practice their religion. His terms, of course, did not suit the Catholics either, so a new clash was inevitable.

In 1567, Conde attempted to capture Charles IX and his mother in order to establish Protestant influence throughout France. The prince's plan failed, but gave rise to the second Huguenot War of 1567-1568. With the help of the German Count Palatine Wolfgang of Zweibrücken, the Protestant army managed to break into the capital. In one of the battles for Paris, the last member of the Catholic triumvirate, Montmorency, fell. Catherine de Medici, who continued to rule in place of her now adult son, was forced to accept the conditions of the victors and sign a document confirming the terms of the Peace of Amboise.

The Second War did not bring any political changes to the way of life of the French, but it seriously changed the mood of Catherine de Medici. The Queen Mother was offended by the antics of the Protestants and admitted the failure of her liberal policies. Soon, Catherine switched to reactionary measures: Protestant preachers began to be expelled from the country, the practice of any cults other than Catholic and Gallican was prohibited. An attempt was also made to arrest Conde and Coligny, which was the reason for the start of the third Huguenot War of 1568-1570.

During the third war, Prince Condé was killed. The new leaders of the Huguenots were Prince Condé the Younger and Prince Henry of Bourbon of Navarre, raised in the traditions of Protestantism. The Huguenots were again victorious. The war was ended by the Treaty of Saint-Germain, which, in general, reproduced the text of the Treaty of Amboise, but also contained a new provision: the Protestants received 4 fortresses for their use for two years.

The Treaty of Saint-Germain made France's foreign policy position precarious. Just recently, a rapprochement between France and its long-time enemy, Spain, began. Now, because of the victory of the Protestants, Catholic Madrid began to be wary of Catherine and her son. Many high-ranking French Huguenots openly declared that Paris should support the Dutch Protestants, who are now suffering the atrocities of the Catholic fanatic Spanish Duke of Alba. The fragile peace was once again under threat of war.

St. Bartholomew's Night (August 22-23, 1572)

After the signing of the Treaty of Saint-Germain, Coligny, who exercised great influence on Charles IX, acquired special weight at court. This fact did not suit the Guises, who, moreover, dreamed of taking revenge on Coligny for the death of Francois Guise, who fell during the first Huguenot war.

Catherine de Medici, thinking about ways to reconcile her subjects, decides that a symbol of consent could be the marriage of the young leader of the Huguenots, Henry of Navarre, and her daughter, the Catholic Margarita de Valois, who would later go down in history as “Queen Margot” with the help of Alexander Dumas the Father. . Catherine's decision met with a storm of indignation among Catholics, and not only among her compatriots: such a marriage was condemned by the Catholic kings of Europe and the Pope. With great difficulty, Catherine managed to find a Catholic prelate ready to marry the newlyweds. Many French were outraged by the preparations for the magnificent celebrations, which were carried out despite rising taxes, crop failures and empty treasuries. The most astute Parisians understood that soon popular indignation, fueled by the leaders of one party or another, would result in pogroms and outbreaks of senseless violence, so they left the city in advance.

On August 18, 1572, the wedding took place. Many noble Huguenots along with their families came to Paris to congratulate the young couple. But while the Protestants celebrated peace, the Catholic party was preparing for decisive action. On August 22, Admiral Coligny was wounded during a failed assassination attempt organized by Guizami.

On the night of August 23-24 (St. Bartholomew's Day), a meeting of the royal council was held, at which it was decided to begin the massacre of the Huguenots. Historians are still debating who initiated these bloody events. Previously, all the blame was placed on Catherine de Medici, but in a number of modern works French historians it is proved that the Queen Mother did not have such a serious influence on her nobles and people. Historical facts they say that the main culprits of the massacre on St. Bartholomew's Night were the Guise family, as well as the Catholic clergy and Spanish agents who incited the people to violence. However, they would not have been able to achieve such consequences if not for the indignation of ordinary French people, tired of endless civil wars between masters and exorbitant taxes. Catherine and her son had neither money in the treasury nor sufficient influence in army circles; they themselves were practically prisoners of their court, so there is no need to talk about any real political weight of theirs.

The ringing of bells coming from the royal chapel was the signal for the massacre to begin. Almost all Huguenots traditionally wore black clothes, so the murderers could easily spot them. Protestants were killed by entire families, sparing no one. Since anarchy reigned in Paris, many took advantage of the situation to settle their own scores, which had nothing to do with religious differences. A wave of violence swept across the country, with similar unrest breaking out in some regions until the end of October. According to various estimates, the number of victims throughout France could range from 5,000 to 30,000 people.

St. Bartholomew's Night made a huge impression on his contemporaries. While Catherine de Medici was receiving congratulations from Rome and Madrid, the German princes and British Queen strongly condemned these events. Even some Catholics considered the incident unnecessarily cruel. In addition, the Night of St. Bartholomew forced even the most loyal Huguenots to the royal power to change their minds. Protestants began to flee en masse either abroad or to the region where there were 4 well-armed fortresses that had been given to the Huguenot leaders under the Treaty of Saint-Germain. Henry of Navarre managed to survive and escape, thanks to his wife Margaret, who, despite remaining faithful to the Catholic faith, saved several high-ranking Huguenots from massacre. The nation was finally split into two parts; Protestants demanded harsh justice against those who committed the August pogroms.

The fourth Huguenot War, which began with the Night of St. Bartholomew, ended with the Edict of Boulogne in 1573. According to him, Protestants received freedom of religion, but not freedom to practice worship.

Religious wars of 1573-1584

Between 1573 and 1584, France experienced three more religious wars.

The Fifth Huguenot War (1574-1576) began immediately after the death of the childless Charles IX. Power passed to the next eldest son of Catherine de Medici, who was crowned Henry III. The new conflict differed from the previous ones in that during it, members of the royal family. Henry III was opposed by his younger brother François, the Duke of Alençon, who wanted to seize the French throne and for this purpose went over to the side of Henry of Navarre. Francois of Alençon, in fact, introduced a new force into the political arena of France - a party of moderate Catholics who were ready to make peace with the Huguenots in order to preserve order in the country. With the help of the German army, the Huguenots and supporters of François Alençon won a victory. Henry III was forced to sign the peace of Beaulieu, according to which the victims of St. Bartholomew's Night were rehabilitated; it was allowed to carry out the Protestant cult throughout France, except Paris; and the Huguenots were given 8 fortresses.

Catholics, outraged by the peace conditions in Beaulieu, created the Catholic League. Henry III, frightened by the excessive initiative of his subjects, led the league and declared that from now on he would fight to ensure that a single faith was established in France. Inspired Catholics started the sixth war (1576-1577), in which the Huguenots were defeated and suffered heavy losses. The war ended with the Edict of Poitiers, in which the king canceled almost all the peace conditions in Beaulieu.

The Seventh War or “War of the Lovers” (1579-1580) was started by Henry of Navarre. The reason for it was the reluctance of the Huguenots to give back to France fortresses, the useful life of which was coming to an end. In parallel, military operations were carried out on the territory of the Netherlands: Francois of Alençon decided to support the Dutch Protestants in their fight against the Spanish crown. The war ended with the peace of Fleux, which restored a number of freedoms for the Huguenots.

The year 1584 was marked by the death of François Alençon, the heir of the childless Henry III. The Valois dynasty was to become a thing of the past with the death of its last representative. Ironically, the next French king was to be the heretic Henry of Navarre, the closest surviving relative of Henry III and the head of the House of Bourbon, descended from Louis IX the Saint. This did not suit Henry III, the Spaniards, or the Pope, who declared that Henry of Navarre had no right not only to the French crown, but also to the Navarre one.

"The War of the Three Henrys" (1584-1589)

The Eighth Religious War was fundamentally different from the conflicts that occurred earlier. Now the conversation was about the very fate of the French monarchy and the way out of the dynastic crisis. Three Henrys were to clash in the war:

• Valois,
• Bourbon,
• Giza.

The Catholic League, dissolved by Henry III after the sixth war, was revived. This time it was led by Henry de Guise - a powerful and ambitious man, ready to fight for the French throne. Guise accused the king and his entourage of powerlessness and inability to govern the country. Henry III, in a fit of anger, transferred control of the Catholic League to Guise, which, in fact, completely freed his hands. Guise became master of Paris and began brutal persecution of Protestants. Meanwhile, the king, who had long regretted his rash decision, began to prepare for reprisals against Guise. In December 1584, on the orders of Henry III, Guise and his younger brother were killed. And two weeks later Catherine de Medici died.

The whole country was outraged by the king's behavior. A specially assembled council of theologians freed the French from the oath they had once taken to Henry III. Parisians began to create their own governing bodies, independent of royal power. Left alone, Henry III was forced to make peace with his longtime enemy, Henry of Navarre, and recognize him as his legal heir. Two allied armies besieged Paris, but in the midst of these events, Henry III was killed by a religious fanatic sent by the Catholic League.

The death of the king led not only to a national but also an international crisis. Formally, under the name of Henry IV, Henry of Navarre became the king of France, however, most of his subjects were not going to obey him. At this moment, the Spaniards decided to intervene in the war, who did not want a Protestant to rule in France.

In these difficult conditions Henry IV decided to convert to Catholicism. Although few of the French took this decision seriously (the new king had already changed his religion three times), this step had a certain significance. The Pope renounced his previous accusations, and peace negotiations began with representatives of the Catholic League.

Pacification of the Kingdom and Edict of Nantes (1598)

When some unity emerged among the French, Henry IV set about eliminating the last pockets of anarchy and disorder. First of all, it was necessary to get rid of the Spaniards who ruled French lands. In 1595, the king declared war on Spain, which ended in his favor in 1598. In parallel with this, there came pacification in the minds of the French, who still preferred to deal with their compatriots, albeit of a different religion, rather than with the Spaniards.

Having achieved order in his kingdom, Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes, according to which:

• freedom of conscience was proclaimed;
• the practice of Protestant worship was allowed with some restrictions;
• representatives of both religions received equal access to important government positions;
• Protestants received several fortresses for use.

With the publication of the Edict of Nantes, the era of religious wars in France ended.

The French Wars of Religion continued with short interruptions from 1562 to 1589. The main parties to the conflict were Catholics and Huguenots (Protestants). The result of numerous wars was a change in the ruling dynasty, as well as the consolidation of the right to free religion.

Prerequisites

The bloody religious war in France between Catholics and Protestants began in 1562. She had several superficial reasons and deep reasons. In the 16th century, French society split into two irreconcilable camps - Catholic and Protestant. The new teaching entered the country from Germany. Its supporters advocated the abandonment of some norms of the Catholic Church (sale of indulgences, offices, etc.).

Calvinism became the most popular Protestant movement in France. His followers were called Huguenots. The centers of this teaching were scattered throughout the country, which is why the religious war in France was on such a significant scale.

The plot was discovered on the eve of execution. Francis and his entourage fled to Amboise. Nevertheless, the conspirators did not abandon their plans and tried to capture the king by force right in this city. The plan failed. Many nobles died in battle, others were executed afterwards. Those events of March 1560 became the reason why the religious war broke out in France.

Beginning of the war

Just a couple of months after the failed plot, Francis II died due to his poor health. The throne passed to his brother Charles IX, during whose reign the religious wars in France began. The year 1562 was marked by the massacre of the Huguenots in Champagne. The Duke of Guise and his army attacked unarmed Protestants who were peacefully performing worship. This event became the signal for the outbreak of a large-scale war.

The Huguenots, like the Catholics, had their own leaders. The first of them was Prince Louis de Condé from the Bourbon family. After the incident in Champagne, he captured several cities, making Orleans a stronghold of Protestant resistance to power. The Huguenots entered into an alliance with the German principalities and England - countries where they also fought against Catholic influence. Drawing into civil conflict external forces further aggravated the religious wars in France. It took years for the country to exhaust all its resources and, drained of blood, finally come to a peace agreement between the parties.

An important feature of the conflict was that there were several wars at once. The bloodshed began, then stopped, then resumed again. So, with short interruptions, the war went on from 1562 to 1598. The first stage ended in 1563, when the Huguenots and Catholics concluded the Peace of Amboise. According to this treaty, Protestants received the right to practice their religion in certain provinces of the country. The parties came to an agreement thanks to the active mediation of Catherine de Medici, the mother of three French kings (Francis II, Charles IX and Henry III). Over time she became the main actor conflict. The Queen Mother is best known to modern people thanks to Dumas's classic historical novels.

Second and third war

The Guises were unhappy with the concessions to the Huguenots. They began to look for Catholic allies abroad. At the same time, in 1567, Protestants, as a few years before, tried to capture the king. The incident, known as the Mo Surprise, ended in nothing. The authorities summoned the leaders of the Huguenots - the Prince of Condé and Count Gaspard of Coligny - to court. They refused to come to Paris, which served as a signal for renewed bloodshed.

The reasons for the religious wars in France were that the intermediate peace treaties, involving small concessions to the Protestants, did not satisfy either side. Because of this insoluble contradiction, the conflict was renewed again and again. The second war ended in November 1567 due to the death of one of the Catholic leaders, the Duke of Montmorency.

But just a few months later, in March 1568, gunfire and the death cries of soldiers again sounded on the fields of France. The third war mainly took place in the province of Languedoc. The Protestants almost took Poitiers. They managed to cross the Ron and force the authorities to make concessions again. The privileges of the Huguenots were expanded by the Treaty of Saint-Germain, signed on August 15, 1570. Freedom of religion was established throughout France except Paris.

Marriage of Henry and Margot

In 1572, the religious wars in France reached their climax. The 16th century knew many bloody and tragic events. But, perhaps, none of them could compare with St. Bartholomew's Night. This is how the massacre of Huguenots carried out by Catholics was called in historiography. The tragedy occurred on August 24, 1572, on the eve of the day of the Apostle Bartholomew. Today, scientists give different estimates of how many Protestants were killed then. Calculations give a figure of approximately 30 thousand people - a value unprecedented for its time.

The massacre was preceded by several important events. Since 1570, religious wars in France ceased for a short time. The date of the signing of the Saint-Germain Peace Treaty became a holiday for the exhausted country. But the most radical Catholics, including the powerful Giza, did not want to recognize this document. Among other things, they were against the appearance of Gaspard Coligny, one of the leaders of the Huguenots, at the royal court. The talented admiral enlisted the support of Charles IX. The monarch wanted, with the help of the commander, to annex the Netherlands to his country. Thus, political motives triumphed over religious ones.

Catherine de Medici also cooled her ardor for a while. There was little money in the treasury to wage open confrontation with the Protestants. Therefore, the Queen Mother decided to use diplomatic and dynastic methods. The Parisian court agreed on the terms of a marriage between Margaret of Valois (daughter of Catherine) and Henry of Navarre, another Huguenot leader.

St. Bartholomew's Night

The wedding was to be celebrated in Paris. Because of this, a huge number of Huguenots - supporters of Henry of Navarre - arrived in the predominantly Catholic city. The mood in the capital was most explosive. The common people hated the Protestants, blaming them for all their troubles. There was no unity at the top of the government regarding the upcoming wedding.

The wedding took place on August 18, 1572. Four days later, Admiral Coligny, who was traveling from the Louvre, was fired upon from a house belonging to the Guises. This was a planned assassination attempt. The Huguenot leader was wounded but survived. However, what happened was the last straw. Two days later, on the night of August 24, Catherine de Medici ordered the beginning of reprisals against the Huguenots who had not yet left Paris. The beginning of the religious wars in France amazed contemporaries with their cruelty. But what happened in 1572 could not be compared with the previous horrors of battles and battles.

Thousands of people died. Gaspard Coligny, who miraculously escaped death the day before, was one of the first to say goodbye to life. Henry of Navarre (the future King Henry IV) managed to survive only thanks to the intercession of his new relatives at the court. St. Bartholomew's Night was the event that turned the tide of the conflict, known in history as the religious wars in France. The date of the massacre of the Huguenots was marked by the loss of many of their leaders. After the horrors and chaos in the capital, according to various estimates, about 200 thousand Huguenots fled from the country. They moved to the German principalities, England and Poland in order to be as far as possible from the bloody Catholic power. Valois' actions were condemned by many rulers of the time, including Ivan the Terrible.

Continuation of the conflict

The painful Reformation and religious wars in France led to the fact that the country did not know peace for many years. After St. Bartholomew's Night, the point of no return was passed. The parties stopped looking for a compromise, and the state again became a victim of mutual bloodshed. The Fourth War ended in 1573, but King Charles IX died in 1574. He did not have an heir, so his younger brother Henry III, who had previously been the autocrat of Poland for a short time, came to rule in Paris.

The new monarch again brought the restless Guises closer to him. Now the religious wars in France, in short, resumed again, due to the fact that Henry did not control some regions of his country. For example, Champagne was invaded by the German Count of the Palatinate, who came to the rescue of local Protestants. At the same time, a moderate Catholic party appeared, known in historiography as the “dissatisfied”. Representatives of this movement advocated for the establishment of religious tolerance throughout the country. They were joined by numerous patriotic nobles, tired of the endless war. In the Fifth War, the "malcontents" and the Huguenots acted as a united front against the Valois. The Gizas again defeated both of them. After this, many “dissatisfied” were executed as state traitors.

Catholic League

In 1576, Henry of Guise established the Catholic League, which, in addition to France, included the Jesuits, Spain, and the goal of the union was the final defeat of the Huguenots. In addition, the aristocrats were on the side of the league, wanting to limit the power of the king. Religious wars and the absolute monarchy in France during the second half of the 16th century were the main factors influencing the course of the history of this country. Time has shown that after the victory of the Bourbons, the power of the kings only increased, despite the attempts of the nobles to limit it under the pretext of fighting the Protestants.

The Catholic League unleashed the Sixth War (1576-1577), as a result of which the rights of the Huguenots were noticeably limited. The center of their influence moved to the south. Henry of Navarre became the generally recognized leader of the Protestants, after whose wedding the massacre on St. Bartholomew's Night once took place.

The king of a small kingdom in the Pyrenees, who belonged to the Bourbon dynasty, became the heir to everything French throne due to the childlessness of Catherine de Medici's son. Henry III really did not have any offspring, which put the monarch in a delicate position. According to dynastic laws, he was to be succeeded by his closest relative in the male line. Ironically, he became Henry of Navarre. Firstly, he also came from and secondly, the applicant was married to the monarch’s sister Margaret (Margot).

War of the Three Henrys

The dynastic crisis led to the War of the Three Henrys. The namesakes fought among themselves - the king of France, the king of Navarre and the Duke of Guise. This conflict, which lasted from 1584 to 1589, was the last in a series of religious wars. Henry III lost the campaign. In May 1588, the inhabitants of Paris rebelled against him, after which he had to flee to Blois. The Duke of Guise arrived in the capital of France. For several months he was actually the ruler of the country.

In order to somehow resolve the conflict, Guise and Valois agreed to hold a meeting in Blois. The Duke arrived there and fell into a trap. The king's guards killed Guise himself, his guards, and later his brother. The treacherous act of Henry III did not add to his popularity. Catholics turned away from him, and the Pope completely cursed him.

In the summer of 1589, Henry III was stabbed to death by the Dominican monk Jacques Clément. The killer was able to obtain an audience with the king using forged documents. When the guards made way for Henry, the monk suddenly thrust a stiletto into him. The killer was torn to pieces on the spot. But Henry III also died from his wound. Now nothing prevented the King of Navarre from becoming the ruler of France.

Edict of Nantes

Henry of Navarre became king of France on August 2. He was a Protestant, but in order to gain a foothold on the throne, he converted to Catholicism. This act allowed Henry IV to receive absolution from the Pope for his previous “heretical” views. The monarch spent the first years of his reign fighting his political rivals, who also lay claim to power throughout the country.

And only after his victory, Henry issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598, which secured free religion throughout the country. Thus ended the religious wars and the strengthening of the monarchy in France. After more than thirty years of bloodshed, long-awaited peace has arrived in the country. The Huguenots received new rights and impressive subsidies from the authorities. The results of the religious war in France were not only the end of a long conflict, but also the centralization of the state under the rule of the Bourbon dynasty.

The French historian described the events of 1568-1570 as follows: “This military campaign remained in the memory of contemporaries as one of the most terrible episodes of the civil war. The advance of the army, like a hurricane, was accompanied by violence, massacres, arson of monasteries, as well as farms and grain barns.”

St. Bartholomew's Night

The most important achievement of the new king - Henry IV — became the expulsion of foreign troops and the final restoration of religious peace. In 1598 Henry IV issued the famous Edict of Nantes, which for the first time in European history legalized the coexistence of two religions within one state. Catholicism retained its dominant position, but the Huguenots received freedom of religion and guaranteed rights to participate in political life. They had one hundred fortresses and their own armed forces at their disposal. The king himself completed his life path just like his predecessor, having fallen at the hands of a Catholic murderer.

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Religious wars are the same as civil wars

The Religious Wars are a period of French history in the 17th century, when the country's citizens - Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots) fought with each other. There were eight wars in total

Years of religious wars in France 1562-1598

Who are the Huguenots?

Huguenots are French Protestants, followers of the reformist teachings of the preacher J. Calvin.
Protestantism penetrated into Catholic France at the beginning of the 17th century from neighboring Germany and Switzerland and quickly gained popularity. Its appearance was facilitated by the work of the philosopher Jacques Lefebvre from Etaples (1455-1536), who translated New Testament on French and published it in 1523. Lefebvre's students were such famous reformers and humanists as Guillaume Farel, Gerard Roussel, Michel d'Arand. As Wikipedia points out, by 1557, 35% of the French adhered to the new teaching

The “dastardly idea” (Surprise at Meaux) forced the Queen Mother to sharply change her attitude towards the Huguenots. They declared war not for life, but for death. In this declaration, Charles IX expressed regret over the earlier concessions made to the Huguenots, which did not help in the least to pacify the country; on the contrary, the Reformers stubbornly continued to stir up troubles. He demanded that the Huguenots immediately transfer under royal jurisdiction all the fortresses they occupied, all Calvinist preachers had to leave the borders of the French kingdom within two weeks, all religious cults, except the Catholic one, were prohibited under pain of confiscation of property, government officials who professed Calvinism were deprived of their positions. As an act of mercy, an amnesty was declared for all Huguenots who would lay down their arms within seven days.

• 1569, March 12, May 7, June 25, September 24-1570, June 27 - battles of Jarnac, La Roche-l'Abel, Moncontour, d'Ornay-le-Duc, death of the Prince of Condé, alternate successes and defeats of the parties
• 1570, August 8 - Peace of Saint-Germain. Huguenots were granted freedom of religion throughout France, except Paris, the right to hold public office, as well as the fortresses of La Rochelle, Montauban, Cognac and La Charité

1572-1573 - fourth religious war

• 1572, August 22 - wedding of Henry of Navarre and Margaret of Valois
• 1572, August 24 - . Death of de Coligny
• 1573, February 11-July 6 - unsuccessful siege of La Rochelle by Catholics, Henry of Navarre converted to Catholicism, Catherine de Medici's third son Henry took the Polish throne
• 1573, June 11 - Edict of Boulogne. It greatly curtailed the rights granted by the Edict of Saint-Germain of 1570: with general freedom of conscience, freedom of worship was limited to La Rochelle and some other cities, the rights to freedom of religion for noble landowners were now preserved under certain conditions
• 1573, June 24 - Treaty of La Rochelle, confirming the Edict of Boulogne
• 1573 - the creation of the so-called “party of the dissatisfied”, striving for reconciliation between Catholics and Huguenots, the party was headed by the youngest son of Catherine de Medici, the Duke of Alençon

1574-1576 - fifth religious war

• 1574, May 30 - death of King Charles IX, the third son of Catherine de Medici, the Polish king Henry of Anjou, ascended the throne under the name of Henry III.
• 1574, November 4 - the third Duke de Montmorency, being an almost independent ruler of Languedoc, demanded from the new king the restoration of rights for the Huguenots, and not receiving what he wanted, began military operations
• 1575 - the so-called Huguenot Confederation of cities and nobility took shape in Nîmes, which actually represented a state within a state, had its own army and tax system, its highest body was the Estates General.
• 1575, autumn - an army of Protestants, led by Henry de Bourbon, second prince de Condé and Count Palatine of the Rhine Johann Casimir of Palatinate-Simmern, invaded France
• 1575, October 10 - the Battle of Dorman, in which the Catholic army of Heinrich Guise defeated the German Protestants of Condé
• 1576, February - Henry of Navarre joined the rebels

Conde claimed the governorship in Picardy, Damville - in Languedoc, the Duke of Anjou hoped to carve out for himself part of the hereditary land holdings in Anjou, Berry and Touraine, Johann Casimir demanded a bishopric in Metz, Toule and Verdun. The rebels had an army of 30,000 people and threatened Paris. Lacking funds for its defense, Henry III entered into negotiations with younger brother. The negotiations were led by the Queen Mother Catherine de Medici

• 1576, May 6 - Edict of Beaulieu (“Peace of Monsieur” or “peace of the king’s brother”): Protestants gained eight fortresses, representation in each of the provincial parliaments and the opportunity to freely practice their cult throughout the kingdom, except for Paris and its suburbs. Damville retained the position of governor of Languedoc, which came with powers that made him an independent viceroy; the Duke of Anjou received Anjou, Touraine and Berry. Condé was assigned control of Picardy. Johann Casimir was offered 300 thousand ecus as compensation. Henry of Navarre received the governorship of Guienne

1576-1577 Sixth War

• 1576, May - Duke Guenich of Guise created the Catholic League with the goal of uniting Catholics and moderate Protestants around himself and, with their support, seizing the crown of France. Soon, under the banners of the League there were already about 50 thousand cavalry and 30 thousand infantry
• 1576, December 6 - meetings of the Estates General, the highest class representative institution of France, which rejected the peace in Beaulieu, opened in Blois. Most of the deputies shared the ideals of the League and readily voted for the suppression of Protestantism in France, thereby provoking another, already sixth, civil war, which lasted for several months in 1577 and took place mainly in Saintonge and Languedoc.
• 1577, September 17 - Peace of Bergerac (“peace of the king”). He confirmed the provisions of the “peace of the king’s brother,” but with the additional Edict of Poitiers, which guaranteed the Huguenots the right to free worship and placed a number of fortresses at their disposal. The victims of St. Bartholomew's Night were rehabilitated. The dissolution of the League and the Protestant Confederation was announced, which allowed the king to take his rightful place as the spokesman and defender of the interests of all his subjects. The secret articles of the treaty determined the legal and administrative conditions for the peaceful coexistence of Catholics and Protestants.
• 1579, February 3 - peace conference in Neraka, the thirtieth after the outbreak of civil wars, but the first at which those gathered, discarding talk about religion, discussed only political issues.

  Under the influence of Condé, the Protestants at first made completely unthinkable demands. The strong royal army led by Montmorency forced them to accept the Queen Mother's more reasonable proposals. Catherine vowed that within six months the Catholics would fulfill their promises under the Treaty of Bergerac. As a guarantee, the Protestants will receive for this period eight fortified fortresses in Guienne and eleven in Languedoc, which they will have to vacate after six months

1579-1580 Seventh War (“Lover's War”)

Henry of Navarre heard rumors spread by the royal court that his wife Margaret was unfaithful to him. Henry pretended that he did not believe the “slander” and declared war on his brother-in-law in order to wash away the shame of the insult with blood. This is a romantic version of the cause of the war. In fact, the time had come for the Huguenots to return to the French crown the fortresses temporarily placed at their disposal under the Treaty of Nérac.
Military operations were started by the Prince of Condé, who was prevented by Catholics from taking control of Picardy. On November 29, 1579, he captured the city of La Fère. Then Henry of Navarre intervened in the war, beginning the siege of the city of Cahors on May 29, 1580. The battle and its capture by the Huguenots became the main event of the “War of Lovers.” However, overall the royal troops prevailed. On the northern front, Henry III recaptured La Fère, which provoked Condé's flight to Germany. After the success at Cahors, Henry of Navarre, whose military resources were exhausted, was forced to switch to defensive tactics.
• 1580, November 26 - peace in Flay, according to which Henry of Navarre received fortresses for six years, granted to him by the agreement in Nérac for only six months

1584-1589 Eighth War (“War of the Three Henrys”)

• 1584, June 10 - François of Alençon, the last son of Catherine de Medici, died. Henry of Navarre became heir to the French throne. In the same year, the Paris League was formed
• 1584, December 31 - The Duke of Guise and the Spanish Ambassador Mendoza signed a secret treaty in Joinville, according to which a “permanent League for the preservation of the Catholic religion” was established.

At the end of 1584, the “Great Fear” arose in Paris, instilling confusion in the souls of the population. There was a rumor that Henry of Navarre received 200,000 crowns to equip the army. Fearing St. Bartholomew's Night for Catholics, the priests presented a united front against the Devil of Béarn with harsh speeches that excited the crowd. For most Parisians, the Catholic religion was highest value. The organizers of the Paris League were virtuous and serious men with a thorough classical and religious education and belonged to the wealthy bourgeoisie

• 1585, May 21 - Henry of Guise began another war
• 1585, July 7 - Treaty of Nemours. Protestantism was banned. The edict annulled all previously concluded peace treaties, outlawed heresy, and ordered the Huguenots to convert to another faith or leave the country within six months.
• 1585, August 9 - Henry of Navarre, together with Montmorency, the leader of moderate Catholics, led the “Counter-League of Law-Abiding Citizens”, turning to the Queen of England and Germany for help
• 1585, October 7 - Krolo issued an edict according to which Protestants must convert to Catholicism or leave France within two weeks. The King of Navarre was about to begin negotiations with his brother-in-law and express his protest to the king, but the Prince of Condé immediately occupied Saintonge, thereby starting a war
• 1585, December - truce for negotiations
• 1587 - an army of German Protestants invaded France, supported by local Huguenots under the leadership of Henry of Navarre
• 1587, October 20 - the battle near Coutras of the royal and Huguenot troops, the victory of the Protestants, the German mercenaries were bribed to send them home
• 1588, March 5 - Henry de Bourbon, second prince of Condé, died
• 1588, May 12 - Day of the Barricades - an uprising of Parisian Catholics against the moderate policies of King Henry III. Heinrich de Guise became the owner of the city.
• 1588, summer - Guise forced Henry III to sign the Edict of Unity, approved by the Parisian Parliament on July 21. The king promised never to make a truce or peace with the "Huguenot heretics", to prohibit anyone from holding public office who did not take a public oath as a Catholic, and not to transfer the throne to a non-Catholic.
• 1588, October 16 - a meeting of the Estates General opened in Blois. The delegates demanded that the king reduce taxes to the level of 1576, persecute Protestants “without any pity or compassion,” take the most severe military measures against Henry of Navarre, and solemnly recognize the impossibility of enthroning “a prince who has ever been found guilty of heresy.” Henry III refused, which meant open confrontation with Henry of Guise
• 1588, December 23 - assassination of Henry of Guise by order of King Henry III
• 1589, August 1 - assassination of Henry III by the Dominican monk Jacques Clement. the mortally wounded king ordered his supporters to swear allegiance to the Genik of Navra
• 1589-1590 - successful battles (at Arc, at Ivry) of Gerich IV with the Catholics

End of the Wars of Religion

• 1591, July 4 - Henry issued an edict in which he restored the provisions of the Edict of Poitiers of 1577, which significantly limited the freedom of religion of Protestants
• 1593, July 25 - Henry the Fourth solemnly renounced Protestantism
• 1594, February 27 - coronation of Henry IV
• 1598, April 13 - The Edict of Nantes by Henry IV, ended the thirty-year period of the Religious Wars in France. The edict granted full equality to Catholics and Protestants. The first article of the edict consigned to oblivion the events of the Religious Wars and prohibited any mention of them

the memory of everything that happened on both sides from the beginning of March 1585 until our coronation and during other previous troubles will be erased, as if nothing had happened. Neither our attorney generals nor any other persons, public or private, will be allowed to ever mention this for any reason.

The result of the religious wars

Paradoxically, after the end of the Wars of Religion, France became stronger. The highest feudal lords stopped rebelling against royal power. France became the strongest European centralized state and remained so for more than two hundred years.

On October 17, 1685, Louis XIV signed an edict at Fontainebleau revoking the Edict of Nantes. It was ordered to destroy Huguenot temples and their schools. The consequences of the repeal of the Edict of Nantes for France were sad: trade declined, Protestants, the most enterprising, hardworking, educated citizens of the kingdom, emigrated in hundreds of thousands - to England, Holland, Sweden, Denmark, Switzerland, Prussia, Canada