The results of 1914 of the First World War briefly. Stages of the First World War briefly

The starting point in the history of the war, later called the First World War, is considered 1914 (July 28), and ending - 1918 (November 11). Many countries of the world took part in it, divided into two camps:

- Entente ( block, originally France, England, Russia, which after a certain period of time were also joined by Italy, Romania, and many other countries)

- Quadruple Union(Austro-Hungarian Empire, Germany, Bulgaria, Ottoman Empire).

If we briefly describe the period of history known to us as the First World War, then it can be divided into three stages: the initial one, when the main participating countries entered the arena of actions, the middle one, when the situation turned in favor of the Entente, and the final one, when Germany and its the allies finally lost their positions and capitulated.

First step

War started with the assassination of Franz Ferdinand(heir to the Habsburg Empire) and his wife, the Serbian nationalist terrorist Gavrila Princip. The murder led to conflict between Serbia and Austria, and, in fact, served as a pretext for the outbreak of war, which has long been brewing in Europe. Germany supported Austria in this war. This country went to war with Russia August 1, 1914, but two more days later - with France; further, the German army broke into the territory of Luxembourg and Belgium. The enemy armies advanced towards the sea, where the line of the Western Front eventually closed. For some time the situation here remained stable, and France did not lose control over its coast, which they unsuccessfully tried to capture German troops. In 1914, namely in mid-August, the Eastern Front opened: here the Russian army attacked and quickly seized territories in eastern Prussia. Victorious for Russia Galician battle took place August 18, which temporarily put an end to violent clashes between the Austrians and Russians.

Serbia retook Belgrade, previously captured by the Austrians, after which there were no particularly active battles. Japan also turned against Germany, capturing its island colonies in 1914.. This secured the eastern borders of Russia from invasion, but from the south it was attacked by the Ottoman Empire, which acted on the side of Germany. At the end of 1914 she opened Caucasian front, which cut Russia off from convenient communication with allied countries.

Second phase

intensified Western Front: here in 1915 year resumed fierce fighting between France and Germany. The forces were equal, and the front line remained almost unchanged at the end of the year, although both sides suffered significant damage. On the Eastern Front, the situation changed for the worse for the Russians: the Germans committed Gorlitsky breakthrough, having won Galicia and Poland from Russia. By autumn, the front line had stabilized: now it ran almost along the pre-war border between the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Russia.

IN 1915 (May 23) into the war Italy entered. At first, she announced the war against Austria-Hungary, but soon Bulgaria also joined the fighting, opposing the Entente, which eventually led to the fall of Serbia.

In 1916 happened Battle of Verdun, one of the largest battles in this war. The operation lasted from late February to mid-December; during this confrontation between the German troops, who had lost 450,000 soldiers, and the Anglo-French forces, which suffered losses in 750 000 man, the flamethrower was first used. On the Western Russian Front, Russian troops committed Brusilovsky breakthrough, after which Germany transferred there most their troops, which played into the hands of England and France. Fierce battles were also fought on the water at this time. So, spring 1916 major Battle of Jutland who strengthened the positions of the Entente. At the end of the year, the Quadruple Alliance, having lost its dominant position in the war, proposed a truce, which the Entente rejected.

Third stage

IN 1917 the United States joined the allied forces. The Entente was close to victory, but Germany held a strategic defense on land, and also tried to attack the forces of England with the help of a submarine fleet. Russia in October 1917 years after the Revolution almost completely out of the war, absorbed internal problems. Germany liquidated the Eastern Front by signing armistice with Russia, Ukraine and Romania. IN March 1918 year between Russia and Germany was concluded Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the conditions of which turned out to be extremely difficult for Russia, but soon this agreement was canceled. Under Germany, the Baltic states, part of Belarus and Poland still remained; The country transferred the main military forces to the west, but, together with Austria (the Habsburg Empire), Bulgaria and Turkey (Ottoman Empire), was defeated by the Entente troops. Completely exhausted Germany was forced to sign the Act of Surrender - it happened in 1918, on November 11th. This date is considered the end of the war.

The Entente troops won a final victory in 1918.

After the war, the economies of all participating countries suffered greatly. A particularly deplorable state of affairs was in Germany; in addition, this country lost an eighth of the territories that belonged to it before the war, which went to the Entente countries, and the banks of the Rhine River remained occupied by the victorious allied forces for 15 years. Germany was ordered to pay reparations to the allies for 30 years, imposed strict restrictions on all types of weapons and the size of the army- it should not have exceeded 100 thousand military men.

However, the victorious member countries of the Entente bloc also suffered losses. Their economy was extremely depleted, all branches of the national economy suffered a severe decline, the standard of living deteriorated sharply, and only the military monopolies found themselves in an advantageous position. The situation in Russia has also become extremely destabilized, which is explained not only by internal political processes (primarily the October Revolution and the events that followed it), but also by the country's participation in the First World War. The United States was the least affected- mainly because military operations were not conducted directly on the territory of this country, and its participation in the war was not long. The US economy experienced a real boom in the 1920s, which was replaced only in the 1930s by the so-called Great Depression, but the war that had already passed and did not greatly affect the country had nothing to do with these processes.

And, finally, about the losses that the First World War brought, briefly: human losses are estimated at 10 million soldiers and about 20 million civilians. The exact number of victims of this war has not been established. The lives of many people were claimed not only by armed conflicts, but also by famine, epidemics of disease, and extremely difficult living conditions.

World War I 1914 - 1918 became one of the most bloody and large-scale conflicts in human history. It began on July 28, 1914 and ended on November 11, 1918. 38 states participated in this conflict. If we talk briefly about the causes of the First World War, then it can be argued with confidence that this conflict was provoked by serious economic contradictions of the alliances of world powers that formed at the beginning of the century. It is also worth noting that, probably, there was a possibility of a peaceful settlement of these contradictions. However, feeling the increased power, Germany and Austria-Hungary moved to more decisive action.

Participants of the First World War were:

• on the one hand, the Quadruple Alliance, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey (Ottoman Empire);
• on the other block, the Entente, which was made up of Russia, France, England and allied countries (Italy, Romania and many others).

The outbreak of World War I was provoked by the assassination of the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and his wife by a member of a Serbian nationalist terrorist organization. The murder committed by Gavrilo Princip provoked a conflict between Austria and Serbia. Germany supported Austria and entered the war.

The course of the First World War is divided by historians into five separate military campaigns.

The beginning of the military campaign of 1914 is dated July 28. On August 1, Germany, which entered the war, declares war on Russia, and on August 3 on France. German troops invade Luxembourg and later Belgium. In 1914 major events The First World War unfolded in France and today is known as the "Run to the Sea". In an effort to surround the enemy troops, both armies moved to the coast, where the front line eventually closed. France retained control of the port cities. Gradually the front line stabilized. The calculation of the German command for a quick capture of France did not materialize. Since the forces of both sides were exhausted, the war took on a positional character. Such are the events on the Western Front.

Military operations on the Eastern Front began on August 17. The Russian army launched an attack on the eastern part of Prussia and initially it turned out to be quite successful. The victory in the Battle of Galicia (August 18) was accepted by the majority of society with joy. After this battle, Austrian troops no longer entered into serious battles with Russia in 1914.

Events in the Balkans did not develop too well either. Belgrade, captured earlier by Austria, was recaptured by the Serbs. There were no active battles in Serbia this year. In the same year, 1914, Japan also came out against Germany, which allowed Russia to secure the Asian borders. Japan began to take action to seize the island colonies of Germany. However, the Ottoman Empire entered the war on the side of Germany, opening the Caucasian front and depriving Russia of convenient communication with the allied countries. According to the results at the end of 1914, none of the countries participating in the conflict was able to achieve their goals.

The second campaign in the chronology of the First World War dates from 1915. On the Western Front there were fierce military clashes. Both France and Germany made desperate attempts to turn the tide in their favor. However, the huge losses suffered by both sides did not lead to serious results. In fact, the front line by the end of 1915 had not changed. Neither the spring offensive of the French in Artois, nor the operations transported to Champagne and Artois in the autumn changed the situation.

The situation on the Russian front has changed for the worse. The winter offensive of the poorly prepared Russian army soon turned into the August counteroffensive of the Germans. And as a result of the Gorlitsky breakthrough of the German troops, Russia lost Galicia and, later, Poland. Historians note that in many ways the Great Retreat of the Russian army was provoked by a supply crisis. The front stabilized only by autumn. The German troops occupied the west of the Volyn province and partially repeated the pre-war borders with Austria-Hungary. The position of the troops, just as in France, contributed to the beginning of a positional war.

1915 was marked by Italy's entry into the war (May 23). Despite the fact that the country was a member of the Quadruple Alliance, it announced the start of the war against Austria-Hungary. But on October 14, Bulgaria declared war on the Entente alliance, which led to the complication of the situation in Serbia and its imminent fall.

During the military campaign of 1916, one of the most famous battles of the First World War, Verdun, took place. In an effort to suppress the resistance of France, the German command concentrated huge forces in the area of ​​the Verdun ledge, hoping to overcome the Anglo-French defenses. During this operation, from February 21 to December 18, up to 750 thousand soldiers of England and France and up to 450 thousand German soldiers died. The battle of Verdun is also known for the fact that for the first time a new type of weapon was used - a flamethrower. However, the greatest effect of this weapon was psychological. To assist the allies, on the Western Russian front was undertaken offensive, called the Brusilovsky breakthrough. This forced Germany to transfer serious forces to the Russian front and somewhat eased the position of the allies.

It should be noted that hostilities developed not only on land. Between the blocks of the strongest world powers there was a fierce confrontation on the water. It was in the spring of 1916 that one of the main battles of the First World War took place on the Jutland Sea. In general, at the end of the year, the Entente bloc became dominant. The proposal of the Quadruple Alliance for peace was rejected.

During the military campaign of 1917, the preponderance of forces in the direction of the Entente increased even more and the United States joined the obvious winners. But the weakening of the economies of all countries participating in the conflict, as well as the growth of revolutionary tension, led to a decrease in military activity. The German command decides on a strategic defense on the land fronts, while at the same time focusing on attempts to withdraw England from the war using the submarine fleet. In the winter of 1916-17 there were no active hostilities in the Caucasus either. The situation in Russia has deteriorated to the maximum. In fact, after the October events, the country withdrew from the war.

1918 brought the most important victories to the Entente, which led to the end of the First World War.

After the actual withdrawal from the war of Russia, Germany managed to eliminate the eastern front. She made peace with Romania, Ukraine, Russia. The terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, concluded between Russia and Germany in March 1918, turned out to be the most difficult for the country, but this agreement was soon canceled.

Subsequently, Germany occupied the Baltic States, Poland and partly Belarus, after which it threw all its forces to the Western Front. But, thanks to the technical superiority of the Entente, the German troops were defeated. After Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria made peace with the Entente countries, Germany was on the brink of disaster. Due to revolutionary events, Emperor Wilhelm leaves his country. November 11, 1918 Germany signs the act of surrender.

According to modern data, the losses in the First World War amounted to 10 million soldiers. Accurate data on casualties among the civilian population does not exist. Presumably, due to difficult living conditions, epidemics and famine, twice as many people died.

Following the results of the First World War, Germany had to pay reparations to the allies for 30 years. She lost 1/8 of her territory, and the colonies went to the victorious countries. Rhine bank occupied for 15 years allied forces. Also, Germany was forbidden to have an army of more than 100 thousand people. Strict restrictions were imposed on all types of weapons.

But, the consequences of the First World War also affected the situation in the victorious countries. Their economies, with the possible exception of the United States, were in a difficult state. The standard of living of the population dropped sharply National economy has fallen into disrepair. At the same time, the military monopolies enriched themselves. For Russia, the First World War became a serious destabilizing factor that largely influenced the development of the revolutionary situation in the country and caused the subsequent civil war.

In 1914, the First World War broke out in the world and, above all, on the European continent. It is very difficult to describe it briefly and at the same time fully, because neither Europe nor the rest of the planet has known such a conflict in the entire history of its existence. This war revealed to the world peculiar innovations of a completely different nature: the first tanks, the use of chemical gases, the tactics of trench warfare, the massacre for a large-scale redistribution of territories around the world, and, finally, an unprecedented number of parties who took part in it.

Briefly about the prerequisites

At the beginning of the century, very serious contradictions arose in Europe between the most influential states of that time. The backbone of the Entente countries consisted of states that survived quite early and by this time had taken a very advantageous position in the world economic, naval and, above all, France and England. In contrast to them, Germany reached its maximum development, having barely completed the industrial revolution, but did not manage to reach the table of division of colonial possessions. A discrepancy was established between the potential and the real role of Germany, in which for several decades on the eve of the war, aggressive pan-Germanist sentiments were growing. Its natural allies were the opponents of England and France, and, secondarily, Russia. So, for example, Austria-Hungary and Turkey had their own interest in the Balkans, where during this period actively

Russia was confirmed. The First World War, in short, was the inevitable consequence of growing contradictions. Thus, conflict was inevitable sooner or later.

World War I: briefly about the occasion

The formal reason for opening fire was the assassination of the Austrian Archduke by Serbian separatists in Sarajevo in June 1914. put forward a very harsh ultimatum to Serbia, with which the government of the Balkan country almost completely agreed, except for the point on the participation of Austrian delegates in the internal Serbian investigation and the search for the perpetrators - this already affected the sovereignty of the Serbian side. In fact, the Habsburgs only needed a pretext to start a war, and they declared it on July 28, giving rise to bloody events.

World War I: course (briefly) of hostilities

The fighting continued for more than four years and ended only in November 1918. At the first stage of the war, the states of the Triple

union: the Germans already in August were practically near Paris, but the entry into the conflict of Japan and a number of other states led to a prolongation of the clash. Gradually, the war took on an exhausting trench character, where none of the sides of the Western Front (French - Germans) could gain advantages. The latter even had to fight on two fronts, dispersing their forces in the east in the fight against the armies of the Romanovs. The forces of the Habsburg Empire quickly demonstrated their archaism both technically, and administratively, and morally. In March 1918, US troops came to the Western Front to help the French, after which the German forces gradually begin to retreat from the territory of their neighbor. In early October, the situation for the Hohenzollerns (German rulers) became so complicated that Wilhelm II was forced to recognize himself as the underdog on November 11, when 1918 was on.

World War I: results (briefly)

This conflict became the most massive at that time. 38 states and more than 74 million people participated in it, of which about 10 million were killed and even more maimed. But the main result of the war was the system of the Versailles agreements, which put defeated countries in a humiliating position, primarily Germany, and led to the next world war. As a result of these same agreements, the last empires were destroyed, and the triumph of nation-states was finally approved in Europe. Other the most important result the popular revolutions in Germany, and especially in Russia, became a worldwide massacre.

World War I 1914 - 1918 became one of the most bloody and large-scale conflicts in human history. It began on July 28, 1914 and ended on November 11, 1918. 38 states participated in this conflict. If we talk briefly about the causes of the First World War, then we can say with confidence that this conflict was provoked by serious economic contradictions of the alliances of world powers that formed at the beginning of the century. It is also worth noting that, probably, there was a possibility of a peaceful settlement of these contradictions. However, feeling the increased power, Germany and Austria-Hungary moved to more decisive action. Participants of the First World War were:

• on the one hand, the Quadruple Alliance, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey (Ottoman Empire);
• on the other block, the Entente, which was made up of Russia, France, England and allied countries (Italy, Romania and many others).

The outbreak of World War I was provoked by the assassination of the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and his wife by a member of a Serbian nationalist terrorist organization. The murder committed by Gavrilo Princip provoked a conflict between Austria and Serbia. Germany supported Austria and entered the war.

The course of the First World War is divided by historians into five separate military campaigns. The beginning of the military campaign of 1914 is dated July 28. On August 1, Germany, which entered the war, declares war on Russia, and on August 3 on France. German troops invade Luxembourg and later Belgium. In 1914, the most important events of the First World War unfolded in France and today are known as the “Run to the Sea”. In an effort to surround the enemy troops, both armies moved to the coast, where the front line eventually closed. France retained control of the port cities. Gradually the front line stabilized. The calculation of the German command for a quick capture of France did not materialize. Since the forces of both sides were exhausted, the war took on a positional character. Such are the events on the Western Front. Military operations on the Eastern Front began on August 17. The Russian army launched an attack on the eastern part of Prussia and initially it turned out to be quite successful. The victory in the Battle of Galicia (August 18) was accepted by the majority of society with joy. After this battle, the Austrian troops no longer entered into serious battles with Russia in 1914. Events in the Balkans did not develop very well either. Belgrade, captured earlier by Austria, was recaptured by the Serbs. There were no active battles in Serbia this year. In the same year, 1914, Japan also came out against Germany, which allowed Russia to secure the Asian borders. Japan began to take action to seize the island colonies of Germany. However, the Ottoman Empire entered the war on the side of Germany, opening the Caucasian front and depriving Russia of convenient communication with the allied countries. According to the results at the end of 1914, none of the countries participating in the conflict was able to achieve their goals. The second campaign in the chronology of the First World War dates from 1915. On the Western Front there were fierce military clashes. Both France and Germany made desperate attempts to turn the tide in their favor. However, the huge losses suffered by both sides did not lead to serious results. In fact, the front line by the end of 1915 had not changed. Neither the spring offensive of the French in Artois, nor the operations transported to Champagne and Artois in the autumn changed the situation. The situation on the Russian front has changed for the worse. The winter offensive of the poorly prepared Russian army soon turned into the August counteroffensive of the Germans. And as a result of the Gorlitsky breakthrough of the German troops, Russia lost Galicia and, later, Poland. Historians note that in many ways the Great Retreat of the Russian army was provoked by a supply crisis. The front stabilized only by autumn. The German troops occupied the west of the Volyn province and partially repeated the pre-war borders with Austria-Hungary. The position of the troops, just as in France, contributed to the beginning of a positional war. 1915 was marked by Italy's entry into the war (May 23). Despite the fact that the country was a member of the Quadruple Alliance, it announced the start of the war against Austria-Hungary. But on October 14, Bulgaria declared war on the Entente alliance, which led to the complication of the situation in Serbia and its imminent fall. During the military campaign of 1916, one of the most famous battles of the First World War, Verdun, took place. In an effort to suppress the resistance of France, the German command concentrated huge forces in the area of ​​the Verdun ledge, hoping to overcome the Anglo-French defenses. During this operation, from February 21 to December 18, up to 750 thousand soldiers of England and France and up to 450 thousand German soldiers died. The battle of Verdun is also known for the fact that for the first time a new type of weapon was used - a flamethrower. However, the greatest effect of this weapon was psychological. To assist the allies, an offensive operation was undertaken on the Western Russian front, called the Brusilov breakthrough. This forced Germany to transfer serious forces to the Russian front and somewhat eased the position of the allies. It should be noted that hostilities developed not only on land. Between the blocks of the strongest world powers there was a fierce confrontation on the water. It was in the spring of 1916 that one of the main battles of the First World War took place on the Jutland Sea. In general, at the end of the year, the Entente bloc became dominant. The proposal of the Quadruple Alliance for peace was rejected. During the military campaign of 1917, the preponderance of forces in the direction of the Entente increased even more and the United States joined the obvious winners. But the weakening of the economies of all countries participating in the conflict, as well as the growth of revolutionary tension, led to a decrease in military activity. The German command decides on a strategic defense on the land fronts, while at the same time focusing on attempts to withdraw England from the war using the submarine fleet. In the winter of 1916-17 there were no active hostilities in the Caucasus either. The situation in Russia has deteriorated to the maximum. In fact, after the October events, the country withdrew from the war. 1918 brought the most important victories to the Entente, which led to the end of the First World War. After the actual withdrawal from the war of Russia, Germany managed to eliminate the eastern front. She made peace with Romania, Ukraine, Russia. The terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, concluded between Russia and Germany in March 1918, turned out to be the most difficult for the country, but this agreement was soon canceled. Subsequently, Germany occupied the Baltic States, Poland and partly Belarus, after which it threw all its forces to the Western Front. But, thanks to the technical superiority of the Entente, the German troops were defeated. After Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria made peace with the Entente countries, Germany was on the brink of disaster. Due to revolutionary events, Emperor Wilhelm leaves his country. November 11, 1918 Germany signs the act of surrender. According to modern data, the losses in the First World War amounted to 10 million soldiers. Accurate data on casualties among the civilian population does not exist. Presumably, due to difficult living conditions, epidemics and famine, twice as many people died. Following the results of the First World War, Germany had to pay reparations to the allies for 30 years. She lost 1/8 of her territory, and the colonies went to the victorious countries. The banks of the Rhine were occupied by the Allied forces for 15 years. Also, Germany was forbidden to have an army of more than 100 thousand people. Strict restrictions were imposed on all types of weapons. But, the consequences of the First World War also affected the situation in the victorious countries. Their economies, with the possible exception of the United States, were in a difficult state. The standard of living of the population dropped sharply, the national economy fell into decay. At the same time, the military monopolies enriched themselves. For Russia, the First World War became a serious destabilizing factor that largely influenced the development of the revolutionary situation in the country and caused the subsequent civil war.

Political results Six months later, Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles (June 28, 1919), drawn up by the victorious states at the Paris Peace Conference, which officially ended the First world war. Peace treaties with Germany (Versailles Treaty); Austria (Saint-Germain Treaty); Bulgaria (Neuil Treaty); Hungary (Trianon Treaty); Turkey (Sevres Peace Treaty).

The results of the First World War were the February and October Revolution in Russia and the November Revolution in Germany, the liquidation of four empires: the Russian, German, Ottoman empires and Austria-Hungary, the latter two being divided. Germany, having ceased to be a monarchy, was cut down territorially and weakened economically. The difficult conditions for Germany of the Treaty of Versailles (payment of reparations, etc.) and the national humiliation suffered by it gave rise to revanchist sentiments, which became one of the prerequisites for the Nazis to come to power and unleash the Second World War.

The independence of the Byelorussian People's Republic, the Ukrainian People's Republic, Hungary, Danzig, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, and Finland was proclaimed. The Republic of Austria is founded. The German Empire became a de facto republic. The Rhine region and the Black Sea straits were demilitarized. Economic results: The grandiose scale and protracted nature of the First World War led to an unprecedented militarization of the economy for industrialized states. This had an impact on the course of economic development of all large industrial states in the period between the two world wars: strengthening state regulation and economic planning, the formation of military-industrial complexes, the acceleration of the development of national economic infrastructures (energy systems, a network of paved roads, etc.), an increase in the share of production of defense products and dual-use products.

Question 28. The First World War (1914-1918): causes, course, results and consequences.

1st World War (July 28, 1914 - November 11, 1918) - one of the most large-scale. armed conflicts in human history. The immediate cause for the war was the assassination in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a student from Bosnia, Gavrilo Princip, who was one of the members of the Mlada Bosna terror organization, which fought for the unification of all South Slavs. peoples into one state. A-V. - Serbia's ultimatum: Serbia is ready to accept everything, kr.investigation of the murder of Austro-Hungarians, removal from office of officials objectionable to Vienna. Causes of WW1: striving to weaken competitors and military resolution of political and economic contradictions. striving for the preservation of colonial empires and the capture of new ones. The desire to resolve internal problems with the help of war. ambitions and activities of state figures. Entente bloc (1904, formalized by 1907 after the conclusion of Russian-French, Anglo-French and Anglo-Russian allied treaties): Russian Empire; Great Britain; Franz. Block Triple Alliance: German; A-B; Italian - Quadruple Union later (G., A-V, Turts., Bulgaria). Italy entered the war in 1915 at the Entente station.
N-lo WW1 Germany, in accordance with the previously developed plan for conducting a lightning war, "blitzkrieg", sent the main forces to the western front, hoping to complete the mobilization and deployment of the Russian army quickly. to defeat France with a blow, and the third part with Russia. The German command intended to deliver the main blow w-w Belgium along the undefended north of France, bypass Paris from the west and take the French army, the main force of which would be concentrated on the fortified east, the Franco-German border, in a huge. "boiler". 1 Aug. DE declared war on Russia, on the same day the Germans, without any declaration of war, invaded Luxembourg. The German leadership decided that the English would not enter the war and moved on to decide. On August 2, the German troops occupied Luxembourg, and Belgium was given an ultimatum to allow the German armies to pass to the border with France. 3 Aug. DE - French war. On August 3, Belgium refused Germany's ultimatum. Germany declares war on Belgium. On August 4, German troops poured through the Belgian border. King Albert of Belgium turned to the guarantor countries of Belgian neutrality for help. London, contrary to previous St. declarations, sent an ultimatum to Berlin: stop the second to Belgium or England will declare war on Germany. August 6 A-B - the war of Russia. 1M started.
Walking action
Campaign1914
Fighting forces on the Western Front were n-lis in August with the invasion of German troops in Luxembourg and Belgium. On August 20, they occupied Brussels, having received the opportunity to move freely to the borders of France. On August 21-25, in the border battle of the German army, the Anglo-French troops were thrown back, invaded Northern France and, by September n-lu, they reached the Marne River between Paris and Verdun. October and Nov. the battles in Flanders exhausted and balanced the forces of the parties. A continuous front line stretched from the Swiss border to the North Sea. Maneuver.d-ia in the West changed positions.b-battle. Germany's calculation for a quick defeat of France failed. In many ways, this is how the Russian troops advance in East Prussia, in Galicia. On August 23, Japan declared war on Germany; on October, Turkey entered the war at the German bloc. New fronts were formed in Transcaucasia, Mesopotamia, Syria and the Dardanelles. As a result of the campaign of 1914, none of the military units achieved holy goals, calculations for a quick defeat of the enemy failed, on the Western Front the war acquired a position, trenched character.
Campaign 1915
The German command concentrated its main efforts on the Eastern Front. The fighting on the Russian front began in January and continued with short breaks until late autumn. In the summer, the German troops made a breakthrough near Gorlitsa. Soon they launched an offensive in the Baltic. Russian armies left Galicia, Poland, parts of Latvia and Belarus. In October the front stabilized. On the Western Front, in the fall, the Anglo-French troops carried out offensive operations in Artois and Champagne, which, however, did not essentially change the situation. On May 23, Italy entered the war on the side of the Entente, and Bulgaria joined the Austro-German bloc in October. At the end of September, the troops of the German coalition attacked Serbia and occupied it for 2 months. An attempt by the Anglo-French troops, who landed in Thessaloniki, to render the encampment of Serbia b/unsuccessful. An important result of the campaign was the failure of German plans. The German command turned out to be necessary to continue the war on 2 fronts. The main burden of the b-would be taken out by Russia in 1915, providing France and the Great Britain with a respite for mobilizing the ek-ki for military needs.
Campaign 1916
Germany again shifted its main efforts to the west. The main blow was supposed to be delivered to France in the Verdun region, which had an important operational significance (Verdun operation). Despite enormous efforts, the German troops could not break through the defenses. This way, the Russian armies attacked on the South-West Front in Galicia. The German-Australian Command was forced to transfer 34 divisions from the Western and Italian fronts to the Eastern Front. Unsuccessful were the advances of the d-ia and the Anglo-French troops on the Somme River. Although the allies used in the operation a new means of b-w - tanks, they were never able to break through the enemy’s defenses, losing about 800 thousand hours. On August 27, Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente, but by the end of the campaign, the Romanian army was defeated. In the Middle East theater, the victories of the Russian troops of the Caucasus Front were of great importance. Russian armies advanced 250 km in Turkey. On May 31 - June 1, one of the largest naval battles in the war took place off the Jutland Peninsula in the North Sea. The British lost 14 ships in it, about 7 thousand hours, the losses of the Germans amounted to 11 ships and 6 3 thousand hours. As a result of the campaign, the German-Austrian bloc lost the strategic initiative. The Germans were forced to fight on all fronts. The superiority of the Entente became obvious. In the course of the coordination of the allied troops in the West and in the East, no turning point was made in the course of the war.
Campaign 1917-1918.
By 1917, the war significantly weakened the backbone of the opposing powers. The German coalition can no longer conduct major offensive operations and has switched to strategic defense. Germany's main efforts were focused on submarine warfare. The plans of the Entente were based on the use of its superiority in forces and means. This. the advantage became b-e significant after the entry into the war in April 1917, the United States on the side of the Entente. The High Command intended to launch a joint offensive on the Western and Eastern fronts in order to complete the defeat of Germany and AB. However, the offensive of the Anglo-French troops, undertaken in April between Reims and Soissons, failed. The offensive of the Russian armies in the summer of 1917 also ended in failure. On September 3, during the Riga defense operation, the Russian troops left Riga. The sailors of the Baltic Fleet put up stubborn resistance to the German fleet during the defense of the Moonsund Archipelago in the autumn of 1917. Due to heavy losses, the German command refused to break into the Gulf of Finland. WW1 served as a catalyst for the revolutionary processes in Russia that led to the October Revolution of 1917. The events in Russia, as well as the inconsistency of the third allies, frustrated the strategic plan of the Entente. Germany managed to repel the blows of opponents on land. However, the unrestricted submarine war declared by her on February 1 did not give the desired result. After the October Revolution, Russia withdrew from the war: on December 2, it signed an armistice agreement with the German-Austrian bloc, and later - to peace negotiations (Brest Peace).
By the beginning of 1918, the military-political situation had seriously changed. The German-Austrian bloc powers sought to end the war. The German command launched an offensive on the Western Front in March. In the spring and summer, the German troops carried out several offensive operations in Picardy, in Flanders, on the rivers Aisne and Marne, but due to the lack of reserves, they suspended them. The strategic initiative of the windows passed into the hands of the Entente. In August-September, the allied armies, using the holy superiority in manpower and equipment (in March 1918, troops from the USA began to arrive on the Western Front), went on the offensive and forced the German troops to begin a general withdrawal from the territory France. In early October, the German position became hopeless. Germany's allies - Bulgaria, Turkey, Austria-Hungary - in the fall of 1918 concluded a truce with the powers of the Entente. Defeats at the fronts, economic ruin accelerated the maturation of revolutionary events in Germany. On November 9, the monarchy in Germany was overthrown. On November 11, Germany capitulated: a German delegation signed an armistice in the Compiegne forest. Germ. recognized herself defeated. The final terms of the peace treaties with Germany and its allies were worked out at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919-20. June 28, 1919 - Treaty of Versailles, officially ending WW1.
The results of the war
WW1 lasted for 6 4 years (from August 1, 1914 to November 11, 1918). 38 states participated in it, more than 74 million people fought on its fields, of which 10 million were killed and 20 million maimed. The First World War, in terms of its scale, human losses and socio-political consequences, was unparalleled in all previous history. It had a huge impact on the ec-ku, the regiment, the ideology, on the entire s / s of international relations. The war led to the collapse of the most powerful European states and the formation of a new geopolitical situation in the world. Resolutions of WW1 and February and October revolution in Russia and November revolution in Germany, liquidation of 3 empires: Russia, Ottoman empires and A-B, the last 2 being divided. Germany, having ceased to be a monarchy, was cut down in territory and weakened the economy. USA turned into a great power. Heavy d / Germany conditions Versailles. peace (payment of reparations, etc.) and the national humiliation suffered by it gave rise to revanchist moods, which became one of the prerequisites for the Nazis to come to power, who unleashed WW2. As a result of those wars, there were: annexation by Denmark - Sev. Schleswig; Italy - South Tyrol and Istria; Romania - Transylvania and South. Dobruja; France - Alsace-Lorraine, Syria, parts of Togo and Cameroon; Japanese - German islands in the Pacific Ocean north of the equator; French occupation of the Saar. Accession of Slovenia, Croatia and Slavonia, Montenegro to the Kingdom of Serbia with the subsequent creation of Yugoslavia. The independence of Hungary, Danzig, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, and Finland was proclaimed. Austrian Republic founded. The German Empire de facto became a republic. The Rains region and the Black Sea straits were demilitarized. WW1 accelerated the development of new weapons and means of combat. Tanks, chemical weapons, gas masks, anti-aircraft and anti-tank guns were used for the first time. Airplanes, machine guns, mortars, submarines, and torpedo boats became widespread. New types of artillery appeared: anti-aircraft, anti-tank, infantry escorts. Aviation became an independent arm of the army, which began to be subdivided into reconnaissance, fighter, and bombardier. There were tank troops, chemical troops, air defense troops, naval aviation.

Question 29. International relations after the First World War. Versailles-Washington system.

Versailles-Washington system international relations- the world order, the foundations of which were laid at the end of the First World War of 1914-1918 by the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919, agreements with Germany's allies, as well as agreements concluded at the Washington Conference of 1921-1922. The basis of the Versailles-Washington system of international relations in Europe was:

The Treaty of Versailles (1919) and the closely related Treaty of Saint-Germain with Austria (1919), the Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria (1919), the Treaty of Trianon with Hungary (1920), the Treaty of Sevres with Turkey (1920). The Versailles system is a system of the post-war organization of the world. Her feature was anti-Soviet. The greatest beneficiaries of the Versailles system were Great Britain, France and the United States. At that time in Russia there was Civil War, the victory in which remained with the Bolsheviks. Russia began to establish diplomatic relations with Afghanistan, the Baltic states, and Finland. She also tried to establish diplomatic relations with Poland, but Pilsudski instead signed an agreement with one of the leaders of the Central Rada and Polish troops entered the territory of Ukraine. Russia tried to reunite Ukraine and Poland, but the Poles inflicted a heavy defeat on it, as a result of which the Bolshevik leadership was forced to make peace with Poland. Poland also retained Western Ukraine and Western Belarus. Washington Accords- The conference was convened in order to consider the post-war balance of power in the Pacific and the limitation of naval armaments. American diplomacy sought to take revenge for the defeat in Paris and to increase its influence in solving important international problems. December 13, 1921- "Treaty of Four States"(Great Britain, USA, France and Japan) concerned mutual guarantees of the inviolability of the island possessions of its participants in the basin Pacific Ocean(fixing the status quo); "Treaty of five states" ( Britain, USA, Japan, France and Italy) prohibited the construction of warships, the tonnage of which exceeded 35 thousand tons, established the ratio between the fleets of these countries for the class of battleships in the proportion 10:10:6:3.5:3.5, fixing leadership of the first two. "Treaty of the Nine States"(USA, Britain, France, Japan, Italy, Belgium, Holland, Portugal and China) proclaimed the principle of respect for the sovereignty, territorial and administrative integrity of China. He obligated all participants to adhere to the principles of " open doors and "equal opportunities" in trade and industrial development throughout China. The agreements concluded at the Washington Conference supplemented the system of agreements signed in 1919-1920 between the victorious countries and the countries that lost the world war. In 1919-1922, the Versailles-Washington system of international treaties was formed, designed to formally consolidate the results of the First World War. Features 1 Discrimination of the position of the defeated states and Soviet Russia. Thus, Germany lost the rights to its colonies, was severely limited in the possession of the armed forces and was suppressed economically through the mechanism of reparations. Similar conditions were provided for Turkey and Bulgaria, and Austria-Hungary as a whole ceased to exist. Soviet Russia, not formally defeated, found itself on initial stage also excluded. The Rapallo Treaty of 1922 is considered formal recognition of this fact by Russia. After the conclusion of the treaty, broad cooperation begins between Germany and Soviet Russia, which, in essence, was a “bloc of the offended”, that is, powers that most of all wanted to revise the status quo of the system.2 Consolidation of the leadership of the USA, Great Britain and France, new system. Significant territorial, political and economic (to varying degrees for these countries) development of the victorious countries gave them, in fact, the right to collegially change the characteristics of the international system and form its principles. Other winners (like Italy) remained in the background. 3US political isolation from European affairs. The United States, after the failure of V. Wilson's "14 points", headed for isolation from international politics in Europe, at the same time as a priority foreign policy in this region chose the economic factor. The Dawes Plan (1924), as well as, to a certain extent, the Young Plan (1929), demonstrated the degree of economic dependence of the countries of Europe on the United States, which became the overwhelming creditor in 1918, having been a debtor before the start of the war. European countries. 4 Creation of the League of Nations - an instrument for maintaining the status quo in the MOD system. This was evidence of the lack of a strong contractual and legal basis for the system.5 The world is gradually ceasing to be Eurocentric, international system starts to become global. Activities of the League of Nations to resolve international crises. In the early years of its existence, the League of Nations was the center of organizing the struggle against the Soviet state of the Bolsheviks in Russia. Various plans for intervention were discussed in the League of Nations and general diplomatic actions against Soviet Russia were developed. In connection with the hostile position of the League of Nations relative to the Bolshevik authorities, the Soviet government had a negative attitude towards it, considering its activities as interference in the internal affairs of the USSR. The League of Nations made numerous attempts to bridge the sharp differences between its main members. In 1925, the Locarno Conference was convened in 1925 to remove obstacles to Germany's entry into the League of Nations and to end the hostility that remained between Germany and the victorious states in the First World War. Its main result was agreements between Germany on the one hand and France and Belgium on the other regarding the inviolability of their common borders, as well as the rejection of war as a means of solving territorial problems. Reparations agreements served the same purpose (the Dawes Plan of 1924-1925, the Young Plan of 1929-1930). In 1926, Germany's diplomatic isolation was overcome and it joined the League of Nations. When the Japanese aggression began in Manchuria, in the Council of the League of Nations, the representative of China, Dr. Alfred Shi, assumed his duties as a member of the Council. He immediately formally appealed to the League of Nations, demanding immediate intervention to stop the aggression against the Republic of China. But the Council of the League of Nations, at the request of Japan, postponed the discussion of the issue. And only on September 30, at the insistence of the Chinese delegate, did the Council of the League consider the question of Japanese aggression. However, apart from an appeal to both sides, in which the Council asked both sides to speed up the normalization of their relations, it did not take any practical steps to resolve the conflict and deter the aggressor. The Council postponed further consideration of the issue until October 14, 1931. Meanwhile, transports with Japanese troops continued to arrive in Manchuria. At the same time, the Japanese representative in the League of Nations did not cease to assure that Japan did not want any territorial acquisitions and the evacuation of troops had already begun. October 24 The Council of the League adopted a resolution proposing that Japan withdraw its troops from Manchuria within three weeks. But according to the Statute of the League of Nations, this document had no legal force, since it was not adopted unanimously - Japan voted against it. Two days later, on October 26, the Japanese government issued a declaration that contained the main principles of Japanese policy in Manchuria. The Declaration proclaimed "mutual renunciation of aggressive policies"; "destruction of every organized movement that violates the freedom of trade and incites ethnic hatred”; "ensuring the protection throughout Manchuria of the rights of Japanese citizens" and "respecting the treaty rights of Japan." The Chinese government declared that it was ready to accommodate Japan in everything if the latter withdrew its troops. Meanwhile, the military occupation of Manchuria continued. Shortly before the start of the seizure of Manchuria, Japan began negotiations with England on the actual division of China into spheres of influence. The strengthening of Japan in China would mean the weakening of the United States in this region, which was in the hands of England. Confident at the London talks in the complete neutrality of England, Japan boldly began to carry out its plans. The position of the United States, whose interests were directly affected by Japanese aggression, was different. On November 5, 1931, the American government sent a sharp note to Japan protesting any negotiations between Japan and China before the end of the military occupation. At the same time, American diplomacy sought in London and Paris a common diplomatic action against Japan, but all its efforts were in vain. At the next session of the League of Nations, which opened in Paris on November 16, England put forward proposals to resolve the conflict. These proposals boiled down to China, without claiming any prior guarantees, to enter into direct negotiations with Japan and undertake to respect Japan's treaty rights in Manchuria. Japan, on the other hand, will withdraw its troops when it considers itself completely satisfied. Here you can already see the direct support of Japan by England, but these proposals were again opposed by the United States. To get acquainted with the situation on the ground, the Council of the League of Nations, at the suggestion of Japan, decided to create a commission that went down in history as the Lytton Commission. The investigation of this commission did not bring any practical results, which once again confirmed the incapacity of the League of Nations as a peacekeeping organization. The most important issues discussed in the League of Nations during 1934-1939 were the Italian aggression against Ethiopia (1935-1936), the violation by Germany of the Treaty of Versailles in connection with the remilitarization of the Rhine zone (1936), the Italian-German intervention in Spain (1936-1939), Germany's passion for Austria (1938). The policy of the Western states during this period - the appeasement of the aggressors - was explained by the effort to direct fascist aggression to the east, against the USSR. This position turned the League of Nations into a cover for German, Italian and Japanese aggression against other countries. This explained the helplessness of the League of Nations, which was unable to implement a single effective measure against fascist aggression on the eve of World War II. For example, in October 1935, the Assembly of the League of Nations, at the request of a number of states, including the USSR, decided to apply economic and financial sanctions against Italy, which attacked Ethiopia. However, due to the position of Western states, the most important part of Italian imports - oil - was not included in the list of items prohibited from being imported into Italy. This facilitated and accelerated Italy's interest in Ethiopia (1936). In July 1936, at the request of Great Britain and France, the decision of the League of Nations regarding sanctions against Italy was canceled altogether. The signing of a non-aggression pact between the USSR and Germany on August 23, 1939 in Moscow (the so-called “Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact”) alienated the last supporters of the collective security system in Western countries from the USSR. For the ruling circles of Great Britain, France and the USA, the continued presence of the USSR in the League of Nations turned out to be undesirable. Using the Soviet-Finnish war of 1939-1940, which almost led to an armed conflict between the USSR and Great Britain and France, as an excuse, Western countries achieved that by the decision of the Council of the League of Nations on December 14, 1939, the USSR was expelled from this organization. The activities of the League of Nations since then, in fact, ceased, although it was formally liquidated only in April 1946 by the decision of the Assembly specially convened for this purpose. Despite all its shortcomings and disagreements, the League of Nations still performed the functions of maintaining peace.

History and SID

In July 1914, Germany and Austria-Hungary start World War I. Germany wanted to first disable France in order to stop the struggle on two fronts: Western and Eastern. Stage 1 invasion of Belgium where Germany was defeated: in East Prussia, Germany fought with the Russian armies; in Galicia and Poland where the victories went to the Russians. Germany and Austria-Hungary were economically exhausted under the influence of revolutions in Russia among the military of Germany and Austria, anti-war agitation intensified, the people were tired of ...

Main stages of the First World War. Factors of the defeat of the German-Austrian bloc.

In July 1914 Germany and Austria-Hungary start World War I.

Germany wanted to first disable France in order to stop the struggle on two fronts: Western and Eastern. Then strike at Russia on land and at England at sea. They wanted a lightning war.

The main stages of World War 1: 1 - August-December 1914, 2 - January 1915 - April 1917, 3 - May 1917 - June 1918, 4 - July-November 1918

Stage 1 - the invasion of Belgium, where Germany was defeated: in East Prussia - Germany fought with the Russian armies; in Galicia and Poland - where the victories went to the Russians. In December 1914, the British fleet defeated the German squadron off the Falkland Islands.

Stage 2 - by the beginning of 1915, the plan of the German-Austrians - the blitzkrieg - was thwarted. The war moved from maneuvering to positional (trench). Under these conditions, it was necessary to mobilize the economy for the needs of the army in order to provide soldiers and officers with food and ammunition and maintain high morale in the army and among the population. During this period, the mobilization of the economy takes place in all the warring countries.

Military cabinets are being created that are responsible for defense products, transportation, and so on.

In Russia, military-industrial committees were created to regulate orders for the army, food for enterprises and the population.

The mobilization of the economy allowed the warring countries to expand military operations: in the spring and summer of 1915, the German-Austrian troops attacked the Russian troops, who left Poland, part of the Baltic states, Western Belarus and Galicia, etc.

Italy's entry into the war on the side of the Entente weakened Austrian pressure on the Eastern Front. France and England, having opened a new front in the Balkans, the Russians and the British in the fall of 1915 frustrate Germany's plans to draw Iran into the war.

In 1916, the victory in the North Sea deprived Germany of the chance to break through the blockade and worsened her socio-economic situation.

By the beginning of 1917, it became clear that there would be no imminent victory, diplomatic negotiations began.

Stage 3 - a turning point in the course of the war. The delay in hostilities was beneficial for the Entente, because. Germany and Austria-Hungary were economically exhausted, under the influence of revolutions in Russia, anti-war agitation intensified among the military of Germany and Austria, the people were tired of the war.

Berlin tried to demolish the situation with attacks, but was stopped by the Entente in March-July 1918.

The overwhelming superiority of the Entente was obvious: both in military equipment and in the complete depletion of Germany's manpower reserves.

Stage 4 - End of World War I. In July 1918, the Entente went on the offensive in the West, where they broke through the German front and the Allied advance began in France, Belgium, Greece and Italy, etc.

In October, Germany turned to the United States for mediation in peace negotiations with Britain and France.

But the Entente responded and continued the offensive. In November 1918, the Austrian high command capitulated, after which the Entente signed an armistice agreement in Paris: ceased fighting; Germany evacuated its troops from the occupied territories; renounced previously concluded separate peace treaties; handed over military property to the Entente; exchanged prisoners of war.

Results. It lasted 4 years, 38 states were involved, 60% of the world's population, 9.5 million were killed and 20 million were injured.

The war was a comprehensive (total) war. Caused colossal material damage (destroyed cities, roads, bridges, etc.). As a result, there have been changes political map peace.

Collapsed: Russian, Austro-Hungarian, German and Ottoman empires. New states emerged in Europe: Poland, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia. The peoples of the colonies saw the prospects for liberation.

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