The saying that anarchy is the mother of order is attributed to the theorist of revolution and anarchism, Pierre Joseph Proudhon. Although anarchy has long been considered an ideological system that cannot be realized, throughout history people have continually attempted to build an anarchic community. After all, the postulates of anarchism are so tempting: a person can live and develop normally only in a system that is not based on state power. Our review will focus on people's attempts to build an anarchic society.
1. Revolutionary Catalonia
As a result of the Spanish coup in July 1936, when the fascists tried to gain control of Spain, an anarchist party in Catalonia called the CNT-FAI or Federation of Anarchists of Iberia (the far-right wing of the National Confederation of Labor) led a popular uprising by organizing militias against the Nationalist forces.
In total, these militia forces consisted of 18,000 workers (including George Orwell, who fought for the Catalans). They managed to defeat the nationalist forces and achieve the independence of Catalonia. Although the organization was later criticized for joining the national government, it did much to increase the chances of victory in the war against the dictatorship in Spain.
The CNT-FAI also managed to achieve a number of reforms, namely the collectivization of land and resources. The government was also able to encourage voluntary collectivization. The factories were "confiscated and controlled by committees of elected workers." Ultimately, the anarchist government fell in 1938.
2. Paris Commune
The Paris Commune began in 1871 as a reaction to the Franco-Prussian War and is often considered the first example of a working class seizure of power. The Paris National Guard, which had been cut off from the army, was supported by the citizens, and free elections were held to determine who would govern the city. The Commune implemented some anarchist policies, such as turning businesses into worker cooperatives. On May 8, the French government finally defeated the commune and restored its authority over the city.
3. Free territory
From 1918 to 1921, the Free Territory was an anarchist state created in Ukraine by Nestor Makhno. The Free Territory is considered one of the few states based solely on anarchist ideology, which is clearly reflected by its flag, which read “Death to all who stand in the way of the workers gaining freedom.”
With an army of 100,000 men, Makhno captured the southeastern part of Ukraine, home to 7 million people. His anarchist society was structured by creating workers' and peasants' councils, whose members voted on important issues. Makhno also opposed centralized government of any kind. Eventually, the Red Army invaded the Free Territory and was able to defeat Makhno's army in 1921.
4. Free City of Christiania
Created in 1971, the free city of Christiania is one of the few anarchist communities that is still active today. It is also remarkable that it has managed to remain autonomous for more than 40 years. The city was founded by hippie settlers in Copenhagen, Denmark, in abandoned military barracks. Soon the hippies declared Christiania a free city, whose residents are not required to pay taxes and can openly sell and buy marijuana.
Private property is prohibited in the community (for example, residents of the autonomy cannot own personal cars). At the same time, in the anarchist community there are a number of laws designed to eliminate violence and crime. In 2012, the government agreed to sell the land it occupied to the community.
5. Twin Oaks Community
In 1967, a small group of communitarians decided to build a society based on the values of egalitarianism and environmental sustainability. Based on 160 acres of land in Virginia, the community lives by gardening and farming, as well as producing hammocks, which are then sold. All bicycles, cars, computers and recreational facilities purchased by the community belong not to one specific person, but to the entire community and are available for public use.
6. Strandzha Municipality
The Strandzha Commune in Bulgaria was an anarchist society that was proclaimed on August 18, 1903 by Mikhail Gerdzhikov, commander of the Internal Macedonian-Odra Revolutionary Organization. Gerdzhikov's army, which numbered only 2,000 men, managed to establish a provisional government in the Strandzha Mountains after confronting the Turkish opposition, numbering 10,500 soldiers.
In the commune, a communitarian system was created where resources were distributed evenly according to need. The short-lived commune was defeated by Ottoman forces just one month later, on September 8, 1903.
7. Shinmin Autonomous Region
In 1924, the Korean Communist Anarchist Federation (KACF) began to actively promote the creation of anarchist trade unions and the development of anti-imperialist sentiment in China. Five years later, the KACF declared Shinming Province independent from China and immediately attempted to establish a decentralized form of control within the area. As with other anarchist societies, the KACF created a loose association of local councils in regions, districts and villages. Although these councils made independent decisions regarding their territories, they cooperated with each other on important issues such as Agriculture, finance and education. However, due to attempts by Imperial Japan to conquer the region, the region's autonomy was abolished in 1931.
8. Syrian Kurdistan
Although technically not an anarchist society, Syrian Kurdistan (aka the Federation of Northern Syria) is a de facto autonomous zone that has the right to self-government, independent of the official Syrian government. Although the official political system of Syrian Kurdistan, which declared autonomy in November 2013, is described as libertarian socialism, the state is also influenced by anarchist principles.
Syrian Kurdistan adopted its ideals from Vermont philosopher Murray Bookchin, who argued that the ideal nation state should take the form of “libertarian municipalism.” Essentially, it refers to meetings of people who vote when there is a need to solve any problems at the local level.
9. Zomia
Stretching from the Vietnamese highlands to the Tibetan plateau in Afghanistan, Zomia is geographical region with a population of 100 million people, whose name was coined by the Dutch explorer Willem van Schendel in 2002. Zomia is considered by some political scientists as an example of refusal modern state and a functioning anarchist society. In this region of the world, states such as China and Vietnam do not have control over these “hard-to-reach” areas, as a result of which they are largely self-governing.
10. Bir Tawil
Although technically neither a state nor a society, Bir Tawil is one of the few areas of the world that is not claimed by any state. Therefore, it is a territory that does not belong to anyone, without laws and without government. This anomaly occurred when the British signed an agreement with the Egyptians that the new British colony of Sudan would have a border with Egypt along the 22nd parallel. At the same time, in 1902, Britain drew a new “administrative boundary”, according to which Bir Tawil (whose area is 2060 km²) remained a disputed territory. Perhaps this would be an ideal place for anarchists to try to implement their ideas without having to provoke the legitimate government.
The socialist idea turned out to be more viable than the ideas of the anarchists. In any case, the largest socialist state in the world occupied 1/6 of the land mass and existed for 70 years. In one of our reviews we.
Due to the fact that recently we have added subscribers who are not very familiar with the theory of anarchism, and, as a result, disputes in the comments have become more frequent regarding many questions to which answers have long existed, we decided to collect in one article all the basic principles of anarchism, and also voice various options for how this will be implemented in practice, taking into account modern realities. Some of the materials are taken from the program “What do people with a black flag want” with the consent of its authors.
Basic principles of anarchism
To begin with, let's define the concept of anarchism.
According to Wikipedia, Anarchism is a political philosophy based on freedom and has as its goal the destruction of all types of coercion and exploitation of man by man. Anarchism proposes to replace by the cooperation of individuals the power that exists due to the suppression of some people by others and thanks to the privileges of some in relation to others. This means that, according to anarchists, social relations and institutions should be based on self-interest, mutual assistance, voluntary consent and responsibility (based on self-interest) of each participant, and all types of power (that is, coercion and exploitation) should be eliminated.
Instead of a vertical, hierarchical structure of society, anarchists propose a structure of society through horizontal connections, on the principles of self-government.
A small retreat
Many people who are familiar with this definition for the first time have questions regarding various spheres of life and the structure of the future horizontal society. During discussions (and much more often, polemics), you can often hear questions in the spirit of “what do anarchists propose on such and such an issue?”, “how do anarchists propose to solve such and such a problem?”, “what what do anarchists propose to do when such and such happens?”
First of all, such people need to understand:
There is a theory of anarchism. Throughout the history of mankind, there have been various attempts and cases of implementing this theory in practice in different time periods, due to the realities of that time. And since the last successful case of anarchist practice on a more or less adequate scale took place back in 1936 during the Spanish Revolution, there is a request for an explanation of anarchist principles in relation to today's times.
It is difficult to fully calculate and thoroughly explain the structure of a society that does not yet exist, because reality always presents many previously unaccounted factors and dictates its own conditions. Therefore, in the end, what a society will be like is determined by the people directly involved in its creation and further existence. However, already now, based on the available data, it is possible to model a certain layout of the future anarchist society and propose one or more options for each basic question regarding its structure. So, let's go.
Political structure
A society in which decisions are made by all interested people on a voluntary basis presupposes its own special structure, different from that existing in our society at the moment.
Every person who wants to solve a problem and has the ability to do it independently, without violating the interests of other people, simply takes it and resolves it, without applying for permission to any special authorities.
In the case when a problem requires the participation of several people, all those who are directly affected by it participate in its solution, during a discussion or discussion, developing a solution to the problem by consensus, i.e. the consent of all participants in the discussion or discussion. In this way, new social units are formed, which can roughly be called committees. The task of a specific committee is to resolve a specific problem or set of problems. Consequently, after completing the tasks assigned to it, the committee is automatically dissolved.
Depending on the nature and essence of the problem, committees can be formed according to different criteria: territorial, professional, common interests, etc.
On a territorial basis, people unite into communities (in other words, into communes). Within such communities there can be an unlimited number of committees consisting of participants (i.e. residents) of these communities. The policy of acceptance into a community and exclusion from it is determined by its participants (as, in fact, any internal issue relating to this community). By joining the community, a new participant implies agreement with the rules adopted in it and receives the authority to also participate in making further decisions.
At a more global level, communities are organized into a horizontal federation of communities. The Federation deals with issues that require interaction between several communities. When solving problems at the federal level, the same principles apply: committees are created to solve each specific problem of federal significance.
Since a large number of people are most often involved in the discussion process, discussions are carried out through universal voting (using modern means communications and information technologies) where possible. If, due to the nature of the problem being discussed, the voting format is not possible, then the discussion is carried out by delegates.
Delegates have an imperative mandate, i.e. during negotiations, they can adhere only to that line of behavior and pursue only those goals that were previously determined by the community. Delegates do not enjoy any additional privileges. A community may send more than one delegate if, before the start of negotiations at the federation level, the community has not developed a common position on any issue. In this case, the number of delegates is determined by the number of views on solving the problem.
At any time, a delegate can be recalled by the community that sent him, in which case his delegate powers will immediately cease. Upon completion of negotiations on a specific issue, the committee created to resolve this issue is automatically dissolved and the delegate mandate automatically terminates.
Considering the current level of development of information technology, delegates do not have to be present at any designated specific place; they can express their position online. In addition, communities that sent their delegates can also monitor them online and promptly recall them if something happens.
Since society operates on the principles of free agreement between people and the absence of coercion, consensus is the highest priority method of decision-making and dispute resolution. If consensus cannot be reached, the decision is made by voting. However, those who do not agree with the decision made at the vote have the right not to implement this decision, but should not prevent other participants in the negotiations from implementing it.
Also, along with the method of political structure described above, there is a version of information democracy described in this article (section “information democracy”): https://site/2015/07/28/perspektivy-sotsializma-xxi-vek/
Economy
Option #1
Operation of enterprises
Each enterprise is publicly owned. The management of the enterprise is carried out by the labor collective of this enterprise. Depending on the complexity of the production chain and technological processes at the enterprise, control over it can be exercised by several committees coordinating their activities.
Where the production process of an enterprise requires prompt decision-making, quick issuance of instructions, etc., the appointment of specialists and technical managers to the appropriate positions is allowed. The decision on appointment to such positions, as well as on removal from them, is made by the entire team of the enterprise.
Associations of producers and consumers
The meaning of the economy in an anarchically structured society is full access of all workers to all the benefits available to the federation. Such access is provided through the interaction of two associations operating on the territory of the federation: an association of producers and an association of consumers. Each worker is simultaneously a member of both associations.
To the Association of Manufacturers includes all production enterprises on the territory of the federation that produce material goods.
Consumer association consists of all residents of the federation and deals with the issue of calculating the material needs of residents and, based on these needs, forming an order for the association of producers.
An association of producers and an association of consumers are federal units and, for the convenience of their functioning, can be divided into smaller associations based on territorial, professional and other characteristics. Their exact structure is determined by the residents themselves through discussion at the federal level.
It seems that the optimal structure would be the following type of structure (although the final version always depends only on the decision of the federation):
A consumer association consists of smaller associations, subdivided according to territorial characteristics. So, starting with a house, an order is formed to meet the needs of this house, then all orders at the house level are combined into an order at the district level, then at the community (commune) level, etc., up to a federation-wide order.
The association of producers is divided into production associations according to industry characteristics. The received federal order is distributed among enterprises capable of satisfying it.
Foreign economic activity
The scope of activities of the association of producers also includes the export of manufactured products to other state associations and the purchase of those goods from the federal order list that enterprises of the federation are not able to produce on their own.
Proceeds from the export of products, in addition to fulfilling orders, also go towards the formation of a currency fund, from where money is issued to people planning to visit countries with capitalist economies, as well as for them to make payments on the Internet for various services: purchasing paid digital content, buying things on the Internet - stores (if for some reason they cannot get this within the federation), etc.
Note. It is foolish to hope that all states will disappear at once thanks to the world revolution. This scenario is too unlikely. Therefore, this article describes the structure of an anarchist society that exists along with other state entities. Accordingly, at first there will be trade with states and settlements with them in monetary currency, in order to fulfill the order of the federation. At the same time, it is logical to assume that at the very beginning of the formation of the federation, O The largest share of the fulfillment of the federal order will be ensured through the export and import of products. Over time, with the development of the federation's economy and the opening of new enterprises, this share will decrease.
Note #2. At the beginning of the formation of a federation, it is very likely that other states will refuse to recognize it and, accordingly, to carry out trade relations with it. However, the experience of the Syrian conflict has shown that even in conditions of a complete economic blockade, it is possible to trade with states or with private entities through smuggling. This will be less effective than in the case of official trade, since for the federation, under economic blockade, smuggling implies a decrease in the price of exported products and an increase in the price of imports. However, this will ensure the possibility of fulfilling the federal order and forming a currency fund.
4 hour work day
The situation in which a person participates in the management of his community and federation requires him to spend additional time on solving related issues. Moreover, a person who most spends his time on work, the desire and motivation to participate in solving any additional issues simply disappears. All this necessitates a reduction in working hours.
The current level of development of productive forces makes it possible to reduce the working day by half now, even in a capitalist society, and at the same time the enterprise will continue to make a profit. For an anarchist society, a 4-hour working day will be a mandatory and necessary attribute, providing a person with enough free time to resolve issues not related to work.
Option No. 2
The economics of anarchism involves the gradual abandonment of money as a means of concentrating power in one hand. We want to destroy the very possibility of accumulating significant resources in one hand, the very cause of social inequality.
At the beginning, the employee’s salary will be set by the general meeting of the enterprise, be it a factory, office, store, cinema, etc., based on the importance, severity and danger of the work, and at the general meeting the distribution of monthly profits, which previously went to pocket to the owners of the enterprise who have nothing to do with the products produced by the labors of the workers. More profitable industries will contribute more money to the country's general budget, while unprofitable ones will receive subsidies from it.
In the future, we plan to completely abandon the use of money, replacing it with working time accounting, i.e. Every person working a certain amount of time will have the right to receive all public goods, if they are available in sufficient quantities, and all scarce goods in order of priority. For example, having got a job at a factory and working the required number of shifts, a person can take anything he wants from a grocery store or clothing store and stand in line for an apartment, a car, etc.
Monetary motivation for dangerous, hard and dirty work will be replaced by a reduction in the required working time or the distribution of these responsibilities on a first-come, first-served basis among all team members.
The economy of anarchism is called the economy of horizontal planning, which means that instead of market mechanisms and the management of a traditional planned economy carried out in offices in complete ignorance of the needs of the people, we invite people to decide for themselves what they need, with the help of open electronic resources and statistical research. People vote for products proposed by enterprises, create concepts and ideas for products themselves, on the basis of which, when a sufficient number of votes are collected, committees issue design and production tasks.
Based on the desires of people, decisions will be made on the creation, closure and repurposing of enterprises. In the same way, the import of products from other countries will be regulated, while funds from exports will be stored in a common currency fund intended for carrying out export transactions and issuing currency to people planning to visit abroad.
People whose work cannot be measured quantitatively and time-by-time, for example, some people in creative professions working on long-term projects, can talk on special resources about their creativity, its goals and the flow of the process and ask that time spent on creative searches and work on projects be counted as labor , for which they will need to collect a sufficient number of sympathizers’ votes.
Army
According to the idea of anarchism, the army is the people, and the people are the army, in other words, an armed people protects itself from all enemies, external and internal, since a professional army cut off from the people can become an instrument of oppression.
In an anarchist society, everyone undergoes military training, after which they receive the right to keep military-style weapons and equipment and assume the responsibility to maintain them (in addition, everyone who has passed a mental health test will be able to have a personal self-defense weapon), as well as periodically attend training camps to check readiness, condition of entrusted property, skills restoration and retraining. Training is carried out in the shortest possible time according to the most intensive program in training centers at the place of residence.
In part, this model is implemented in the Swiss army, where the training period is one month, and the level of training is much higher than the level of our soldiers who have served for a year.
Those who want to devote a little more time to this are trained for positions that require more qualifications: squad and platoon commanders, armored vehicle crews, artillery crews, snipers, etc. Some of the personnel will be professionals, for example, senior commanders, pilots of airplanes, helicopters, operators of complex communication installations of radar stations, crews of missile systems, combat training instructors, ship specialists, i.e. those specialties that cannot be quickly learned.
Such professionals do not pose a threat to their own people, since they will be completely dependent on supplies carried out by non-professionals and, in the event of an attempt to seize power, will face the resistance of an entire armed people.
The permanent strength of the army will be reduced to a minimum, and its activities will be focused on protecting its facilities and combat training of personnel. Will be developed efficient system operational mobilization, capable of working in conditions of the use of weapons of mass destruction and man-made problems. Control over its own weapons of mass destruction will be carried out by an elected committee, acting in strict accordance with instructions developed through a general vote. The hierarchical system in the army will be built on the institution of elected commanders. The commander is unquestioningly obeyed in the combat zone and in exercises simulating them. IN calm atmosphere the commander is accountable to the general meeting of the unit and can be re-elected.
Law, law enforcement, judicial system
Unlike the existing system, where the police are a tool to intimidate the people, and the right to judge people belongs to civil servants, and the laws themselves are written by officials, in anarchism the people themselves protect themselves from crime, and decide for themselves what is worthy of punishment.
This is realized through the institution of the people's militia, which, unlike the professional Soviet "militia", consists of volunteers who cannot remain in its ranks longer or more often than the established period. Thus, a person performing law enforcement work will not have a feeling of impunity due to his official position.
The police patrol the streets, monitor compliance with traffic rules, and issue emergency permits conflict situations, forceful protection of people from criminal attacks.
A small number of professionals will perform technical support functions, knowledge-intensive work that requires knowledge or extensive experience (criminologists, specialists in catching maniacs or members of well-organized criminal gangs).
The functions of the court are performed by invited disinterested jurors, the functions of the prosecutor are performed by the victim of a crime or the general vote of people related to the victim (for example, relatives or friends of the murdered person, employees of the destroyed establishment, etc.), the functions of the lawyer are performed by the defendant himself, and police officers are monitoring the legality of what is happening.
Punishment is the obligation to compensate for the harm caused, and, to the extent possible, to inflict the same or equivalent harm on the defendant. Like is punished by like. The severity of the punishment cannot be many times greater than the harm caused; for example, theft is not punishable by deprivation of life. Particularly exciting cases are put to the general vote of everyone. Repeated crimes are punished more severely. At the same time, anarchists do not deprive a person of freedom, anarchists do not have colonies, and after establishing the circumstances of the case and the trial, the punishment is immediately carried out. The main task of the law enforcement system is not to intimidate a person with punishment, but to solve the very essence of the problem that pushes a person to commit a crime.
Creation and maintenance of infrastructure
Depending on the scale and significance of the building, the decision on its construction is made at the level of district, city (community, commune), region or federation. After making a decision about construction, an order is formed and sent to the construction company in your city. If there is none in the city, then an enterprise from another city is attracted.
The priority of construction is determined at the appropriate level - district, city, region or federation.
The decision to repair a building or replace outdated equipment in it is made by the relevant committee of the building. An order for repair or replacement of equipment is sent to the appropriate enterprise.
The progress of scientific and technological progress
For many people it remains open question about how scientific research and development of new technologies will be carried out in an anarchic society, because they often require significant investments of resources and time with uncertainty of the result.
From time to time, various scientists and researchers are accused of low productivity or its absence, of useless “sitting on grants,” etc.
First of all, it is necessary to understand that the results of scientific research, as a rule, cannot be predicted. It is impossible to make a plan for research and invention and then follow it. Therefore, these processes will always require resources and time, without giving in return any guarantees of success. However, all this can be rationalized as follows:
Research departments will exist on the basis of production enterprises. Such departments will primarily conduct research and development of technologies in areas directly related to these enterprises. The main goal of the research will be to increase productivity, facilitate working conditions, develop new equipment, prototypes, product samples, and so on.
Depending on various factors, such as the availability of unemployed scientists, the degree of their knowledge in the relevant fields, the availability of resources, etc., research departments may work on more global projects, during which several departments will coordinate with each other .
Also, no one will be able to prohibit people from creating and financing large research institutes (as, in principle, any “subsidized” industries) that are not located on the basis of any enterprise, if this idea has a sufficient number of supporters for its implementation.
Thus, scientific and technological progress will not stop, it will continue to develop. But its speed will be determined by people. However, as always.
Labor automation and unemployment
In modern capitalist society, the attitude towards the issue of labor automation is twofold: on the one hand, it increases labor productivity, on the other hand, it contributes to the reduction of jobs in enterprises and, as a consequence, unemployment.
In an anarchist society such a dilemma simply will not exist. Increasing productivity will mean increasing the well-being of both one commune and the entire federation, and consequently the well-being of each member of society.
What is the point of automation anyway? In reducing the amount of work performed by a person, while maintaining or increasing the level of productivity. In an anarchic society, this makes it possible both to increase the productivity of the enterprise and to shorten the working day.
Over time, as automation is introduced into the enterprise, the number of necessary jobs needed to service this enterprise will decrease. For a capitalist society, this means layoffs and unemployment. For an anarchist society this means further development and prosperity, i.e. the opening of another enterprise (or, depending on the situation, an influx of freed workers into other areas of employment), using funds from the commune or federation.
When opening a new enterprise, the motivation of unemployed workers will be to gain access to labor, and therefore to all the benefits available to the federation. The motivation of the remaining members of society (who will participate in the vote on opening) is to increase the material well-being of the federation, and therefore of each individual.
Surplus produced products that remain unclaimed within the federation can be exported abroad. Exports will be favored by the fact that products produced in enterprises with widespread automation will, as a rule, be more profitable compared with similar products produced in capitalist enterprises, since wage costs (at the stage of society in which there are cash wages), which affect the cost of production, will be significantly lower (due to a decrease in the number of required jobs in production). In addition, there is no need to spend on a whole layer of professions that enterprises need in a capitalist economy: PR specialists, marketers, several levels of managers, etc. As a result, all this results in low production costs, which in turn makes it more competitive in capitalist countries.
Thus, in an anarchic society, the automation of labor ceases to be in conflict with general employment, due to which there is no need for its artificial containment. All this opens up new prospects for building a society of abundance.
Instead of a conclusion
This article does not claim to be infallible and immutable, and is not a program document of the People's Self-Defense. The publication of this article has two purposes. The first is to provide answers to frequently asked questions among those who have begun to study anarchism and have encountered a deficit theoretical materials modernity. The second goal is to structure and systematize previously accumulated knowledge, thoughts, assumptions in a simple and understandable language, talking about them taking into account the realities of today.
In addition, we welcome objective criticism and suggestions regarding the principles set out in the article.
There were two periods of the Russian anarchist movement when it reached its peak. The first period is the revolutionary years 1905-1907, the second period is the time period between the February Revolution of 1917 and the strengthening of the Bolshevik dictatorship in the first half of the 1920s. In both the first and second periods, dozens and hundreds of anarchist groups operated in Russia, uniting thousands of active participants and an even larger number of sympathizers.
After February Revolution In 1917, anarchists intensified their activities in the former Russian Empire. The most prominent representatives of the movement returned from emigration, including the ideologist of anarchist communism, Peter Kropotkin. Political prisoners were released from prison (among them was, in particular, Nestor Makhno, later the legendary leader of the peasant anarchist movement in Eastern Ukraine). Together with the Bolsheviks, left-wing socialist-revolutionaries, maximalist socialist-revolutionaries and some other smaller associations, the anarchists represented the far left flank of the Russian political scene, opposing the “bourgeois” Provisional Government, for a new revolution.
Anarchists during the Revolution
Petrograd, Moscow, Kharkov, Odessa, Kiev, Ekaterinoslav, Saratov, Samara, Rostov-on-Don and many other cities of the country became centers of anarchist propaganda. Anarchist groups operated in many enterprises, in military units and on ships, and anarchist agitators penetrated into rural areas. Between February and October 1917, the number of anarchists grew incredibly: for example, if in March 1917 only 13 people were present at a meeting of Petrograd anarchist-communists, then a few months later, in June 1917, at a conference of anarchists in the dacha of the former Tsarist Minister of Internal Affairs Durnovo was attended by representatives of 95 factories and military units of Petrograd.
Along with the Bolsheviks and Left Socialist Revolutionaries, anarchists played a prominent role in the October Revolution of 1917. Thus, the Petrograd Military Revolutionary Committee (the actual headquarters of the uprising) included anarchists - the leader of the Petrograd Federation of Anarchist-Communists Ilya Bleichman, anarcho-syndicalists Vladimir Shatov and Efim Yarchuk. Anarchist-communists Alexander Mokrousov, Anatoly Zheleznyakov, Justin Zhuk, anarcho-syndicalist Efim Yarchuk directly commanded detachments of Red Guards who carried out certain combat missions in the days of October. Anarchists also actively participated in revolutionary events in the provinces, including in Rostov-on-Don and Nakhichevan, where activists of the Don Federation of Anarchist-Communists and the Rostov-Nakhichevan Group of Anarchist-Communists took part in the overthrow of Kaledin along with the Bolsheviks. In Eastern Siberia, anarchists played one of the key roles in the formation of local units of the Red Guard, and then partisan formations that fought against the troops of Admiral Kolchak, Ataman Semenov, and Baron Ungern von Sternberg.
However, having barely gained a foothold in power after the overthrow of the Provisional Government, the Bolsheviks began a policy of suppressing their opponents “from the left” - anarchists, maximalists, and left Socialist Revolutionaries. Already in 1918, systematic repressions against anarchists began in various cities of Soviet Russia. At the same time, the Bolshevik authorities claimed that their repressive measures were not directed against “ideological” anarchists, but aimed only at the destruction of “bandits hiding behind the flag of anarchism.” The latter, indeed, during the years of the revolution often hid behind the names of anarchist or Socialist Revolutionary organizations, on the other hand, and many revolutionary groups did not disdain, on occasion, outright criminality, including thefts, robberies, assaults, trafficking or drugs. Naturally, the Bolsheviks, trying to ensure public order, had to, if necessary, disarm or even destroy such detachments. By the way, Nestor Makhno himself wrote about such anarchists - those who like to rob and speculate on stolen or scarce goods - in his Memoirs.
Relations between anarchists and Bolsheviks became particularly strained during the Civil War. The path of open confrontation with the new government was taken, firstly, by the peasant insurgent movement of Eastern Ukraine, which formed an anarchist republic centered in Gulyai-Polye and a rebel army under the leadership of Nestor Makhno, and secondly, by some anarchist groups in the capitals and other cities of Soviet Russia , who united into the All-Russian Central Committee of Revolutionary Partisans (“underground anarchists”) and began terrorist acts against representatives of the Soviet government, thirdly, insurgent movements in the Urals, Western and Eastern Siberia, among whose leaders there were many anarchists. Well, and, finally, the sailors and workers of Kronstadt, who in 1921 opposed the policies of the Soviet government - among their leaders there were also anarchists, although the movement itself as a whole gravitated towards the extreme left wing of the communists - the so-called. "workers' opposition"
Ideological trends and political practice
As before the revolutions of 1917, Russian anarchism in the post-revolutionary period did not represent a single whole. There were three main directions - anarcho-individualism, anarcho-syndicalism and anarcho-communism, each of which had several more branches and modifications.
Anarcho-individualists. The first supporters of anarcho-individualism, dating back to the teachings of the German philosopher Caspar Schmidt, who wrote the famous book “The One and His Property” under the pseudonym “Max Stirner,” appeared in Russia back in the 50s-60s of the nineteenth century, but only at the beginning In the twentieth century, they were able to more or less take shape ideologically and organizationally, although they did not reach the level of organization and activity that was inherent in the anarchists of the syndicalist and communist movements. Anarcho-individualists paid more attention to theoretical and literary activity than practical combat. As a result, in 1905-1907. A whole galaxy of talented theorists and publicists of the anarcho-individualist trend declared themselves, among whom the first were Alexey Borovoy and Auguste Viscount.
After the October Revolution of 1917, several independent trends emerged within anarcho-individualism, claiming primacy and loudly declaring themselves, but in practice they were limited only to the publication of printed publications and numerous declarations. 
Lev Cherny (pictured) advocated “association anarchism,” which was a further creative development of the ideas laid down by Stirner, Pierre Joseph Proudhon and Benjamin Thacker. In the economic sphere, associational anarchism advocated the preservation of private property and small-scale production; in the political sphere, it demanded the destruction of state power and the administrative apparatus.
Another wing of anarcho-individualism was represented by the very extravagant brothers Vladimir and Abba Gordin - the sons of a rabbi from Lithuania, who received a traditional Jewish education, but became anarchists. The Gordin brothers in the fall of 1917 announced the creation of a new direction in anarchism - pananarchism. Pananarchism was presented to them as the ideal of general and immediate anarchy, driving force The movement was supposed to become “crowds of tramps and lumpen people,” in which the Gordins followed M.A. Bakunin’s concept of the revolutionary role of the lumpen proletariat and the views of the “anarchist-communist-beschatels” who acted during the revolution of 1905-1907. In 1920, having “modernized” pananarchism, Abba Gordin announced the creation of a new direction, which he called anarcho-universalism and united the main provisions of anarcho-individualism and anarcho-communism with the recognition of the idea of a world communist revolution.
Subsequently, another branch emerged from anarcho-universalism - anarcho-biocosmism, the leader and theorist of which was A.F. Svyatogor (Agienko), who published his work “The Doctrine of the Fathers and Anarchism-Biocosmism” in 1922. Biocosmists saw the ideal of anarchy in the maximum freedom of the individual and humanity as a whole in the future era, inviting man to extend his power to the vastness of the Universe, as well as achieve physical immortality.
Anarcho-syndicalists. Supporters of anarcho-syndicalism considered the main and highest form organization of the working class, the main means of its social liberation and the initial stage of the socialist organization of society are syndicates - labor unions. Denying the parliamentary struggle, the party form of organization and political activity aimed at gaining power, the anarcho-syndicalists saw the social revolution as a general strike of workers in all sectors of the economy, and they recommended strikes, sabotage, and economic terror as everyday methods of struggle.
Anarcho-syndicalism became especially widespread in France, Spain, Italy, Portugal and other countries Latin America In the first two decades of the twentieth century, the labor movement of Japan took an anarcho-syndicalist position; many supporters of anarcho-syndicalism acted in the ranks of the American organization Industrial Workers of the World. In Russia, anarcho-syndicalist ideas initially did not become widespread. A more or less significant anarcho-syndicalist group was active in 1905-1907. in Odessa and was called “Novomirtsy” - after the pseudonym of its ideologist Ya. Kirillovsky “Novomirsky”. However, then anarcho-syndicalist ideas gained recognition among anarchists in other cities, in particular Bialystok, Yekaterinoslav, and Moscow. Like representatives of other directions of anarchism, after the suppression of the revolution of 1905-1907. Russian anarcho-syndicalists, although not completely defeated, were forced to significantly reduce their activity. Many anarcho-syndicalists emigrated, including to the USA and Canada, where an entire Federation of Russian Workers arose.
On the eve of the February Revolution, only 34 anarcho-syndicalists were active in Moscow; they were somewhat more numerous in Petrograd. In Petrograd in the summer of 1917, the Union of Anarcho-Syndicalist Propaganda was created, headed by Vsevolod Volin (Eikhenbaum), Efim Yarchuk (Chaim Yarchuk) and Grigory Maximov. The main goal of the Union was a social revolution, which was supposed to destroy the state and organize society in the form of a federation of syndicates. The Union of Anarcho-Syndicalist Propaganda fully lived up to its name and was active in factories and factories. Soon the unions of metalworkers, port workers, bakers, and individual factory committees came under the control of the anarcho-syndicalists. The syndicalists pursued a line towards establishing real workers' control in production and defended it at the first conference of factory committees in Petrograd in May - November 1917.
Individual anarcho-syndicalists actively participated in the October Revolution, in particular Efim Yarchuk and Vladimir Shatov (“Bill” Shatov, who returned after the revolution from the USA, where he was an activist in the Federation of Russian Workers of the USA and Canada) were members of the Petrograd Military Revolutionary Committee, which carried out leadership of the October Revolution. On the other hand, some anarcho-syndicalists from the very first days of the October Revolution took pronounced anti-Bolshevik positions, not hesitating to propagate them in their official press.
Anarcho-communists. Anarcho-communists, who combined the demand for the abolition of the state with the demand for the establishment of universal ownership of the means of production, the organization of production and distribution on communist principles, both during the revolution of 1905-1907, and during the revolutions and the Civil War, made up the majority of Russian anarchists. The theorist of anarcho-communism Pyotr Kropotkin was secretly recognized as the spiritual leader of all Russian anarchism, and even those of his ideological opponents who polemicized with him on the pages of the anarchist press did not try to challenge his authority.
In the spring of 1917, after emigrants returned from abroad, and political prisoners of anarcho-communists returned from places of imprisonment, anarcho-communist organizations were recreated in Moscow, Petrograd, Samara, Saratov, Bryansk, Kiev, Irkutsk, Rostov-on -Don, Odessa and many other cities. Among the theorists and leaders of the anarcho-communist trend, in addition to P.A. Kropotkin, Apollo Karelin, Alexander Atabekyan, Pyotr Arshinov, Alexander Ge (Golberg), and Ilya Bleichman stood out.
The center for gathering the forces of anarcho-communists operating by the summer of 1917 in 59 populated areas, became the Moscow Federation of Anarchist Groups (MFAG), founded on March 13, 1917 and publishing the newspaper “Anarchy” under the editorship of Vladimir Barmash from September 13, 1917 to July 2, 1918. October Revolution anarcho-communists supported and welcomed, anarcho-communists Ilya Bleichman, Justin Zhuk and Konstantin Akashev were members of the Petrograd Military Revolutionary Committee, Anatoly Zheleznyakov and Alexander Mokrousov commanded detachments of Red Guards who stormed the Winter Palace, anarcho-communists also played a prominent role in the provinces (in in particular, in Irkutsk, where the figure of the “Siberian father” Nestor Aleksandrovich Kalandarishvili, a Georgian anarchist who became the leader of the East Siberian partisans, was of enormous importance for the revolutionary movement).
As the positions of the Bolshevik Party strengthened and representatives of other socialist movements were removed from real power, a division occurred in Russian anarchism regarding the attitude towards the new government. As a result of this division, by the end of the Civil War, in the ranks of the anarchist movement there were both ardent opponents of the Soviet government and the Bolshevik Party, and people who were ready to cooperate with this government, go to work in the administration, and even renounce their previous views and join the Bolshevik Party.
Together with the Bolsheviks - for Soviet power
It is noteworthy that the division into supporters and opponents of cooperation with the Soviet regime occurred in the ranks of anarchists completely regardless of their affiliation with one direction or another - among anarcho-communists, and among anarcho-syndicalists, and among anarcho-individualists there were both adherents of Soviet power, so are those who came out with her heated criticism and even took up arms against her.
The leaders of the “pro-Soviet” trend in anarchism in the first post-revolutionary years were Alexander Ge (Golberg) and Apollo Karelin (pictured) - anarcho-communists who became members of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. Ge died in 1919 while being sent to North Caucasus as an investigator of the Cheka, and Karelin continued legal anarchist activities within the framework of the All-Russian Federation of Anarchist-Communists (VFAC) led by him. 
After the end of the Civil War, there was a tendency among the anarchists, ready to cooperate with the Soviet regime, to merge with the Bolshevik Party. The propaganda of “anarcho-Bolshevism” was made by such famous figures of pre-revolutionary anarchism as Judas Grossman-Roshchin (the latter even became a close friend of Lunacharsky and Lenin himself) and Ilya Geitsman, and in 1923, a very remarkable and characteristic of that time appeared in the newspaper “Pravda” statement of the “anarchist-communists”, which asserted that the Russian working class has been waging a dangerous struggle with world capital for six years, being deprived of the opportunity to come to a powerless system: “Only through the dictatorship of the proletariat can one get rid of the power of capital, destroy militarism and organize production and distribution on new beginnings. Only after final victory and after the suppression of all attempts by the bourgeoisie for restoration, we can talk about the liquidation of the state and power in general. Whoever challenges this path without putting forward another, more worthy one, actually prefers pathetic circle handicraft, internal passivity and unrealizable illusions to direct action and the organization of victory - all this under the guise of revolutionary phrases. Such impotence and disorganization on the part of international anarchism infuses new strength into the war-shocked organization of the bourgeoisie.” This was followed by a call to fellow anarchists “not to disperse the revolutionary forces in capitalist countries, to rally together with the communists around the only revolutionary bodies of direct action - the Comintern and the Profintern, to create strong bases in the fight against advancing capital and, finally, to come to the aid of the Russian Revolution.”
Despite the fact that the statement was voiced on behalf of anarcho-communists, it was initially signed by six individualist anarchists - L.G. Simanovich (saddle worker, revolutionary experience since 1902), M.M. Mikhailovsky (doctor, revolutionary experience since 1904), A.P. Lepin (painter worker, revolutionary experience since 1916), I.I. Vasilchuk (Shidlovsky, worker, revolutionary experience since 1912), D.Yu. Goyner (electrical engineer, revolutionary experience since 1900) and V.Z. Vinogradov (intellectual, revolutionary experience since 1904). Subsequently, anarcho-communists I.M. Geitsman and E. Tinovitsky and anarcho-syndicalists N. Belkovsky and E. Rotenberg added their signatures. Thus, the “anarcho-Bolsheviks,” as other participants in the anarchist movement called them with a negative connotation, sought to legitimize the new government in the eyes of their comrades in the revolutionary struggle.
“Alarm” of Baron and “Black Guard” of Cherny
However, other anarchists did not abandon the idea of absolute anarchy and classified the Bolsheviks as “new oppressors” against whom an anarchist revolution should immediately be launched. In the spring of 1918, the Black Guard was created in Moscow. The emergence of this armed formation of anarchists was a response to the creation by the Soviet government of the Red Army in February 1918. The Moscow Federation of Anarchist Groups (MFAG) was directly involved in the creation of the Black Guard. Soon, MFAG activists managed to rally militants from organizations with telling names “Smerch”, “Hurricane”, “Lava”, etc. into the Black Guard. During the period under review, Moscow anarchists occupied at least 25 mansions they seized and were uncontrollable armed groups created on the principles of personal acquaintance, ideological orientation, national and professional affiliation.
The work on creating the Black Guard was led by the secretary of the MFAG, Lev Cherny. In fact, his name was Pavel Dmitrievich Turchaninov (1878-1921). Coming from a noble family, Lev Cherny began his revolutionary path in pre-revolutionary Russia, then lived in exile for a long time. He met the February Revolution as an anarcho-individualist, but this did not prevent him, together with representatives of other trends in anarchism, from creating the MFAG and the Black Guard. The latter, according to its founders, was supposed to become an armed unit of the anarchist movement and ultimately not only carry out the tasks of protecting anarchist headquarters, but also prepare for a possible confrontation with the Bolsheviks and their Red Army. Naturally, the creation of the Black Guard was not to the liking of the Moscow Bolsheviks, who demanded its immediate dissolution.
On March 5, 1918, the Black Guard officially announced its creation, and already on April 12, 1918, the head of the Cheka, Felix Dzerzhinsky, gave the order to disarm the Black Guard. Detachments of security officers began storming the mansions in which anarchist detachments were based. The most fierce resistance was provided by the anarchists who occupied mansions on Povarskaya Street and Malaya Dmitrovka, where the headquarters of the Moscow Federation of Anarchist Groups was located. In one night alone, 40 anarchist militants and 12 IBSC employees were killed. In the mansions, in addition to ideological anarchists, security officers detained a large number of criminals, professional criminals, and also discovered stolen things and jewelry. In total, Moscow security officers managed to detain 500 people. Several dozen detainees were soon released - they turned out to be ideological anarchists who were not involved in the robberies. By the way, Felix Dzerzhinsky himself officially stated that the IBSC operation did not set as its goal the fight against anarchism, but was carried out to combat criminal crime. However, three years later the operation to “clean up” the anarchist movement in Moscow was repeated. This time, its results turned out to be more disastrous for the anarchists - for example, the secretary of the MFAG, Lev Cherny, was shot for anti-Soviet activities.
Aron Baron became one of the leaders of the irreconcilable wing of anarchists. Aron Davidovich Baron - Faktorovich (1891-1937) took part in the anarchist movement since the pre-revolutionary years, then emigrated to the USA, where he actively manifested himself in the American labor movement. After the February Revolution of 1917, Baron returned to Russia and quickly became one of the leading activists of the anarchist movement in the first post-revolutionary years. 
He organized his own partisan detachment, which took part in the defense of Yekaterinoslav from German and Austrian troops (by the way, in addition to the Baron’s detachment, detachments of the left Socialist Revolutionaries Yu.V. Sablin and V.I. Kikvidze, the armored train of L.G. Mokievskaya took part in the defense of the city - Zubok , “Red Cossacks” by V.M. Primakov). Later, Baron participated in organizing the defense of Poltava and was even for some time the revolutionary commandant of this city. When Soviet power was established on the territory of Ukraine, Baron lived in Kyiv. He decided to continue further struggle - now against the Bolsheviks, and joined the leadership of the Nabat group. On the basis of this group, the famous Confederation of Anarchist Organizations of Ukraine “Nabat” was created, which shared the ideology of “united anarchism” - i.e. the unification of all radical opponents of the state system, regardless of their specific ideological differences. In the Alarm Confederation, Baron held leadership positions.
Explosion in Leontyevsky Lane
The most famous terrorist act of Russian anarchists in the first years of Soviet power was the organization of the explosion of the Moscow Committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) in Leontyevsky Lane. The explosion occurred on September 25, 1919, killing 12 people. 55 people present in the building at the time of the explosion were injured of varying degrees of severity. The meeting at the Moscow City Committee of the RCP (b) on this day was devoted to issues of agitation and organization of educational and methodological work in party schools. About 100-120 people gathered to discuss these problems, including prominent representatives of the Moscow City Committee of the RCP (B) and the Central Committee of the RCP (B), such as Bukharin, Myasnikov, Pokrovsky and Preobrazhensky. When some of those gathered after the speeches of Bukharin, Pokrovsky and Preobrazhensky began to disperse, a loud crash was heard.
The bomb detonated a minute after being thrown. A hole was punched in the floor of the room, all the glass was knocked out, the frames and some doors were torn off. The power of the explosion was such that the back wall of the building collapsed. During the night from September 25 to 26, debris was cleared. It turned out that the victims of the terrorist attack were several employees of the Moscow City Committee of the RCP (b), including the secretary of the city committee Vladimir Zagorsky, as well as a member of the Revolutionary Military Council of the Eastern Front Alexander Safonov, a member of the Moscow Council Nikolai Kropotov, two students of the Central Party School Tankus and Kolbin and employees of the district party committees. Among the 55 wounded was Nikolai Bukharin himself, one of the most authoritative Bolsheviks at that time, who was wounded in the arm.
On the same day that an explosion occurred in Leontyevsky Lane, the newspaper Anarchy published a statement by a certain All-Russian Insurgent Committee of Revolutionary Partisans, which claimed responsibility for the explosion. Naturally, the Moscow Extraordinary Commission began to investigate the high-profile case. The head of the Cheka, Felix Dzerzhinsky, initially rejected the version that Moscow anarchists were involved in the explosion. After all, he knew many of them personally from the times of royal hard labor and exile. On the other hand, a number of veterans of the anarchist movement had long ago accepted Bolshevik power, were well acquainted, again from pre-revolutionary times, with the leaders of the RCP (b) and would hardly have planned such actions.
However, soon the security officers managed to get on the trail of the organizers of the terrorist attack. Chance helped. On a train near Bryansk, security officers detained 18-year-old anarchist Sofya Kaplun to check her documents, who was carrying a letter from one of the leaders of the Nabat KAU, Aron Baron - Faktorovich. In the letter, Baron directly reported who was behind the explosion in Leontyevsky Lane. It turned out that these were still anarchists, but not Moscow ones.
Behind the explosion in Leontyevsky Lane was the All-Russian Organization of Underground Anarchists - an illegal anarchist group created by participants civil war in Ukraine, including former Makhnovists, to counter the Bolshevik government. The decision to blow up the city committee of the RCP (b) was made by anarchists in response to repressions against the Makhnovists in Ukraine. In July 1919, there were no more than thirty people in the ranks of the Moscow organization of underground anarchists. Although anarchists do not (and cannot have, in accordance with the specific ideology) official leaders, several people ran the organization. Firstly, it was the railway worker anarcho-syndicalist Kazimir Kovalevich, secondly, the former secretary of the All-Russian Federation of Anarchist Youth (VFAM) Nikolai Markov, and finally, Pyotr Sobolev, about whose past only certain fragmentary details were known, including episodes of work in the Makhnovist counterintelligence. The organization created four groups - 1) a combat group, led by Sobolev, which carried out robbery attacks with the aim of stealing money and valuables; 2) technical, under the leadership of Azov, producing bombs and weapons; propaganda, which, under the leadership of Kovalevich, was engaged in the compilation of texts of a revolutionary nature; 4) the printing department, headed by Tsintsiper, which was directly involved in supporting the publishing activities of the organization.
The underground anarchists contacted several other left-wing extremist groups dissatisfied with the policies of the Bolshevik authorities. First of all, these were separate circles that were part of the Party of Left Socialist Revolutionaries and the Union of Socialist Revolutionary Maximalists. PLSR representative Donat Cherepanov soon became one of the leaders of the underground anarchists. In addition to Moscow, the organization has created several branches throughout Russia, including in Samara, Ufa, Nizhny Novgorod, and Bryansk. In their own printing house, equipped with funds received from expropriations, the underground anarchists printed ten thousand copies of propaganda leaflets, and also published two issues of the newspaper “Anarchy”, one of which contained a loud statement about involvement in the terrorist attack in Leontyevsky Lane. When the anarchists became aware of the impending meeting of the Moscow City Committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) in a building on Leontyevsky Lane, they decided to carry out a terrorist act against those gathered. Moreover, information has been received about the upcoming arrival of V.I. himself to the meeting. Lenin. The direct perpetrators of the terrorist attack were six militants from the underground anarchist organization. Sobolev and Baranovsky threw bombs, Grechannikov, Glagzon and Nikolaev guarded the action and Cherepanov acted as a gunner.
Almost immediately after the security officers became aware of the true perpetrators and organizers of terrorist acts, arrests began. Kazimir Kovalevich and Pyotr Sobolev died in a shootout with security officers. The headquarters of the underground fighters in Kraskovo was surrounded by a military detachment of the Moscow Black Sea Chess Committee. For several hours, security officers tried to storm the building, after which the anarchists inside blew themselves up with bombs to avoid being captured. Among those killed at the dacha in Kraskovo were Azov, Glagzon and four other militants. Baranovsky, Grechannikov and several other militants were captured alive. At the end of December 1919, eight people detained by the Extraordinary Commission were shot on charges of terrorist acts. These were: Alexander Baranovsky, Mikhail Grechannikov, Fyodor Nikolaev, Leonty Khlebnysky, Khilya Tsintsiper, Pavel Isaev, Alexander Voshodov, Alexander Dombrovsky.
Of course, the underground anarchists were far from the only such organization in those years. On the territory of Soviet Russia, there were both peasant insurgent movements, in which anarchists played a prominent role, and urban groups and detachments that opposed Soviet power. But not a single anarchist organization in Soviet Russia was able to commit terrorist acts like the explosion in Leontyevsky Lane.
Countering the anti-Soviet activities of anarchists was one of the main conditions for the survival of the new communist government. Otherwise, anarchist organizations could only aggravate the destabilization of the situation in the country, which would ultimately lead to the victory of the “whites” or the dismemberment of the country into spheres of influence foreign countries. At the same time, in some places, especially in the 1920s, Soviet authority acted unjustifiably harshly towards anarchists who did not pose a threat to her. So, in the 1920s - 1930s. Many prominent former participants in the anarchist movement, who had long since retired and were engaged in constructive social activities for the benefit of the country, were repressed.
Rome. Military anarchy (235 - 285)
The last emperor of the Severian dynasty, Alexander and his mother Julia, were killed by mutinous soldiers in 235. From this point on, the rapid decline of the imperial coinage began, which was stopped only by Aurelian's reform in the early 270s.
From 235 to 238 the throne was occupied by Maximin the Thracian (Gai Julius Verus Maximinus the Thracian) - Emperor Caesar Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus Augustus (Emperor Caesar Caius Iulius Verus Maximinus Augustus) - Gaius Julius Verus the Maximinus the Thracian.
He was born into a Thracian peasant family and went from an ordinary warrior to an emperor. During the war on the German border, after the massacre of Alexander Severus near Mainz, the troops proclaimed him emperor. Maximin inflicted a series of defeats on the Alemanni in 235, and on the Sarmatians and Dacians in 236-237. In a war with the Senate party led by the Gordians, Maximin and his son, proclaimed Caesar, besieged Aquileia and died during a rebellion that broke out in their own camp.
Gold aurei and quinarii, silver denarii and quinarii, sestertii, dupondii, asses, semis and quadrani were issued with the name of Maximin. With the name of his wife Paulina - denarii and sesterces. With the name of his son - Maximus - denarii, sestertii, dupondii, asses, semis and quadrans.
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| Ass, 236, bronze (10.82). Obverse - Maximus, MAXIMVS CAES GERM, reverse - sacred objects, PIETAS AVG, SC. |
In 235, a certain Titus, whom the Greek historian Herodian calls Quartinus, challenged the throne from Maximinus the Thracian, leading an uprising of Arab archers. This Titus was killed in his tent by one of his friends or by his own soldiers, who rejoined Maximinus.
Gordian I (238) - Mark Antony Gordian - Emperor Caesar Mark Antony Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus Augustus.
Became Roman emperor in April - May 238. As a representative of large African landowners, he was nominated as a contender for emperor. The Senate supported him against Maximinus the Thracian. Gordian I made his son, who bears the same name, Gordian (II), co-ruler. The latter died at Carthage in a battle against the Numidian legion, which remained loyal to Maximin. Gordian I then committed suicide.
Gordian II (238) - Mark Antony Gordian - Emperor Caesar Mark Antony Gordianus Romanus Africanus Augustus.
Aureuses, denarii, and sesterces were minted in the name of the father.
With the son's name - denarii and sestertii. The coins of the Gordian father and son are the same according to the obverse legend, but they can be classified by their portrait - the father has a thin and old face and the son has a bald head.
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| Denarius, 238, silver (3.3 g). Obverse - Gordian II, IMP M ANT GORDIANVS AFR AVG, reverse - Providence (personification of foresight, divine providence), PROVIDENTIA AVGG. |
After the death of both Gordians, the Senate, which openly opposed Maximin, elected Balbinus and Pupienus as emperors. After the death of Maximin, the co-rulers began to challenge each other for seniority, but both were killed by the Praetorians on the 99th day of their reign.
Pupien (April-July 238) - Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus - Emperor Caesar Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus Augustus.
Balbinus (April-July 238) - Decimus Caelius Calvinus Balbinus - Emperor Caesar Decimus Caelius Calvinus Balbinus Augustus.
Balbin's coins - denarii, antoninian, sestertii, dupondii, asses. Pupien - the same denominations, as well as aurei.
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| Antoninian, 238, silver (4.7 g). Obverse - Pupien, IMP CAES M CLOD PVPIENVS AVG, reverse - handshake, AMOR MVTVVS AVGG. |
After the assassination of Maximinus and the short reign of the emperors Pupienus and Balbinus, the Praetorians proclaimed the son of Gordian II, grandson of Gordian I, emperor. After border battles on the Danube in 242-244. Gordian III led the fight against the Persians in Syria and Mesopotamia and died on the Euphrates.
Gordian III (238-244) - Mark Antony Gordian - Emperor Caesar Mark Antony Gordianus Augustus (Emperor Caesar Marcus Antonius Gordianus Augustus).
Gold aurei and quinarii, silver antoninians, denarii and quinarii, sestertii, dupondii and aces were issued with the name of Gordian III. with the name of his wife - Tranquillina - denarii, sestertii, dupondii and asses.
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| Ass, 238-244, bronze (11.1). Obverse - Gordian III, IMP GORDIANVS PIVS FEL AVG, reverse - Letitia, LAETITIA AVG N S-C. |
From the time of this reign, the number of Antoninians issued increased (until the reform of Diocletian in the last decade of the third century). The weight of gold coins also decreased, although their standard remained high. Ass was produced in small quantities and irregularly.
The denarius varied in weight and fineness from reign to reign.
Philip I the Arab - Marcus Julius Philip - Emperor Caesar Marcus Julius Philip Augustus (Emperor Caesar Marcus Iulius Philippus Augustus) occupied the throne in 244-249.
He participated in the assassination of Gordian III. He began his reign by concluding peace with the Persians and establishing a good relationship with the Senate. In April 248, he led the celebrations of the millennium of Rome. However, in the summer of that year, the Goths invaded Moesia (modern Bulgaria) and usurping emperors emerged in the Balkans and the East. To deal with these problems, Philip appointed Decius as commander of the Danubian forces, but the latter's popularity within the army led to the man being proclaimed emperor. Philip and his son were killed at the Battle of Verona.
Gold aureuses and quinarii, silver antoninians, denarii and quinarii, sestertii, dupondii and asses were minted with the name of Philip the Elder. His wife Otacilia was awarded aureus, antoninian, denarius, quinarius, sesetrzii, dupondii and asses.
The son of Emperor Philip I the Arab and Otacilia Severa, Philip II the Younger (Marcus Julius Philip) was killed by the Praetorians as soon as news of the defeat of Philip the Arab reached Rome. Aureuses, antoninians, denarii, quinarii, sestertii, dupondii and asses were minted with his name.
During the reign of Philip I, a sufficient number of impostors appeared - Sponsian, Silbannac, Iotapian and Pakatian.
Sponsianus (between 244 and 249) - possibly a usurper emperor during the reign of Philip I the Arab. It is known from very mysterious aurei found in Transylvania in 1713. These coins are considered either a barbaric imitation of coins of the Munician family (2nd century BC) due to the similarity of the reverses, or more modern fakes of poor quality.
Silbannac (between 244 and 249) - Marcius Silbannac - known only from one Antoninian, said to have been found in Lorraine. Based on stylistic criteria, the coin dates to the reign of Philip the Arab. The obverse shows a portrait of Emperor Silbannacus with the legend "Imp. Mar. Silbannacus Aug". The reverse side depicts Mercury holding Victory and the Caduceus, as well as a legend with the readable text "Victoria Aug".
Silbannacus may have been associated with Gaul, since Mercury was especially revered there (he also appears on the later coins of Postumus, Emperor of Gaul in the second half of the 3rd century. Therefore, it can be said with a certain degree of probability that during the 240s. , a man named Silbannac was proclaimed emperor in Gaul or one of the provinces of Germany and that he may have been of Gallic origin.
Iotapian (between 244 and 249) - Emperor Caesar Marcus Flavius Ru(fus?) Iotapianus Augustus. Usurper during the reign of Philip I the Arab and, possibly, Decius Trajan.
Jotapian, known from the reports of Aurelius Victor, Zosimus and Polemia Silvius, rebelled in the East against Philip. According to Victor, Jotapian claimed kinship with Alexander. Most scholars believe that through his relationship with Severus Alexander, he indicated that he belonged to the Severian dynasty from Syrian Emesa. However, it is also possible that the usurper claimed to be a descendant of Alexander the Great of Macedonia: the name Iotapian is consonant with the names of queens Iotapa I and II, from the royal family of Commagene.
The circumstances under which this impostor's rebellion ended are unknown except for the fact that Jotapian was killed by his own soldiers. It is unknown how they reacted to the uprising, and whether it even happened under Philip.
There are several Antoninians of Jotapian. Their obverse shows the usurper and gives him full name. On the reverse side it reads “Victoria Aug(usti)” and shows Victory with a wreath and palm tree. Although these images could report the victory of the rebels over Philip's troops, they are most likely just propaganda.
Decius Trajan (249-251) - Gaius Messius Decius - Emperor Caesar Gaius Messius Quintus Decius Traianus Augustus (Emperor Caesar Caius Messius Quintus Decius Traianus Augustus) or Emperor Caesar Gaius Messius Quintus Traianus Augustus (Imperator Caesar Caius Messius Quintus Traianus Decius Augustus) ).
The beginning of the rise of the Illyrians is associated with his name. Being a senator and supreme commander in Pannonia and Moesia, he was proclaimed emperor by his troops in opposition to Philip, and organized the first systematic persecution of Christians throughout the state. In the fight against the invading carps and Goths he died at Abrittus in Moesia.
He minted aurei, antoninians, denarii and quinarii, sestertii, dupondii, asses, semis and quadrani. With the name of the wife - Etruscilla - aureus, denarius, sestertii, dupondii and asses.
Herennius Etruscus (251) - Emperor Caesar Quintus Herennius Etruscus Messius Decius Augustus (Imperator Caesar Quintus Herennius Etruscus Messius Decius Augustus).
Hostilian (251) - Emperor Caesar Caius Valens Hostilian Messius Quintus Augustus.
Herennius Etruscus was born in Pannonia sometime between 220 and 230 AD. and was old enough to do military service during his father's reign. Judging by his adolescent portraits on surviving coins, Hostilian was much younger. Both of them received the titles of Caesars, then “leaders of the youth” (princeps iuventutis) and, finally, Augusti.
After powerful invasions of the Carp and Goths into Dacia and Moesia, Decius and Herennius Etruscus led an expeditionary force against the Gothic king Cniva. When the barbarians were on their way to their homeland, loaded with spoils from their successful campaigns, the two sides met at Abritta (Gisarlak, near Razgrad in modern Bulgaria). Kniva managed to lure his opponents into a swampy area and almost completely destroy them. Both Augusts died.
Decius and Herennius Etruscus thus became the first Roman emperors to be killed by external enemies on the battlefield. The survivors proclaimed Trebonian Gallus emperor even though Decius's youngest son Hostilian already had nominal power in Rome. This potential conflict was resolved a year later when a deadly outbreak of plague claimed the boy's life and his mother (Augusta Herennia Etruscilla) was deposed.
The reign of Decius and his sons is generally perceived as one of the worst in a series of devastating turning points called the "Crisis of the 3rd Century". Yet, despite his failures, Latin sources favorably evaluate Decius (and also his eldest son) as an example of traditional principles.
With the name Herennius, aurei, antoninians, denarii and quinarii, sestertii, dupondii, and asses were issued. With the name of his brother - Hostilian - the same denominations.
Julius Valens Licinianus (250) and Priscus (251) laid claim to the throne during the reign of Decius.
After the defeat of Decius by the Goths and his death, Trebonian Gallus is proclaimed emperor (June 251). He wages war with the Goths and Persians in the East, in the fight against the pretender to the throne he is defeated and dies.
Trebonian Gall (251-253) - Gaius Vibius Trebonian Gall - Emperor Caesar Gaius Vibius Trebonianus (or Trebonius) Gallus Augustus (Imperator Caesar Caius Vibius Trebonianus (Trebonius) Gallus Augustus).
Trebonian's portrait appeared on gold aurei and quinarii, silver antoninians, denarii and quinarii, sestertii, dupondii and asses.
This ruler made an attempt to stop the decline in the weight of gold coins by issuing a double aureus (binio), very similar to the antoninian.
Volusian (251-253) - Emperor Caesar Caius Vibius Afinius Gallus Vendumianus (Vendumius) Volusianus Augustus.
He was the son of Bebiana and Trebonian Gall. The latter became emperor and made Volusian Caesar. Volusian became his Augustus co-emperor in November 251. They returned to Rome and sat there for two years while enemies attacked the empire in the north and east. The legions of Aemilian, the new governor of Moesia, proclaimed him Augustus, and Volusian and Gallus were killed by their own men in July 253.
Volusian was noted for his gold aureuses and quinarii, silver antoninians, denarii and quinarii, sestertii, dupondii and asses.
Aemilian (253) - Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus - Emperor Caesar Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus Augustus.
Originated from Mauretania. In 252 he became governor of Lower Moesia. In the spring of 253, having gathered scattered military forces, he attacked the Goths and drove them across the Danube, distributing the money collected to pay tribute to the soldiers, as a result of which he was proclaimed emperor in July-August 253. Marching into Italy, Aemilian met the army of Trebonian Gallus near Spoleto. Gallus and his son Volusian were killed by their own soldiers. Aemilian was recognized as emperor by the Senate, but was soon killed by his own soldiers as Valerian’s army approached, moving to the aid of Gall.
By the name of Emilianus, aurei, antoninians, denarii, sestertii, dupondii and asses were issued. With the name of his wife - Cornelia Supera - denarii. Also interesting is the release of very rare Antoninians in honor of this empress.
Valerian (253-260) - Publius Licinius Valerian - Emperor Caesar Publius Licinius Valerianus Augustus.
He came from an Italian senatorial family. In Raetia he was proclaimed emperor by his troops. He made his son Gallienus co-ruler. During their joint reign, the crisis reached its climax. Since all the borders of the Empire were under threat of attack, Valerian entrusted his son with the protection of the Rhine-Danube border in 254, and he himself went to the eastern provinces, where from 257 he almost unsuccessfully tried to repel Persian attacks on Cappadocia and Syria. Inflation, usurpation of power in the provinces and persecution of Christians in 257-258. increased general anarchy. Valerian was defeated by the Persian king Shapur I at Edessa and was captured. Died in a Persian prison.
Valerian minted gold aureuses and quinarias, silver antoninines, denarii and quinarias, sestertia, dupondium, asses, semis and quadranes. His wife Maniniana was awarded the same denominations, except for the gold quinarii. The aureus test was lowered to 700-800.
Gallienus (253-268) - Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus - Emperor Caesar Publius Licinius Valerian Egnatius Gallienus Augustus.
Son of Valerian and co-ruler of the latter until 259. In 254-259. defended the Rhine-Danube border from invasions of the Roman Empire by the Franks, Alemanni, Marcomanni, Goths, etc. In 259, he defeated the Alamanni who had advanced to Mediolan (Milan). After his father was captured, he became the sole ruler. The entire period of his reign was filled with the struggle against numerous usurpers in the provinces, who in most cases were supported by the local aristocracy. Gallienus managed to eliminate the minor usurpers. As a result of the invasion of the barbarians, Dacia (in 255), the Decumate fields (in 259) fell away, and Raetia was also temporarily lost. In the western part of the Empire in 259, the Gallic state of Postumus arose, in the East - the kingdom of Palmyra.
In domestic policy Gallienus relied on the municipal aristocracy. In 262-263. During the army reform, he closed senators' access to the army in favor of horsemen, and created cavalry, mainly from Illyrian units. He stopped the persecution of Christians started by his father. As an educated philhellene and friend of Plotinus, Gallienus was a patron of Neoplatonism. He was killed near Mediolan during the revolt of the cavalry commander Avreol.
During the reign of Gallienus, golden aurei and quinarii, antoninians, denarii, sestertii, semis and quadrani were issued. In honor of Augustus, Vespasian Titus, Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Commodus, Septimius Severus and Alexander Severus, billon quinarii, sestertii, dupondii and asces were minted. With the name of Salonina and Salonina - the wife and son of the emperor - golden aureuses and quinarii, billon denarii and quinarii, sestertii, dupondii, asses, semis and quadrani.
With the coming to power in 253 of Valerian and his son Gallienus, the final dissolution of the Augustan monetary system began. The consequence of the capture of Persia in 260 was a partial loss of control and control in the East passed to the kingdom of Palmyra. Queen Zenobia of Palmyra and her son Vabalates issued billon tetradrachms at the mint of Alexandria in Egypt and the Antoninian mint in Antioch in Syria.
Shortly before this, the western provinces - Gaul, Britain and Spain - came out from under central subordination and were actually controlled by the commander of the Rhine legions, Postumus. In fact, for 14 years it was independent state. This decentralization could not but affect monetary circulation and the issue of coins. The silver Antoninian, seriously “lightened” in the early 250s (under Gallienus, its weight was 2.7 grams, made of copper coated with a thin layer of silver), dropped to the level of a bronze coin of small denomination, completely losing all traces of the precious metal.
| Year | Weight, gram |
Try | Silver, gram |
|
| Balbinus and Pupienus | 238 | 4,79 | 495 | 2,38 |
| Gordian III | 238 | 4,50 | 485 | 2,20 |
| Gordian III | 241 | 4,43 | 445 | 1,98 |
| Gordian III | 243 | 4,16 | 415 | 1,62 |
| Philip | 244 | 4,12 | 430 | 1,74 |
| Philip | 248 | 4,12 | 470 | 1,94 |
| Trajan Decius | 250 | 3,97 | 410 | 1,64 |
| Trebonian Gall | 251 | 3,46 | 360 | 1,26 |
| Emilian | 253 | 3,53 | 355 | 1,29 |
| Valerian | 253 | 3,10 | 220 | 0,68 |
| Valerian | 255-260 | 3,07 | 190 | 0,58 |
| Gallienus | 260 | 3,03 | 180 | 0,54 |
| Gallienus | 261-263 | 2,97 | 155 | 0,46 |
| Gallienus | 263-265 | 2,75 | 130 | 0,38 |
| Gallienus | 265-266 | 2,81 | 90 | 0,31 |
| Gallienus | 267-268 | 2,69 | 60 | 0,16 |
The sestertius, dupondius and ass were minted for more or less a long time, but disappeared from circulation when the antoninian turned into a bronze coin. The last time the old type of sestertius was minted was under Emperor Posthumus (259-268).
The state was virtually bankrupt. Along with the collapse of silver coinage, the production of assa and its fractions almost ceased. The extensive provincial bronze coinage suffered a similar fate, and many of the mints of the Greek imperial cities made their final issues in honor of Gallienus and his wife Salonina. Although the fineness of gold coins has been maintained, the weight of individual specimens varies considerably and shows only weak attempts to adhere to any standard.
Saloninus (260-261) - Publius Licinius Cornelius Saloninus Valerian.
Son of Emperor Gallienus and Salonina. In 258, as a young man, he was appointed Caesar. Two years later, with the help of his mentor Silvanus and, apparently, with the participation of the local commander Postumus, Salonin was promoted to the rank of Augustus and became commander along the entire length of the Rhine frontier. In the absence of Gallienus, who participated in the campaigns, the nominal power in the western part of the Empire belonged to the young man, although the real political decisions were apparently made by Silvanus. This state of affairs proved fatal when Silvanus quarreled with Postumus. The quarrel grew into a fierce confrontation, and Postumus, gathering his troops, besieged Salonin and Silvanus in 260 in Cologne. After the capture of the city, Salonin was sentenced to death.
Trebellian, Celsus and Saturninus, possibly usurping emperors, reigned between 260 and 268.
During the sole reign of Gallienus (260-268 AD), Trebellian was reportedly proclaimed emperor in Isauria (Asia Minor). He may also have controlled Cilicia, but was defeated and killed by Camsisoleus, the Egyptian general of Gillienus, brother of Theodotus, who defeated Mussia Aemilianus.
According to the History of the Augustans, Celsus, a private citizen and once a tribune, lived in Africa on his estates. For his justice and his high stature, he was proclaimed emperor by Vibius Passienus, proconsul of Africa, and Fabius Pomponianus, military commander of the Libyan border, and dressed in the clothes of the goddess Celestine. It is reported that after only seven days a certain Gallienae, a relative of Gallienus, killed him. His body was thrown to the dogs. The rebellion and the people involved are obviously fictitious.
Saturninus, according to the History of the Augustans, is “the best commander of the times of Gallienus.” He, we are told, was proclaimed emperor by the troops and killed by his own soldiers because he was too strict. Obviously, he is fictional, like Trebellian and Celsus.
Ingenui (260) - governor of Pannonia who usurped supreme power in 260 AD. after the defeat and capture of Emperor Valerian by the Persians. Ingenui defied his son and heir Gallienus and declared himself emperor at Sirmium with the support of his Moesian legions. However, his success was short-lived, as he was defeated by Gallienus at the Battle of Mursa Major that same year.
Regalian (260) - Roman commander under the emperors Valerian and Gallienus - was proclaimed emperor in 260. By this time Regalian was in command of the Roman legions in Illyria. Unable to keep the legions in line, Regalian was soon killed. Billion Antoninians were issued with the name of Regalian and his wife Druantilla.
Macrian (260-261) - Macrian Titus Fulvius Junius - son of the commander Fulvius Macrian, in 260-261. ruled together with his brother Quiet in the East. After the capture and death of Emperor Valerian at the hands of the Persians in 260, Fulvius Macrian and the future praetorian prefect Ballista, who themselves did not have the opportunity to lay claim to the throne, proclaimed Macrian and Quietus emperors. This happened in 260, and many eastern provinces (Syria, Egypt and a number of regions of Asia Minor) immediately recognized their power. However, in the rest of the Empire, Gallienus, the son and heir of Valerian, was emperor. Therefore, it was decided to leave Quietus and Ballista in Syria to monitor the situation in the East, and Macrian and his father launched a campaign against Gallienus. In 261 they reached the Danube and somewhere in Illyria they were met and defeated by Aureolus, the general of Gallienus. Both father and son met their deaths there. The Billonian Antoninians are known with the names of Macrian the Elder and his son.
Quiet (260-261) - Quiet Titus Fulvius Junius - son of the commander Fulvius Macrian and younger brother usurper Junius Macrian. In 260, after the Persian captivity and the death of Emperor Valerian, Quietus and his brother were proclaimed emperors of the eastern provinces. Quietus remained in the eastern provinces when his father and brother launched a campaign against Rome, seeking to confirm their claims to the imperial throne. In a battle with the troops of the usurper Avreol, father and son Macriana were killed, and Quiet, who was in Emesa, was forced to confront the ruler of Palmyra, Odaenathus, in 261. The latter managed to capture Quiet and put him to death. Billion denarii, semis and quadrans were minted.
The names of possible impostors of that time are also known - Valens (261), Piso (261) and Mussius Aemilian (261-262).
Postumus (259-268) - Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus - Emperor Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus Pius Felix the Invincible Augustus of Germany The Greatest, Pontifex Maximus, endowed with the power of tribune of the people 11 times, Emperor 10 times, Consul 5 times, Father of the Fatherland, Proconsul (Imperator Caesar Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus Pius Felix Invictus Augustus Germanicus Maximus, Pontifex Maximus, Tribuniciae potestatis XI, Imperator X, Consul V, Pater Patriae, Proconsul).
The Roman commander Postumus, who usurped in 258-259. power in Gaul and founded his own separate state. He was able to withstand Gallienus and subjugate Britain and Spain. Postumus was killed near Mogunciak in 268-269. during the soldiers' uprising. Gold aureuses and quinarias, antoninians, sesterces, dupondias and asses were minted. After the reign of this emperor, the production of large denominations of aurihal and bronze coins ceased.
In the Gallic Empire of Postumus, the monetary crisis was less dramatic. Gold coinage was produced to a precise standard. His Antoninian, although degraded, was generally of better quality than that of Gallienus. Postumus even issued small quantities of coins of smaller denominations, including the unpopular large double sesterces. The mint of the new empire was founded in Colonia Agrippina. And it was far from the only one that arose in the third century. Rome gradually lost its role as the strategic heart of the empire.
Lellian (269) - usurper who rebelled against Postumus, the first emperor of the so-called. "Gallic Empire". Neither his date of birth nor his origins are known. Most sources give Laelian's name incorrectly, and his full name (Ulpius Cornelius Laelianus) appears only on the legend of one of the first coins he minted. There is no direct written or epigraphic evidence of what position he held. There are several different assumptions on this subject, based on the analysis of numismatic data, but, apparently, he was either a legate of the XXII Primigenia Legion, or a governor of Upper Germania. The main argument in favor of this hypothesis is the fact that all sources unanimously claim that the center of his uprising was the city of Mogunziak (Mainz), the capital of the province of Upper Germany. Aures, billonian antoninians, denarii, semis and quadrans bearing his name are known.
The sources do not indicate the exact date of the beginning and end of the usurpation, but most likely Lellian rebelled against Postumus in February or March 269. Judging by the number of coins with his name, the revolt must have lasted a maximum of two or three months. Lellian was defeated and probably killed at Mainz by Postumus' troops. Soon after Postumus captured the city, he himself was killed by his own soldiers (for preventing them from plundering the former capital of Leliana) and was replaced by Marius.
Mari (269) - second emperor of the so-called. "Gallic Empire". Perhaps the choice of the soldiers was dictated by the fact that his name, Marcus Aurelius Marius, reminded them of the prosperous days of the reign of the 2nd century emperor. Marcus Aurelius and was probably considered a good omen.
He came from a simple family and was a craftsman from the lower class. He was probably only a temporary soldier's protege, chosen during the chaos that followed the assassination of Postumus. Obviously, Marius was in an extremely difficult situation from the very first days of his reign. His gold and silver coins emphasized concord in the army (concordia militum) and loyalty of the soldiers (fides militum). In addition, Marius soon had to face the problem of loyalty to Victorinus, who had more rights to claim the imperial throne.
Probably the first thing Mari did was to allow the soldiers to plunder Mogunciak. He then went to Augusta Treverov (modern Trier) and began to use the local mint for minting his coins, and moved the former Lelian mint from Mogunciak to Colonia Agrippina (modern Cologne). All sources unanimously state that Marius ruled for only two days, after which he was killed and replaced by Victorinus. But, judging by the number of coins with his name, he should have ruled for a longer period, however, not exceeding 3 months. Thus, he was killed around the middle of 269, probably out of personal revenge. Two days later, in Augustus, Treverov was proclaimed Emperor Victorinus.
Aureuses, semises and quadrances were minted with the name Maria.
 |
| Antoninian, 269, bronze (3.23). Obverse - Mari, IMP C MARIVS P F AVG, reverse - handshake, CONCORDIA MILITVM. |
Victorinus (269-271) - Marcus Piav(v)onius Victorinus stood out for his knowledge of military affairs and under the first emperor of the so-called. "Gallic Empire" Posthumus had a brilliant career. In 266-267 he held the position of praetorian tribune (tribunus praetorianorum), and in 267 or 268, together with Postumus, he was an ordinary consul. The name Victorinus indicates that his ancestors came from the western provinces of the empire. Since Victorinus's mother spent significant amounts of money bribing troops after Victorinus's death, it can be concluded that his family possessed considerable wealth. He was proclaimed Emperor of the Gallic Empire by the troops of Augusta Treveri in the autumn of 269 (before 10 December) after the short reign of Marius. As a legitimate ruler, he was recognized in Gaul and Britain, but his power did not extend to Spain. The capital and main mint of Victorinus were located in Colonia Agrippina. He probably minted coins also in Augusta Trevere. These were golden aureuses and quinaria, billonian antoninians, as well as semis and quadrans.
 |
| Antoninian, 269-270, bronze (2.74). Obverse - Victorin, IMP C PIA V VICTORINVS P F AVG, reverse - Fides between two standards, FIDES MILITVM. |
Victorinus appears to have spent much of his reign trying to reclaim territories that had broken away from the Gallic Empire and come under the control of the central government. He took no action to extend his power beyond Gaul and Britain. The problems that Victorinus had to face in Gaul reached their climax when Augustodunum (modern Autunus) rebelled against him, siding with Claudius the Gotha. In the summer of 270, after a seven-month siege, Victorinus' troops took, plundered and partially destroyed this city.
Having won a victory in Augustodunum, Victorinus returned to the north of the country and made Colonia Agrippina his residence. A few months later, in early 271, he was killed by one of his officers, the actuary (food manager) Attitian, probably out of personal revenge9. His mother Victoria had great influence among the troops of the Gallic Empire, thanks to which she managed to achieve the deification of her son and resolve the issue of inheritance. She bribed the troops to support her protege, the governor of Aquitaine, G. Pius Esuvius Tetricus.
Tetricus I (271-274) - the last emperor of the so-called. “Gallic Empire” G. Pius Esuvius Tetricus came from a noble family. According to Eutropius, he held the rank of senator and, when Victorinus was killed in Colonia Agrippina at the beginning of 271, he held the position of president of the province of Aquitaine (praeses provinciae Aquitaniae). Victorinus's mother Victoria bribed the troops in favor of Tetricus, thanks to which he was proclaimed emperor in his absence and donned purple in Burdigal (Bordeaux) in the spring of the same year.
Tetricus I was recognized as emperor in Gaul and Britain and did not take any action to extend his power beyond these territories, leaving the initiative to the rightful emperor Aurelian. After all, while Aurelian was busy with the war with Palmyra, he could restore his own over the southeast of Aquitaine and western part Narbonne Gaul, which returned to the Roman Empire during the reign of Claudius the Gothic.
Returning victorious from the eastern regions of the empire in 273, Aurelian immediately began to conquer Gaul. Tetricus I and his son, who at the end of 273 - the beginning of 274 were in Augusta Treverov and on January 1, 274 entered into a joint consulate here, were forced to march with their troops to the south to repel Aurelian and his army, advancing through Northern Gaul. The decisive battle took place in February or March 274 “in the land of the Catalans”, near modern city Chalons-on-Marne. During the battle, Tetricus I and his son Tetricus II surrendered to Aurelian, leaving their soldiers to fend for themselves, but they desperately continued to fight, which led to heavy losses on both sides.
Aurelian spared the lives of Tetricus and his son. In the spring of 274 they were held in triumph, but Aurelian fulfilled his part of the agreement and forgave them. Tetricus I even received the post of proofreader of Lucania and calmly ended his days in Italy, dying at an old age.
Faustin (274) - usurper who rebelled against Tetricus I, the last emperor of the so-called. "Gallic Empire". He is known only from a few references in sources, which say that a certain Faustin incited the army of Tetricus to revolt. There is no information about Faustin's activities during the uprising and his further fate.
Gold aurei and quinarii, billon antoninians, denarii and quinarii, semis and quadrani were minted with the name of Tetricus I. Under his son, gold and billon quinaria were not issued.
 |
| Antoninian, 272-273, bronze (2.57). Obverse - Tetrik II, C PIV ESV TETRICVS CAES, reverse - Spes, SPES PVBLICA. |
Claudius II Gothic (268-270) - Marcus Aurelius Claudius - Emperor Caesar Marcus Aurelius Claudius Augustus. Defeated the Goths at Naissus. During the reorganization of the Danube provinces and the forced settlement of uninhabited Roman territories by the Goths, he died of the plague in Sirmium.
Quintillus (270) - Marcus Aurelius Claudius Quintillus - Emperor Caesar Marcus Aurelius Claudius Quintillus Augustus. Brother of Emperor Claudius II of Gothia, after whose death he was proclaimed emperor. After being proclaimed emperor, Aurelian, abandoned by his soldiers, committed suicide.
Claudius the Gothic was noted for the Aureus, Antoninians, Dupondii, Asses, Semisi and Quadrans. His brother Quintillus is antoninian, semisian and quadransian.
Censorinus (between 268 and 270) - possibly a usurper emperor during the reign of Claudius II of Gothia.
He was proclaimed emperor by his soldiers when he had already reached retirement age. As a man of the old school, being crowned with imperial power, he seemed so unbearable in severity that his legionnaires rebelled and killed him.
The "dark days" of the empire's crisis were interrupted by a period of partial restoration of its former splendor, initiated by Claudius II of Goth (268-270) and then continued by Aurelian (270-275). He not only returned the western provinces, but also brought order to the east.
By this time, the antoninian had become a copper coin with a small addition of silver (in an alloy or thin coating).
Aurelian also carried out a partial reform of the monetary system. The weight and size of the Antoninians were increased (to 1/84 lb) and the silver content was set to 1 part in 20 (5% silver content). Often, but not always, the legend included the number "XXI" (or "KA" in the Greek version). Ass began to be produced again, but in small quantities. Aurelian's followers released it even less frequently. Gold coins began to be minted more regularly, and the double aureus - binio - was reintroduced into circulation. In this state, the issue of coins lasted for two decades until the reform of Diocletian (284-305), which began in 294.
Aurelian (270-275) - Lucius Domitius Aurelianus - Emperor Caesar Lucius Domitius Aurelianus Augustus.
During the reign of Aurelian, aureuses, billonian antoninians, denarii, dupondii, semis, and quadrans were issued. During this reign, letters denoting the mint began to appear. Aureuses were minted with the name of Aurelian's wife, Severina. The weight of the aureus was set at 1/60 of a pound, and the fineness again raised to 980-990.
Aurelian came from a humble family, apparently from the Colon family. Having joined the Roman army, Aurelian under Claudius II became the commander of the cavalry and after the death of the emperor he was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers of the Danube legions in Sirmium.
The victories won over the Jutungs, Sarmatians, Vandals and Goths made it possible to restore the Danube borders of the Empire. However, Aurelian was forced in 271 to cede the province of Dacia, most of modern Romania, to the Goths. The Alemanni invasion of Italy was stopped in 271 at Pavia. To protect against possible attacks, Aurelian ordered the construction of additional fortifications around Rome and the so-called fortifications that have survived to this day. The Aurelian Wall is 18.8 km long.
The conquest of the Palmyra kingdom of Xenovia in 272-273. and the subjugation of Gaul, whose usurper Tetricus surrendered to the Romans in 274, Aurelian managed to reunite almost all regions with the Empire and restore its unity. For this, Aurelian was crowned with the honorary title "Restitutor orbis" (Restorer of the World).
Aurelian also carried out a monetary reform and introduced the cult of the Middle Eastern sun god (Sol invictus), who in 274 was proclaimed the highest state deity. The reign of Aurelian prepared the dominance that began with the reign of Diocletian as an expression of the unlimited power of the emperor. Aurelian was the first to be officially called lord and god (Dominus et Deus) and wear a diadem. He fell victim to a conspiracy during a campaign against the Persians.
Domitian (270-271) - usurper emperor around 270-271.
Domitian was proclaimed emperor at the beginning of Aurelian's reign, but was assassinated soon after. His revolt seems to have been the result of the barbarian invasions of the early Aurelian reign. He is possibly identical with the general Domitian, who defeated the Macrians in 261. The discovery of a second coin bearing his name confirms that Domitian was proclaimed emperor.
Felicissimus (c. 271) rebelled against Emperor Aurelian and may have proclaimed himself emperor.
Felicissimus was the chief (rationalis) of the fiscus under Aurelian. He incited his employees to counterfeit coins. When this was discovered, he rebelled on Mount Caelium. The imperial troops were able to suppress it, but with difficulty. Felicissimo died in this struggle.
Septimius (circa 271-272) - usurper emperor in Dalmatia.
Septimius (or Septimius) was proclaimed emperor around 271-272. in Dalmatia, possibly due to the fact that the region was threatened by Gothic invasions. Septimius was killed shortly afterwards by his own troops.
Urban (circa 271-272) - usurper emperor. Revolted against Aurelian around 271/272, but was killed soon after. It is possible that this person was made up.
Vaballat (272) - Lucius Julius Septimius Vaballat Athenodorus - king of Palmyra in 266-272, son of Odaenathus and Queen Xenovia. Vaballathus inherited the throne after the death of his father in 266. He probably also bore the title of corrector orientis, a high position to which dignitaries were appointed in Rome to deal with the problems of the eastern provinces and foreign policy in the East. The real power in the country, however, belonged to Queen Xenovia, thanks to whom Palmyra experienced the peak of its power. In 272, Vaballathus achieved the title of Augustus, but was soon captured by Emperor Aurelian and removed from the throne. In his own name, Vaballat minted semis and quadrans.
Tacitus (275-276) - Marcus Claudius Tacitus - Emperor Caesar Marcus Claudius Tacitus Augustus.
A wealthy senator from Interamna (Terni) in Umbria, consul in 273, after a long interregnum after the death of Aurelian at the age of 75, he became emperor. In Asia Minor, he defeated the Goths, who captured the territory from the Black Sea to Cilicia. The almost ten-month reign of Tacitus reflected the reaction of the nobility to the policy of “soldier emperors” - the aggravation of relations between the Senate and the army. Under Tacitus, aurei, billonian antoninians, denarii, dupondii, semis, and quadrans were issued. For a short time under this emperor, the silver content of the Antoninian was doubled (XI appeared on the markings of these coins from Antioch and Tripoli).
Probus (276-282) - Marcus Aurelius Probus - Emperor Caesar Marcus Aurelius Probus Augustus.
Roman emperor from 276, fought under the emperors Valerian, Gallienus, Claudius II and Aurelian, and was proclaimed emperor by the army. Achieved outstanding success in the wars against the Franks, Germans, Vandals and Persians. He forced the army to engage in peaceful construction work and was killed for this by disgruntled soldiers. Probus canceled the ban imposed by Domitian on viticulture outside Italy and demanded the expansion of viticulture in Gaul, Spain and the Danube lands.
With the name Probus, aureuses, antoninians, dupondias, semises, and quadranses were released. The Antoninian changes introduced under Tacitus were repealed.
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| Antoninian, 275, bronze (3.86). Obverse - Probus, IMP C M AVR PROBVS AVG, reverse - Laetitia, LAETITIA AVGVSTI, IIII. |
Saturninus Julius (278) - usurper in the Eastern Empire in the early period of the reign of Emperor Probus (about 278) - presumably Moorish by birth. One of the most capable and devoted commanders of Emperor Aurelian, he appointed him supreme commander in the East. Soon after Aurelian was replaced on the throne by Probus, the legions of Saturninus proclaimed their military leader emperor. The period of Saturninus was short-lived, but he managed to establish the minting of coins with his image in Antioch. Saturninus was killed in Apamea by his own legionnaires.
Bonosus (280) and Proculus (280-281) are possibly usurpers of this period.
Car (282-283) - Marcus Aurelius Carus - Emperor Caesar Marcus Aurelius Carus Augustus.
A native of Southern Gaul, he served as praetorian prefect under Emperor Probus. Proclaimed emperor by Norican and Raetian troops. He pacified the Germans and Sarmatians on the Danube, and defeated the Persians in Mesopotamia. Then, having conquered Ctesiphon and victoriously crossed to the opposite side of the Tigris, he suddenly died in his tent. Kara was succeeded by his sons Karin and Numerian.
Kar minted aureuses, double antoninians, antoninians, dupondii, semis, quadrans.
The double Aurelian (Antoninian) was issued in 282. The marking “XI” is explained by the double silver content in the coin’s alloy (10% silver, instead of XXI - 5%).
Carinus (283-285) - Marcus Aurelius Carinus - Emperor Caesar Marcus Aurelius Carinus Augustus.
Emperor from July 283 to summer 285. Eldest son of Cara, proclaimed Caesar and regent of the western provinces in 282. After the death of his father and brother, Numerian opposed the proclamation of Diocletian as emperor in the East and defeated him in Moesia. In the decisive battle of Marga he was defeated and killed. The period of his reign, considered the end of the era of the Principate, dates back to the beginning of the Bagaudian uprising.
Karin minted gold aureuses and quinarii, antoninians, dupondii, semis, quadrans and bronze coins of quinarium size. With the name of his wife - Magnesia Urbica - aureus, antoninian, semis, quadrans. His sons Nigrinian are Aureus, Antoninian, Semys and Quadrans.
Numerian (283-284) - Marcus Aurelius Numerian Numerian - Emperor Caesar Marcus Aurelius Numerianus Augustus (Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Numerius Numerianus Augustus).
The youngest son of Cara, who was appointed by him as Caesar and, on his orders, took part in the war with the Persians. After his death, Kara became Augustus in the East (his older brother Karin ruled the western part of the Empire at that time). Returning after the war with the Persians, he was killed in Asia Minor.
The names of Numerian include aureus, antoninian, dupondii, semis, and quadrans.
In the middle of the third century, mint marks began to be permanently affixed to coins. This mark usually consisted of three semantic groups:
- the letters P ("pecunia" - money), M ("moneta" - coin) or SM ("sacra moneta" - imperial coin);
- abbreviation denoting the mint itself - from one to four letters;
- letter indicating the series number (Latin - P (Prima) = 1, S (Secunda) = 2, T (Tertia) = 3, Q (Quarta) = 4, etc.; or Greek - A = 1, B = 2, G = 3, D = 4, etc.).
Recording options were also possible, when the letter P was omitted, the series number was indicated somewhere else (inside the design on one of the sides of the coin), or only the abbreviation of the mint was placed.
| City | Modern location | Abbreviation | Note |
| Alexandria | Egypt | AL, ALE, ALEX, SMAL | 294 - closed under Leo I * |
| Ambian | Amiens, France | AMB, AMBI | 50-353 |
| Antioch | Antioch, Syria | AN, ANT, ANTOB, SMAN | closed under Leo I * |
| Aquileia | Aquileia, Italy | AQ, AQVI, AQVIL, AQOB, AQPS, SMAQ | 294-425 |
| Arelate | Arles, France | A, AR, ARL, CON, CONST, KON, KONSTAN | 313-475 |
| Barkinon | Barcelona, Spain | BA, SMBA | 409-411 |
| Camalodun | Colchester, England | C, C.L. | 287-96 |
| Clausent | Bitterne, England | C, C.L. | |
| Carthage | Tunisia, North Africa | K, KAR, KART, PK | 296-307 and 308-11. |
| Constantinople | Istanbul, Türkiye | C, CP, CON, CONS, CONSP, CONOB | 326-??? gg. |
| Cyzicus | Kapudağ, Türkiye | CVZ, CVZIC, CYZ, CYZIC, K, KV, KVZ, KY, SMK | closed under Leo I * |
| Heraclea | Eregli, Türkiye | H, HER, HERAC, HERACI, HERACL, HT, SMH | 291 - closed under Leo I * |
| Londinium | London, England | L, LI, LN, LON, ML, MLL. MLN, MSL, PLN, PLON, AVG, AVGOB, AVGPS | 287-325 and 383-88. |
| Lugdunum | Lyon, France | LD, LG, LVG, LVGD, LVGPS, PLG | closed in 423 |
| Mediolan | Milan, Italy | MD, MDOB, MDPS, MED | 364-475 |
| Nicomedia | Izmir, Türkiye | MN, N, NIC, NICO, NIK, SMN | 294 - closed under Leo I * |
| Ostia | Port of Rome, Italy | MOST, OST | 308-13 |
| Ravenna | Ravenna, Italy | RAV, RV, RVP | 5th century AD-475 |
| Rome | Rome, Italy | R, RM, ROM, ROMA, ROMOB, SMR, VRB ROM | closed in 476 |
| Serdica | Sofia, Bulgaria | SD, SER, SERD, SMSD | 303-8 and 313-14. |
| Sirmium | near Mitrovica, Yugoslavia | SIR, SIRM, SM, SIROB | 320-26, 351-64, 379 and 393-95. |
| Siskiyou | Sisak, Yugoslavia | S, SIS, SISC, SISCPS | closed in 387 |
| Thessaloniki | Thessaloniki, Greece | COM, COMOB, SMTS, TH, THS, THES, THSOB, TE, TES, TESOB, TH, TS, OES | 298 - closed under Leo I* |
| Ticin | Pavia, Italy | T | closed in 326 |
| Trevera | Trier, Germany | SMTR, TR, TRE, TROB, TRPS | 291-430 |
*) Leo I - Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire (457-474). After the division of the Empire into Western and Eastern in 395, the aforementioned mints (as well as the Constantinople mint) ended up in the eastern part.
Provincial mints:
| City | Provinces | Designation |
| Aegean | Cilicia | AIGEAIWN |
| Amaziah | Pont | AMA CIA C |
| Anazarbus | Cilicia | ANAZARBEEWN |
| Bostra | Arabia | BO CTRA |
| Kibira | Phrygia | KIBURATWN |
| Damascus | Kelesyria | DAMA CKHN WN |
| Emesa | Syria | EMI CHNWN |
| Flaviopolis | Cilicia | FLA VIOPOLETWN |
| Laodicea | Syria | LAODIKEWN |
| Naples | Samaria | NEAPOL. SAMARE |
| Samosata | Commagene | CAMO CATEWN |
| Seleucia | Syria | CELEUKEWN PIERIA C |
| Sidon | Phoenicia | CILONWS |
| Pompeiopolis | Cilicia | POMPHIOPOLEITWN |
| Tiberias | Galileo | TIBERIEWN |
| Shooting Range | Phoenicia | TIPOU IERAS KAI ASULOU |
| Viminations | Upper Moesia | P M S COL VIM |
May 29th, 2007
German, Spanish, Italian, French anarchists... they all made great contributions to the fight against European fascism. Official historians hide this fact. You should not rely too much on them when describing what threatens to overturn established popular ideas.
For German anarchists, the nightmare began long before 1939. Jewish anarchist Erich Mühsam was arrested by the Nazis on February 28, 1933, the day after the Reichstag fire. He was imprisoned in concentration camp Oranienburg, and in 1934 he was hanged. The Nazis tried to pass it off as suicide. In the same era, anarchists and anarcho-syndicalists learned what the camps of Sachsenhausen, Dachau, Buchenwald, etc. were.
The reaction of French anarchists to the outbreak of war was very different. The pacifists, along with Louis Lacan, united around the pamphlet “Peace Now”; they remember the massacre of 14-18. and will spare no effort in trying to prevent war, which is unfortunately inevitable (Still note that some misguided anarchists, who, fortunately, were few, would later confuse truce and pacifism. But who did not have their own black sheep at that time?). In addition, there were numerous deserters and draft dodgers who had no desire to “sacrifice their skin for the sake of capitalism.” Others ended up in camps and prisons and continued their struggle there.
And finally, of course, the anarchs participated in the Maquis [ partisan detachments; approx. translator] and in Resistance networks. To give an idea of different situations, here are some examples. In Marseille, an underground anarchist group published leaflets, newspapers and posters for three years. One of them was called “Death to Cows!” [Untranslatable pun. Mort aux vaches! Vache 1) cow; 2) policeman (argot) 3) rubbish, scoundrel (colloquial). Collaborators were also called cows.] and called: “Let all those who wear rattles in the form of a swastika, a red star, the Order of the Garter, the Laurent Cross or a Frankish ax die! Long live freedom! Long live the world! Long live the social revolution!” An underground anarchist congress was held in Toulouse on July 19, 1943, which was attended by delegates from Toulouse, Agen, Villeneuve-sur-Lot, Paris, Marseille, as well as individual participants (including the Russian anarchist Volin) and Spanish observers from the SNT . Comrade Andre Arru, imprisoned in a Marseilles prison, had to, like other members of the Resistance, experience Stalinist meanness. He was "forgotten" by one responsible guy during a collective escape. It's true, the anarchs were not patriots! Le Avray Georges Bourgas, chairman of the local section of the International Peace League, will join the Liberation-Nord group under the name Colinet. Another draft dodger, anarcho-syndicalist Charles Cortvren (aka Charles Riedel, Louis Mercier Vega...) will end the war as an adjudan in the French Free Forces! The path taken by Arman Gatti is also known. An underground worker in Corrèze, a political prisoner, a fugitive, he will become an “English” paratrooper... His film “The Corral” shows concentration hell. The island of Oleron was liberated by a ragtag group of resistance fighters along with the allies. To begin the offensive, the group needed a banner. They chose the banner of the anarchists. Photography immortalized the libertarian movement. The heroes of the day proudly wave a black banner with a death's head (in memory of Makhno, not to be confused with the pirate standard!). Here and there, comrades acted as part of FTR, MUR, FFI groups or independently, preparing escapes, hiding fugitives, preparing false documents, participating in assassination attempts... often individually, leaving no traces. For this reason, it is not easy for us today to connect all the pieces of the puzzle.
Not much easier to follow life path Spanish comrades after Franco's victory. A month after the signing of the armistice, twelve thousand Republicans were immediately deported to Buchenwald and Mauthausen. According to the SS archives, 80% of them were anarchists or anarcho-syndicalists. Those of them who found themselves in filtration (insalubres) camps in the southeast of France sought to continue the anti-fascist struggle. Thousands of them were daily recruited by the gendarmes in Foreign Legion, where they became cannon fodder. To convince the most distrustful, the French authorities assured them that the legitimacy of Franco's rule would be challenged by the Allies after the end of the war. Other Spanish comrades went to the poppies. The CNT, FAI and FIJL united to form the Movement Libertana in Exile (MLE). Some members of these groups will join the FTR, where they are entrusted with all the dirty work. The comrades who had been hardened in the anti-Franco guerrilla could not be accused of lack of courage. Unfortunately, temperament did not always save them. This is evidenced by the drama on the Griel plateau in March 1944. The anarchists would meet their comrades again in groups called Libertad (liberate Lot et Cahors le Lot et Cahors), Bidon 5 (in Ariège), in the maquis of Dordogne, Aveyron, Savoy, Cantal, Corrèze, Landes, Gers, Rouergues, Limousin, Vercors ... Seneti [from SNT] Libertador specialized in military intelligence. She collaborated with Intelligence service and BCRA. “Commander Raymond” (Ramon Villa Capdevila) and two hundred Spanish anarchists will destroy the Nazis who massacred Oradour [The French town of Oradour-sur-Glane was destroyed in the summer of 1944 by SS men from the Das Reich division. They shot all the men, and drove the women and children into the church and burned them alive].
Alas, as in Spain, the enemies are not only fascists. The Spanish Stalinists will destroy many anarchists. Socialists often faced the same fate. Extrajudicial killings and “disappearances” were commonplace in Aude, Aveyron, Ariège, Lot...
Ironically, we will meet Spanish anarchists again... at the Liberation of Paris. They will be the first to enter the capital on August 24, 1944. They exchanged their cap and espadrilles [canvas shoes with rope soles] for the uniform of General Leclerc's 2nd Armored Division. When the order was given to force the tank attack on Paris, Leclerc gave the order to Raymond Drun, captain of the 9th company (consisting entirely of anarchists). The first detachment will arrive from Italy. At 21.22, tanks and armored personnel carriers bearing names such as “Guadalajara”, “Ebro”, “Madrid”, “Teruel”, “Ascazo”, “Durutti”, will reach the City Hall, where the anarchs will raise the French flag! The festive crowd amazed Americans. It contained 120 Spanish anarchists who climbed onto the roof of the market. Luis Royo-Ibanez is a veteran from the Madrid armored personnel carrier. In an interview with L'Humanité on August 24, 2004, he first remembered his fellow anarchists who died in battles that lasted all the way to Berchtesgaden, to Hitler's general headquarters.
Of course, when historians mention the role of the Spaniards in World War II or in the Resistance, they always talk about the “Republicans.” Such a broad term helps to create some confusion. On August 24, 2004, the Mayor of Paris opened memorial plaque, dedicated to ... "Spanish Republicans in World War II." Only a few journalists understood who this historical landmark was actually dedicated to.
In short, the anarchists, especially the Spaniards, did not wait for the advent of compulsory labor before they began to act. [In September 1942, the Vichy government introduced compulsory labor service. All men from 19 to 50 years old and unmarried women from 21 to 35 years old could be sent to work in Germany]. When the communists maneuvered between the German-Soviet Pact and xenophobic patriotism, the anarchs immediately realized that they needed to act. As SNT member Pepito Rosell said: “When the FCP returned to the barricade, we defended it for a long time.”
During this period, when everything was simplified, anarchists did what they could, where they could. If cohorts of jingoistic or Gaullist historians “avoid” talking about the role of libertarians, then some of our comrades, who prefer the romanticism of Durrutist or Makhnovist epics, are barely able to come to terms with the image of anarchists fighting in the uniform of legionnaires or FFL fighters. But that's the story. One thing is certain. Those thousands of anarchists who fought in the Maquis and in the legions of the FFL died in the struggle for goals far from the ideals of the libertarian movement. Betrayed (Franco ultimately tormented Spain until 1975) and “forgotten,” the surviving anarchists must endure another nightmare. The anti-fascist and revolutionary struggle they waged was appropriated by those who had only one idea in their heads: to restore the state and take power into their own hands.
Having failed to direct the resistance along a revolutionary path, the anarchists, of course, could ask for National Council Resistance. Most of the Spaniards were members of the SNT and their number was by no means ridiculous. According to Pepito Rosel, the anarchists had as great a chance of further development as other movements. Poorly organized and probably disgusted by the rigged poker game being played at the top, they were all disheartened. With many comrades joining the resistance as individuals rather than as representatives of an organized libertarian movement, anarchists may have missed a historic opportunity. Additional question: could Francoism be overthrown by a consistent anarchist movement in France?
We do not ask to be pitied and do not demand for ourselves a place in jingoistic parades or our share in the distribution of medals. Relax, we have no desire to participate in a show of universal consent that appropriates the fight against Nazism for the needs of a patriotic memorial service. The syrup that oozes from the celebration of the 60th anniversary of Liberation has too bitter a taste. Especially in those cases when they begin to glorify some former functionaries who actively collaborated in the “resistance”...
As a preliminary result, let us say that it is time to undertake serious historical work to reconstruct all aspects of the libertarian struggle against European fascism. This would be the minimum that can be done in memory of the selfless activists who never received anything as a reward for their activities.
Paco, member of the Zero group, Le Havre branch of the Anarchist Federation.
http://monde-libertaire.info/article.php3?id_article=2946
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