On August 31, 1907, a Russian-British treaty was signed in St. Petersburg, ending the creation of the Entente
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Triple Jeopardy
The emergence of the Entente was inevitable: by the end of the 19th century, the expansionist policy of Germany and Austria-Hungary, which sought to significantly change the world order that had developed by that time, became too great. Understanding full well that the European space was becoming a very narrow and cramped field of activity, and outside the Old World, the interests of the two powers could intersect at any moment, the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph and German Emperor Wilhelm II found the only possible solution: the signing of an interstate union.
The Austro-German Treaty, later called the Dual Alliance (by analogy with the Triple Alliance), was signed in Vienna in 1879 for five years, but was renewed several times and was in force until the very end of the existence of the two famous empires. The resulting alliance had an openly anti-Russian orientation: its first article stipulated that if one of the empires was attacked by Russia, the second would immediately come to the rescue “with the entire totality of military forces”; and also - not to make peace except by mutual agreement. The same order of support would apply if the participating countries were attacked by any other power, on whose side the Russian Empire would act. Obviously, the “other power” meant France, the only major European country at that time that could count on Russian support.
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Three years later, Italy joined the Dual Alliance, and it turned into the Triple Alliance. St. Petersburg and Paris responded to this development of the situation in the only possible way: they concluded their own agreement on support in the event of aggression from the new military-political bloc. However, the Franco-Russian agreement was much more than just a military alliance. Having suffered a recent defeat, France needed a strong ally more than ever. And she found it in the person of Russia, which turned the Russians into almost the best friends of the French.
But big politics rarely makes it possible to get what you want without an unpleasant “makeweight”. And it is quite obvious that the emergence of these two alliances - the Triple Alliance and the Franco-Russian Alliance - became the starting point on the path to the creation of the Entente and the first step towards the First World War.
London in search of allies
The development of the situation in the Old World at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries and the flaring up colonial disputes beyond its borders quickly demonstrated to all the leading powers that the contradictions accumulating between them, the further, the less they could be resolved exclusively by diplomatic methods. The rapid militarization of the Triple Alliance and the intensification of its colonial claims began to cause increasing concern in Great Britain, which saw Germany as its new rival on the world stage. If Russia was Britain's rival on land, primarily in the Middle East and Central Asia, then the German colonies in regions that England traditionally considered its sphere of interests were also a challenge at sea. In addition, the German fleet was rapidly gaining muscle, posing an increasing threat to the Grand Fleet. And Britain, which tried not to join any military-political alliances, had no choice but to look for official allies.
The island empire officially confirmed its rejection of “splendid isolation,” as the policy of non-entry into international unions in Britain was called, in 1904 by concluding a Franco-British agreement. Formally, this was not a military-political alliance, but the terms of this agreement, which delimited the spheres of influence of the two powers in Africa and the New World, allowed us to conclude that England and France were formalizing allied relations. And the rhetoric that accompanied the agreement in both countries was also allied.
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Having found mutual language with its longtime rival in the European theater, Britain did not stop, but continued to search for new allies. There was a growing smell of a big war in the air, and London needed an additional alliance that would force Germany and Austria-Hungary to fight on two fronts in the event of hostilities breaking out. Rely on small states Southern Europe did not have to: they would hardly be able to withstand the cumulative military power Triple Alliance. So Britain had no choice but to turn its gaze east, to another eternal rival - Russia.
Divide and conquer
It must be admitted that St. Petersburg was no less interested in reaching an agreement with London. The war that just ended forced Russia to look for an ally capable of putting pressure on Tokyo, and in a short series of such countries, the first place was undoubtedly occupied by Great Britain. In addition, Russia found itself in a strange position: its closest ally, France, had tied itself into allied relations with the British, and now Russian Empire I had to take this fact into account when building my own relations with both powers.
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Mutual interest in concluding a Russian-British treaty turned out to be great enough to outweigh many Anglo-Russian contradictions. Moreover, in 1906 the previous Russian minister Foreign Affairs Count Vladimir Lamzdorf, known for his sympathy for German Empire, was replaced in this post by Alexander Izvolsky, whose views were marked by noticeable Germanophobia. The new head of the Russian Foreign Ministry, by his own admission, endured a real struggle with everyone, right down to his employees in the ministry, but achieved the implementation of what he thought was the most important plan: the signing of the Russian-British agreement.
Like the Franco-British agreement of 1904, the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1907 concerned itself primarily with the delimitation of interests in those world regions in relation to which St. Petersburg and London could not reach an agreement for decades - the Middle East and Tibet. The agreement, signed on August 31 in St. Petersburg, stipulated that Russia would renounce its claims to Afghanistan, which would become a British sphere of influence, but would gain the opportunity to directly influence the state of affairs in the northern part of Persia. The southern part of this region became a zone of British interest, and the center, primarily the coast of the Persian Gulf, was decided to be considered neutral. Both powers decided to declare Tibet equally neutral, recognizing Chinese sovereignty in relation to this region and abandoning attempts to control events in Lhasa.
Postcard showing the flags of the main countries that joined the Entente at the beginning of the First World War
By 1914, Europe was split into two major alliances, which included the six most powerful powers. Their confrontation escalated into world war. Britain, France and Russia formed the Entente, and Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy united in Triple Alliance. The split into alliances aggravated the explosiveness and completely quarreled the countries.
The beginning of the formation of alliances
Having won a series of victories (1862-1871), Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck created a new German state, united from several small principalities. However, Bismarck feared that after the formation of the new state, neighboring countries, especially France and Austria-Hungary, would feel threatened and begin to take actions to destroy Germany. Bismarck saw the only way out was to create alliances to stabilize and balance the forces on the geopolitical map of Europe. He believed that this could stop the inevitability of war for Germany.
Dual alliance
Bismarck understood that France was lost as an ally for Germany. After the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War and the occupation of Alsace and Lorraine by Germany, the French had a sharply negative attitude towards the Germans. Britain, on the other hand, sought dominance and actively prevented the formation of any alliances, fearing possible competition from them.
Based on these circumstances, Bismarck decided to turn to Austria-Hungary and Russia. As a result, in 1873 they united into the Alliance of the Three Emperors, the participants of which guaranteed mutual support if hostilities suddenly began. Five years later, Russia decided to leave the union. The following year, the remaining members of the alliance formed the Dual Alliance and now began to consider Russia a threat. They agreed to provide military assistance if Russia attacked them or provided military support to anyone else.
Triple Alliance
In 1881, Italy joined the two countries participating in the alliance, and the Triple Alliance was formed, and France was now added to the list of threat factors. Moreover, the alliance guaranteed that if any of its participants found itself in a state of war with two or more states, the alliance would come to the rescue.
Italy, being the weakest member of the alliance, insisted on including an additional clause in the treaty stating that it had the right to withdraw from it if the Triple Alliance acted as an aggressor. Soon after, Italy signed a treaty with France, promising their support if they were attacked by Germany.
"Reinsurance" agreement
Bismarck was frightened by the possibility of a war on two fronts, which meant settling relations with either France or Russia. The Germans' relations with the French were badly damaged, so Bismarck's choice fell on the Russians. The Chancellor invited Russia to sign a “reinsurance agreement.” Under the terms of this treaty, both parties were required to remain neutral in the event of a war breaking out with a third country.
However, this treaty was valid only until 1890, then the German government canceled it, sending Bismarck into retirement. Russia sought to keep the treaty in force, but Germany did not want this. This decision is considered main mistake Bismarck's successors.
Franco-Russian alliance
Carefully designed by Bismarck foreign policy began to crumble after he left. In an effort to expand the German Empire, Kaiser Wilhelm II pursued a policy of aggressive militarization. The expansion and strengthening of the German fleet caused concern in England, France and Russia, which was the reason for the unity of these countries. Meanwhile, the new German government proved insufficiently competent to maintain the alliance created by Germany, and Germany soon faced the distrust and hostility of the European powers.
In 1892, Russia, within the framework of a secret convention, entered into an alliance with France. The terms of this alliance provided for mutual assistance in case of war, without imposing other restrictions. The Alliance was created as a counterweight to the Triple Alliance. Germany's departure from the political course laid out by Bismarck put it in a dangerous position. Now the empire faced the threat of war on two fronts.
Increasing tension between Europe's major powers has forced Great Britain to consider the need to join one of the alliances. Britain did not support France in the Franco-Prussian War, but the countries nevertheless concluded the Entente Cordiale treaty among themselves in 1904. Three years later, a similar treaty appeared between Great Britain and Russia. In 1912, the Anglo-French Naval Convention made this connection even stronger. The alliance came into force.
World War
When Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated in 1914, Austria-Hungary's response was immediate. Over the next few weeks, a full-scale war broke out across Europe. The Entente fought the Triple Alliance, which Italy soon abandoned.
The parties to the conflict were confident that the war would be fleeting and would end by Christmas 1914, but it lasted 4 many years During this time, the United States was also drawn into the conflict. Over the entire period, it claimed the lives of 11 million soldiers and 7 million civilians. The war ended in 1919 with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles.
Formation of the Entente.
Entente.
Military-political blocs during World War I.
Entente- a military-political bloc of Russia, England and France, created as a counterweight to the “Triple Alliance” ( A-Entente); formed mainly in 1904-1907 and completed the delimitation of the great powers on the eve of the First World War. The term arose in 1904, initially to designate the Anglo-French alliance, and the expression was used l'Entente cordiale(“cordial agreement”) in memory of the short-lived Anglo-French alliance in the 1840s, which bore the same name.
The creation of the Entente was a reaction to the creation of the Triple Alliance and the strengthening of Germany, an attempt to prevent its hegemony on the continent, initially from Russia (France initially took an anti-German position), and then from Great Britain. The latter, in the face of the threat of German hegemony, was forced to abandon the traditional policy of “brilliant isolation” and move to - however, also traditional - a policy of blocking against itself. strong power continent. Particularly important incentives for this choice of Great Britain were the German naval program and the colonial claims of Germany. In Germany, in turn, this turn of events was declared an “encirclement” and served as a reason for new military preparations, positioned as purely defensive.
The confrontation between the Entente and the Triple Alliance led to the First World War, where the enemy of the Entente and its allies was the Central Powers bloc, in which Germany played a leading role.
The Triple Alliance is a military-political bloc of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, formed in 1879-1882, which marked the beginning of the division of Europe into hostile camps and played important role in the preparation and outbreak of the First World War (1914-1918).
The main organizer of the Triple Alliance was Germany, which concluded a military alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879. After this, in 1882, Italy joined them. The core of an aggressive military group was created in Europe, directed against Russia and France.
On May 20, 1882, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy signed the secret Treaty of the Triple Alliance ( Austro-German Treaty of 1879, also known as Dual alliance- Treaty of Alliance between Austria-Hungary and Germany; signed in Vienna on October 7, 1879.
Imprisoned for a period of 5 years, subsequently renewed several times. Article 1 established that if one of the contracting parties was attacked by Russia, then both parties were obliged to come to the aid of each other. Article 2 provided that in the event of an attack on one of the contracting parties by any other power, the other party undertakes to maintain at least benevolent neutrality. If the attacking side receives Russian support, then Article 1 comes into force.
The treaty, directed primarily against Russia and France, was one of the agreements that led to the creation of a military bloc led by Germany (Triple Alliance) and to the division European countries into two hostile camps, which subsequently opposed each other in the 1st World War).
They made a commitment (for a period of 5 years) not to take part in any alliances or agreements directed against one of these countries, to consult on issues of a political and economic nature and to provide mutual support. Germany and Austria-Hungary pledged to provide assistance to Italy in the event that it “would, without a direct challenge on its part, be attacked by France.” Italy was to do the same in the event of an unprovoked French attack on Germany. Austria-Hungary was assigned the role of a reserve in case Russia entered the war. The allies took note of Italy's statement that if one of the powers that attacked its partners was Great Britain, then Italy would not provide them with military assistance (Italy was afraid of entering into conflict with Great Britain, since it could not withstand its strong navy). The parties pledged, in the event of common participation in the war, not to conclude a separate peace and to keep the Treaty of the Triple Alliance secret.
The treaty was renewed in 1887 and 1891 (with additions and clarifications made) and automatically extended in 1902 and 1912.
The policy of the countries participating in the Triple Alliance was characterized by increasing aggressiveness. In response to the creation of the Triple Alliance, a Franco-Russian alliance took shape in 1891-1894, an Anglo-French agreement was concluded in 1904, an Anglo-Russian agreement was concluded in 1907, and the Entente was formed.
WITH late XIX century, Italy, which was suffering losses from the customs war waged against it by France, began to change its political course. In 1902, she entered into an agreement with France, pledging to remain neutral in the event of a German attack on France.
After the conclusion of the London Pact, Italy entered World War I on the side of the Entente, and the Triple Alliance collapsed (1915). After Italy left the alliance, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire joined Germany and Austria-Hungary to form the Quadruple Alliance.
The beginning of the last century was marked by a sharp aggravation of contradictions between the world's major powers. The main rivalry flared up between England and Germany, who headed the opposing military-political blocs: the Entente and the Triple Alliance.
Back in 1904, an agreement was reached between Paris and London, which discussed the elimination of controversial territorial issues between them - the delimitation of their spheres of interest in Africa. Although it did not say anything about Germany, the agreement was essentially directed against it, since Berlin began to openly declare the need to redivide the world. And this created a threat to the colonial possessions of London and Paris. German claims against England and France pushed Paris to strengthen ties with Russia and forced British diplomacy to achieve the same, especially since St. Petersburg's mediation was required in resolving controversial issues in the Asian region regarding the delimitation of spheres of influence.
SPLITTLE BETWEEN RUSSIA AND GERMANY
Other problems in the world have also worsened. Japan expressed complaints about the terms of the Portsmouth Peace. Austro-Hungarian and German capital broke through to Turkey. Berlin strove to undermine England's dominance in the seas and intensively strengthened the power of its naval forces. An arms race began.
In 1907, on the initiative of Russia, the second international Hague Conference was held, in which 44 states participated. It adopted 13 conventions, including: on the limitation of arms, on the introduction of arbitration for the peaceful resolution of international conflicts, on the laws and conditions of warfare, etc.
In the ruling circles of Russia, the assessment of current events (especially in relation to Germany) was contradictory. It should be noted that Berlin actively sought to draw Russia into the wake of its policies and split its international alliances. So, in 1905, during a meeting between Nicholas II and Wilhelm II in Bjerke, the Kaiser persuaded the Tsar to sign (secretly from the then Foreign Minister V.N. Lamzdorf) an agreement containing obligations of Russia and Germany on mutual assistance in the event of an attack on one of the contracting parties of any European power. Despite the extreme indignation of Wilhelm II, the Bjork Agreement, which was in conflict with the alliance treaty with France, did not have any practical results and was essentially annulled by Russia in the fall of 1905. Logic of development international relations ultimately pushed the autocracy towards the Entente.
Russia's transition to the camp of Germany's opponents became apparent, but not immediately. Appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs A.P. Izvolsky sought to achieve rapprochement with England without breaking relations with Germany. To do this, he planned to conclude agreements on the most pressing issues with both Germany and Austria-Hungary, and with England. At the same time, Izvolsky intended to regulate relations with Japan. This policy allowed Russia to gain the breathing space necessary to resolve internal problems, restoration of military potential and was supposed to provide it with an advantageous position in the emerging Anglo-German conflict.
JAPAN'S CLAIMS
After the signing of the Portsmouth Peace, relations between Russia and Japan remained tense. Tokyo made a number of demands aimed at expanding its influence on Far East to the detriment of Russian interests. Militarist circles in Japan believed that “peace was concluded prematurely” and sought new conquests in the Far East, primarily the complete annexation of Korea and Southern Manchuria. They began to increase the army and navy. There were also calls for revenge in Russia. And Germany fueled these sentiments and pushed both countries towards a new military conflict. At the same time, Berlin promised Russia its help and put forward the idea of a German-Russian-American coalition against Japan. Having entered into negotiations with Russia, Tokyo presented it with demands to expand its sphere of influence along the Songhua River in Manchuria, up to the inclusion of the Chinese Eastern Railway in this sphere, as well as free navigation along the Amur, preferential transportation of goods through Siberia, and virtually unlimited freedom of fishing along the Far Eastern coast of Russia.
In 1907, a Russian-Japanese agreement on political issues was signed. The parties agreed to maintain the “status quo” in the Far East. Northern Manchuria and Outer Mongolia were recognized as the sphere of influence of Russia, and Southern Manchuria and Korea were recognized as the sphere of influence of Japan.
BOSNIA CRISIS
In 1908, Izvolsky, during negotiations with the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Austria-Hungary A. Erenthal, agreed to the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, occupied by the Austrians after the Berlin Congress, to Austria-Hungary. In exchange, he received Aehrenthal's promise not to object to the opening of the Black Sea straits to Russian military vessels. However, England and France did not support the claims of tsarist diplomacy. Izvolsky's attempt to solve the problem of the straits failed. Austria-Hungary, meanwhile, announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Germany sent an ultimatum to Russia in March 1909, demanding recognition of this act. The tsarist government, realizing that it was not ready for a decisive objection, was forced to yield.
BALKAN WARS
The prologue to the First World War was the Balkan wars of 1912-1913. Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Greece, united as a result of the active efforts of Russian diplomacy, began a war against Turkey and defeated it. The winners soon quarreled with each other. Germany and Austria-Hungary, considering the formation of the Balkan Union as a success of Russian diplomacy, took steps aimed at its collapse and pushed Bulgaria to act against Serbia and Greece. During the Second Balkan War, Bulgaria, against which they began fighting also Romania and Türkiye were defeated. All these events significantly aggravated Russian-German and Russian-Austrian contradictions. Türkiye became more and more subject to German influence.
THE BEGINNING OF THE ENTENTE
The Russian government, realizing the country’s unpreparedness for war and fearing (in case of defeat) new revolution, sought to delay the armed conflict with Germany and Austria-Hungary. At the same time, in the face of a progressive deterioration in relations with its western neighbors, it tried to formalize allied relations with England. These attempts were unsuccessful, since London did not want to bind itself to any obligations. The allied relations between Russia and France by 1914, however, had strengthened significantly. In 1911-1913, at meetings of the heads of Russian and French general staffs decisions were made that provided for an increase in the number of troops deployed against Germany in the event of war. The naval headquarters of England and France concluded a naval convention that entrusted the protection of the Atlantic coast of France to the English fleet, and the protection of England's interests in the Mediterranean to the French. The Entente as a coalition of England, France and Russia, directed against the Triple Alliance, was becoming a threatening reality.
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The Entente and the Triple Alliance are military-political associations, each of which pursued its own interests; they were opposing forces during the First World War.
The Entente is a political union of three friendly states - Russia, England and France, created in 1895.
Unlike the Triple Alliance, which was a military bloc even before the Entente, it became a full-fledged military association only when gun shots thundered over Europe in 1914. It was in this year that England, France and Russia signed an agreement under which they committed themselves not to enter into agreements with their opponents.
The Triple Alliance emerged from Austria-Hungary in 1879. A little later, namely in 1882, they were joined by Italy, which completed the process of formation of this military-political bloc. He played a significant role in creating the situations that led to the outbreak of the First World War. In accordance with the clauses of the agreement, signed for a five-year period, the countries participating in this agreement pledged not to participate in actions directed against one of them and to provide all possible support for each other. According to their agreement, all three parties were to serve as so-called “backers.” In the event of an attack on Italy, Germany and Austria-Hungary became its reliable defense. In the case of Germany, its supporters, Italy and Austria-Hungary, who were a trump card in the event of Russian participation in military operations.
The Triple Alliance was concluded on a secret basis and with minor reservations on the part of Italy. Since she did not want to enter into conflict relations with Great Britain, she warned her allies not to count on her support if any of them were attacked by Great Britain.
The creation of the Triple Alliance served as an impetus for the formation of a counterweight in the form of the Entente, which included France, Russia and Great Britain. It was this confrontation that led to the outbreak of the First World War.
The Triple Alliance lasted until 1915, since Italy already participated in military operations on the side of the Entente. This redistribution of forces was preceded by the neutrality of this country in relations between Germany and France, with which it was not beneficial for the “native” to spoil relations.
The Triple Alliance was eventually replaced by the Quadruple Alliance, in which Italy was replaced Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria.
The Entente and the Triple Alliance were extremely interested in the territory of the Balkan Peninsula, the Near Peninsula and Germany wanted to capture part of France and its colonies; Austria-Hungary needed control of the Balkans; England pursued the goal of weakening Germany's position, securing a global market monopoly, and also maintaining naval power; France dreamed of returning the territories of Alsace and Lorraine taken away during the Franco-Prussian War; Russia wanted to take root in the Balkans and seize the western
Largest quantity contradictions were associated with the Balkan Peninsula. Both the first and second blocs wanted to strengthen their positions in this region. The struggle began with peaceful diplomatic methods, accompanied by parallel preparation and strengthening of the countries' military forces. Germany and Austria-Hungary actively took up the modernization of troops. Russia was the least prepared.
The event that served and prompted the start of hostilities was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Serbia by a student. A shot at a moving car hit not only Ferdinand, but also his wife. On July 15, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia...
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