The process of forming the political map of the world has several millennia. Many historical eras have passed, so we can talk about the existence of periods in the formation of the political map of the world. Allocate: ancient, medieval, new and latest periods.
ancient period(from the era of the emergence of the first forms of the state to the 5th century AD) covers the era of the slave system. It is characterized by the development and collapse of the first states on Earth: Ancient Egypt, Carthage, Ancient Greece, ancient rome and others. These states have made a great contribution to the development of world civilization. Even then, military operations were the main means of territorial change.
The medieval period (V-XV centuries) is associated in our minds with the era of feudalism. The political functions of the feudal state were already more complex and varied than those of the states under the slave system. The internal market was formed, the isolation of the regions was overcome. The desire of states to distant territorial conquests, to search for new (sea) routes to India, was manifested, since overland trade routes to the East (after the fall of Constantinople) were under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
During this period, there were states: Byzantium, the Holy Roman Empire, England, Spain, Portugal, Kievan Rus and others. The political map of the world changed greatly in the era of the Great geographical discoveries.
Chronology:
1420s - the first colonial conquests of Portugal: Madeira, Azores, Slave Coast (Africa).
1453 - Fall of Constantinople.
1492-1502 - discovery of America (4 travels of Columbus in Central America and northern South America). The beginning of the Spanish colonization of America.
1494 - Treaty of Tordesillas - division of the world between Portugal and Spain.
1498 - voyage of Vasco da Gama (way from Europe around Africa to India).
1499-1504 - Amerigo Vespucci travels to South America.
1519-1522 - trip around the world Magellan and his companions.
It was at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries that the New Period of History began (which lasted until World War I at the beginning of the 20th century). It was the era of the birth, rise and establishment of capitalist relations in the world. It marked the beginning of European colonial expansion and the spread of international economic relations throughout the world.
During the Age of Discovery, the largest colonial powers were Spain and Portugal. But with the development of manufactory production, England, France, the Netherlands, Germany, and later the USA come to the forefront of history. This period of history was characterized by large colonial conquests. The world has changed over and over again.
The political map of the world became especially unstable at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, when the struggle for the territorial division of the world sharply intensified between the leading countries. So, in 1876, only 10% of the territory of Africa belonged to Western European countries, while in 1900 - already 90%. And by the beginning of the 20th century. in fact, the division of the world turned out to be completely completed, i.e., only its forcible redistribution became possible.
The beginning of the newest period in the formation of the political map of the world is associated with the end of World War I ( first stage). The first stage was marked by the appearance on the world map of the first socialist state (the RSFSR, and later the USSR) and noticeable territorial changes on the political map and not only in Europe.
Austria-Hungary collapsed, the borders of many states changed, new sovereign countries were formed: Poland, Finland, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, Austria, Hungary, etc. The Ottoman Empire was divided. The colonial possessions of Great Britain, France, Belgium, and Japan expanded (due to the territories transferred to them under the mandate of the League of Nations - the former colonies of Germany and the territories of the Ottoman Empire).
Second phase(after World War II), in addition to territorial changes on the political map of Europe, is associated primarily with the collapse of the world colonial system and the formation of a large number of independent states in Asia, Africa, Oceania, Latin America.
Since the early 1990s, there have been third stage A recent history that continues to this day. Qualitatively new changes on the political map of the world, which had a great impact on the socio-economic and socio-political life of the entire world community during this period, include the following:
Disintegration in 1991 of the USSR;
Formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS);
The implementation of predominantly peaceful ("velvet") people's democratic revolutions of 1989-90. in countries of Eastern Europe(former socialist countries);
The unification of the Arab states of the YAR and the PDRY (May 1990) on a national-ethnic basis and the formation of the Republic of Yemen with its capital in the city of Sana'a;
The termination in 1991 of the activities of the Warsaw Treaty Organization (WTO) and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), which seriously affected the political and economic situation not only in Europe, but throughout the world.
The collapse of the SFRY, the proclamation of the political independence of the republics of Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Croatia, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (as part of Serbia and Montenegro). The most acute political crisis of the former federation resulted in a civil war and ethnic conflicts;
Continuation of the process of decolonization: Namibia gained independence - the last of the colonies in Africa; new sovereign states were formed in Oceania: the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (former “trust” territories of the United States);
The formation of two independent states - the Czech Republic and Slovakia (the collapse of Czechoslovakia, January 1, 1993);
1993 - declaration of independence of the state of Eritrea (formerly a province of Ethiopia on the Red Sea and fought for self-determination for about 30 years).
The scale of future changes on the political map of the world will be determined by the further course of ethno-cultural processes in multinational countries, the nature of economic, political and cultural relations between countries and peoples.
It can be considered in two aspects. The first is a simple publication on paper, which reflects how the world works in terms of the alignment of political forces. The second aspect considers this concept from a broader perspective, as about the formation of states, their structure and split, about the reshuffle of forces in political world, about the advantage and influence of large and powerful states on the economy of the world. The past gives us a picture of the future, which is why it is so important to know the stages in the formation of the political map of the world.
general information
Every state has its life cycle. It is a curve that looks like a hump. At the beginning of its journey, the country is being built and developed. Then comes the peak of development, when everyone is happy and everything seems to be fine. But sooner or later, the state loses its strength and power and begins to gradually fall apart. So it has always been, is and will be. That is why over the centuries we have seen the gradual rise and fall of great empires, superpowers and huge colonial monopolies. Consider the main stages in the formation of the political map of the world. The table is shown in the figure:
As you can see, many historians distinguish exactly five stages modern history. In various sources, you can find only 4 main ones. Such a dilemma arose a long time ago, since it is possible to interpret the stages of the formation of the political map of the world in different ways. The table of main sections proposed by us contains the most reliable information to date.
ancient period
AT ancient world the first great states enter the arena of major events. You all probably remember them from history. It's glorious Ancient Egypt, powerful Greece and the invincible Roman Empire. At the same time, there were less significant, but also quite developed states in Central and East Asia. Them historical period ends in the 5th century AD. It is generally accepted that it was at this time that the slave-owning system became a thing of the past.
medieval period
In our minds, during the period from 5 to 15 centuries, there have been a lot of changes that cannot be covered in one sentence. If the historians of that time knew what the political map of the world was, the stages of its formation would have already been divided into separate parts. After all, remember, during this time Christianity was born, Kievan Rus was born and disintegrated, it begins to emerge. In Europe, large feudal states are gaining strength. First of all, these are Spain and Portugal, which vied with one another to make new geographical discoveries.
At the same time, the political map of the world is constantly changing. The stages of formation of that time will change the future fate of many states. The powerful Ottoman Empire will exist for several more centuries, which will capture the states of Europe, Asia and Africa.
new period
From the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries begins new page in the political arena. It was the time of the beginning of the first capitalist relations. Ages when huge conquerors of the whole world begin to emerge in the world. The political map of the world is often changed and remade. Stages of formation constantly replace each other.
Gradually Spain and Portugal lose their power. Due to the robbery of other countries, it is no longer possible to survive, because more developed countries are moving to a completely new level of production - manufacturing. This gave impetus to the development of such powers as England, France, the Netherlands, Germany. After civil war in America they are joined by a new and very large player - the United States of America.
The political map of the world changed especially often at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. The stages of formation in that period depended on the outcome of successful military campaigns. So, if back in 1876 European countries only 10% of the territory of Africa was captured, then in just 30 years they managed to conquer 90% of the entire territory of the hot continent. The whole world entered the new 20th century already practically divided between the superpowers. They controlled the economy and ruled alone. Further redistribution was inevitable without a war. Thus ends a new period and begins the latest stage in the formation of the political map of the world.
The newest stage
The redistribution of the world after the First World War made huge adjustments in First of all, four powerful empires disappeared. This is Great Britain, the Ottoman Empire, Russian empire and Germany. In their place, many new states were formed.
At the same time, a new trend appeared - socialism. And on the world map appears huge state- Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. At the same time, such powers as France, Great Britain, Belgium and Japan are becoming stronger. Some of the lands of the former colonies were transferred to them. But such a redistribution does not suit many, and the world is again on the verge of war.
At this stage, some historians continue to write about the newest period, but it is now generally accepted that with the end of World War II, the modern stage of the formation of the political map of the world begins.
Modern stage
Second World War outlined to us those boundaries, most of which we see today. First of all, this concerns the states of Europe. The greatest result of the war was that the colonial empires completely disintegrated and disappeared. New independent states emerged South America, Oceania, Africa, Asia.
But the most big country in the world - the USSR. With its collapse in 1991, another important stage appears. Many historians distinguish it as a subsection of the modern period. Indeed, in Eurasia after 1991, 17 new independent states were formed. Many of them decided to continue their existence within the borders Russian Federation. For example, Chechnya defended its interests for a long time, until the power of a powerful country won as a result of hostilities.
At the same time, changes continue in the Middle East. There is a unification of some Arab states. In Europe, a united Germany is emerging and the Union of the FRY is disintegrating, resulting in the emergence of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Croatia, Serbia and Montenegro.
Continuation of a story
We have presented only the main stages in the formation of the political map of the world. But the story doesn't end there. As events show recent years, you will soon have to allocate a new period or redraw the cards. After all, judge for yourself: two years ago, Crimea belonged to the territory of Ukraine, and now you need to completely redo all the atlases in order to change its citizenship. And also problematic Israel, drowning in battles, Egypt on the verge of war and the redistribution of power, incessant Syria, which mighty superpowers can wipe out from the face of the Earth. All this is our modern history.
After the end of World War II, the life of the peoples of Asia and Africa begins new stage. In countries that were still in colonial dependence, a powerful wave of liberation movement arose.
The events of World War II contributed to the weakening of the political dominance of European states in their colonies. They could no longer seriously influence the situation there. The colonies also changed during the war years. Many of them strengthened the national economy, which worked for the military needs of the metropolis, strengthened the position of the national bourgeoisie, the size of the working class increased, and new patriotic organizations arose.
In a number of countries in Southeast Asia, national armed forces were created, which fought against the Japanese invaders and gained experience in armed struggle. All this created the conditions for the collapse of colonialism. Decolonization was also accelerated by the confrontation that began between the two "superpowers" - the USSR and the USA, since each of them sought to strengthen its camp by attracting the peoples of the periphery.
The process of decolonization is conditionally divided into three stages (three waves). The first stage lasted from 1945 until the mid-1950s. During this stage, the countries of Asia freed themselves from colonial dependence. The countries of Southeast Asia and the Middle East were the first to declare independence.
Under the conditions of the collapse of the colonial system, the emerging metropolitan states behaved differently. England pursued a more flexible policy in the colonial question. Therefore, she managed to avoid a military confrontation with the countries that were being liberated. Even more - she managed to maintain control over her former colonies for a long time, forming the British Commonwealth of Nations.
The colonial policy of France was characterized by a lack of flexibility. The French government sought to restore the pre-war order of things, without stopping at the same time before using forceful measures, frank diktat. Such actions led to a confrontation with their former colonies. As a result, France was drawn into colonial wars. So, in 1946-1954, she waged a colonial war in Indochina. This war ended with the defeat of France.
The second stage of decolonization lasted from the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s. During these years, the decolonization of the North and Tropical Africa. 34 countries freed themselves from colonial dependence. The collapse of the British, French and Belgian colonial empires is coming to an end. 1960, during which 17 African states gained independence, went down in history as the "Year of Africa".
The third stage lasted from 1975 to 1990 and was characterized by the completion of decolonization South Africa. The main event of this stage was the collapse of the oldest Portuguese colonial empire. Its "survivability" was due to the fact that Portugal, which did not have its own economic opportunities for the development natural resources its colonies, admitted foreign capital there. As a result, the Portuguese colonial empire turned into a "collective colony" of the West.
Western countries were interested in maintaining the Portuguese colonial regime in Africa. But in 1974, a democratic revolution took place in Portugal, which ended the former authoritarian regime. The Portuguese colonial empire was overthrown, and new states appeared on the political map of the world (Angola, Mozambique, etc.). In 1990, the last colony in Africa, Namibia, gained independence. This event completes the global process of elimination of colonialism.
The main result of decolonization is the emergence of about 100 independent states on the former colonial periphery. The new states became an important factor world politics. The peoples of the liberated countries got the opportunity to choose the paths of development, taking into account national traditions and cultural and civilizational characteristics.
Features of the development of the countries of the East in the 40-90s
Serious tasks appeared before the young liberated countries: strengthening their political independence, gaining economic independence, carrying out social transformations and developing culture. On questions about the way, methods and timing of solving these problems in many developing countries, a sharp confrontation unfolded between various political forces.
Many countries that have liberated and in which bourgeois relations are deeply and firmly rooted have gone through the countries of the West and have chosen the path of capitalist development (India, Pakistan, South Korea, Nigeria, etc.). These countries have relied on parallel existence various forms of ownership, the development of market relations, political and ideological pluralism, the strengthening of all-round ties with advanced capitalist countries.
A feature of the development of capitalism in the countries of Asia and especially Africa lies in the underdevelopment of the private sector, the weakness of large and medium-sized capital. Therefore, the state often showed great activity in the economic sphere: it created key industries and enterprises within the public sector, regulated and directed right direction development of the private sector, promoted national entrepreneurship in its fight against foreign capital, etc.
A number of countries in Asia and Africa have chosen a non-capitalist path of development (or "socialist orientation"). As a rule, these countries were characterized by the presence of a significant (sometimes dominant) public sector, centralized regulation of the economy, agrarian reforms, which resulted in a strong cooperative sector, an openly authoritarian nature of political structures, a significant restriction of civil liberties, an orientation towards Soviet Union and other socialist countries.
The idea of a non-capitalist path was especially popular in the 6070s. In the 1980s, almost all developing countries, along this path, found themselves in a deep economic and political crisis. With the growth of the crisis in the Soviet Union and after its collapse, many countries of "socialist orientation" (Angola, Mozambique, Somalia, Ethiopia, etc.). They changed their course and embarked on the path of economic and political liberalization.
Difficulties in the economic development of young states
Most of the independent states are in a difficult situation due to their socio-economic and cultural backwardness. For the vast majority African countries For example, there has been a trend towards a slowdown in the rate of economic development in recent decades. The problem of underdevelopment of these countries is increasing due to the increase in the growth rate of their population. As output growth does not keep pace with population growth, per capita income falls. By the beginning of the 21st century, economic backwardness had become the main problem of African countries.
The economic situation in some countries of Asia and Africa is getting worse because of the desire of the existing regimes there to enrich themselves at the expense of their own peoples. In Africa, for example, the policy of "Africanization" of government and administration, carried out by all independent countries, gives mixed results.
On the one hand, it has obvious positive consequences, since all leading positions in politics and the economy are passing into the hands of Africans. But on the other hand, this policy opened the way for the quick enrichment of dishonest people. Bribery, embezzlement, nepotism flourished.
important economic problem, which confronts many young states, is the peculiar export specialization of these countries (cotton, citrus fruits, coffee, etc.) that developed during the colonial period and is difficult to overcome. Such one-sided development has narrowed their economic opportunities, made them directly dependent on the changing situation on world markets, on changes in world prices.
Huge external debt has been and remains an acute problem for most Asian and African states.
In a number of regions of the East, rapid population growth ("population explosion") caused agrarian overpopulation. In some areas, this led to a real disaster. An example of this is the zone of Africa north of the Sahara, where, due to the violation of the ecological balance (deforestation, plowing of all suitable lands, depletion of drinking water sources, etc.), a constant threat of famine has arisen since the 70s.
High population growth rates, characteristic of most Asian and African countries, complicate the solution of the problem of overcoming backwardness. Huge unemployment, a consequence of rapid population growth, keeps wages low and slows down technological progress.
The low level of the economy of many states has led to a sharp decrease in public spending on education, health care, vocational training. And this, in turn, has preserved the existing problems for a long time.
In what is now the United States, English-speaking settlements appeared in the early 17th century. These settlements were scattered all over the East Coast of the country. The Puritans took root in New England, the Quakers settled in Pennsylvania, the English Catholics colonized Maryland. The earliest settlements arose in places now called Virginia and the Carolinas.
The English, of course, were not the only nation establishing colonies in the New World. Spain and Portugal dominated the territories of modern Latin America and islands of the Caribbean.
The Spanish flag once flew over what is now Florida. Spain also held the territories of the deserts of the West and the western coast of the continent.
The Dutch who settled in New York were forced out by the British before 1700. The Dutch language and fragments of Dutch law lingered in New York for quite a long period.
Some parts of Dutch law probably spread beyond New York. The institution of the prosecutor may have originated in Dutch terminology. This issue is quite controversial. But no one disputes the fact that quite tangible traces of Spanish law continue to live, especially in the territories once ruled by Spain. Another surviving detail must be mentioned: the local laws of the native tribes. The laws and customs of the natives of America sometimes still play some part in their scattered reservations.
All of these are exceptions. Most American law comes from one source - English law. No other system of law really had a chance to establish itself in the US, just like no other language but English.
The common law system that originated in England - its traditions, methods and techniques - crossed the Atlantic and took root in this country.
Legal history books often talk about the "colonial period" by examining the impacts of various eras on American law, and one may get an ill-founded impression of the dominance of this period. First of all, more than 150 years elapsed between the landing of the first settlers on the land of the continent at Plymouth Rock and the beginning of the Revolution. This is as long a period of time as between 1834 and 1984 - an interval full of significant social collisions. The colonial period was not so fickle and rapidly changing, but it was long enough and rather complicated. By at least there were many different colonies scattered across the country from New Hampshire to Georgia. Settlements lined up like beads on a necklace along a narrow coastline. Communication with them was extremely difficult. Communication with the motherland was even worse; an immense and restless expanse of water separated the colonies from England.
This was a very important factor.
Theoretically, Britain completely controlled the life of the colonies - the inhabitants of the colonies were subjects of the British crown. In reality, she could only to a very small extent influence her distant child. The British were too far away to exercise effective dictatorship, even when they really wanted to. - Also, at least at the beginning of the development of new lands, they had neither an agreed political program of the empire, nor an idea of \u200b\u200bhow to govern the outlying lands.
Most their history, therefore, the colonies (at least most of them) grew and developed independently of Britain.
The colonies can be roughly divided into three more or less distinct groups. The northern colonies - Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut - were the least obedient to English law.
The second group of colonies - New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware - stood in the middle between North and South, both in terms of law and geographically.
The southern colonies were the most consistent in regard to both the law and the entire legal culture. They adhered more closely to English traditions.
Such differences between the colonies, of course, were not accidental.
Puritan New England or Quaker Pennsylvania consciously chose a different path than that of Virginia or the Carolinas. Climate and soil quality also had an impact. In the South, mild winters allowed the development of various directions Agriculture, create a planting system. Black slaves were another exclusive aspect of Southern life. The first American slaves arrived in Virginia and other southern colonies before the mid-17th century. By the time the Revolution began, slaves made up 40% of the population of Virginia.
There were no blacks in England, and there was no section of the law against slavery. The slavery law was a purely American invention, based on various sources, and strongly influenced by a sense of racial superiority, being mixed with the traditions of the West Indies and the southern colonies. Slavery also existed in the northern colonies; in New York, 10% of the population were slaves. There were even slaves in Massachusetts and New Hampshire. But slavery never dominated the northern productive system as it did in south.
Slaves in New York City, for example, did not primarily work in manufacturing but as domestic servants.
Indeed, the North had thousands of "contractual servants". Service under contracts was one of the varieties of temporary slavery. The contracts were a written document, in some way an employment contract, in which
ren the terms and conditions of slavery. Contract servants were meant to serve their masters for a fixed period: seven years was the most common. During the term of the contract, the servant did not receive a salary. During the specified period, the owner had the right to sell the servant, or, to be more precise, had the right to sell the right to work the servant, for the period remaining until the end of the contract, the Servant could not control these actions to transfer (sale) it to another owner, although some colonies and tried to prevent the abuse of indentured servant owners. When the contract expired, the servant, unlike the slave, became completely free. According to custom or law, the servant was not supposed to leave the master empty-handed: he had the right to "holiday". Originally in Maryland, for example, they consisted of an outer garment, a headdress, an axe, a hoe, three barrels of grain, and (before 1663) 50 acres of land. Later clothes, food and money became more typical things ("grain, clothes and wages").
A fairly large number of studies have already been carried out on issues of the colonial legal system. Most of them concerned the northern colonies, especially Massachusetts. Indeed, the legal system of Massachusetts is extremely interesting. It was very different from the English law used in the royal courts of London. Massachusetts law actually looked so strikingly different from English law that scholars even argued among themselves whether it should even be considered as one of the varieties of the general family of English law.
Today, this idea seems rather silly. Despite some oddities in practice and language, it can be said with absolute certainty that the law of this colony is rooted in English law and English practice. On closer inspection, some of its features disappear, especially if we remember that the first colonists were not lawyers. The law they brought with them was not the law of the royal court, but only local law - the custom of their community. We may call it "the people's law." Naturally, it differed from the old official law. English elements were still key in it: after all, what else could the settlers know? In other words, their law was a kind of creole or common law pidgin English.
The details of colonial law are complex and difficult to understand, but their basic essence is easy to understand. Imagine a group of American college students shipwrecked and stranded on a desert island. They need to build a new society. They form some crude surrogate government and create some semblance of a legal system different from the ones they left behind. big land. Indeed, on the island, most of the old legal system would be completely unnecessary.
For example, traffic rules will be useless. On the other hand, the colonists will have to create a lot of new laws - rules on setting up a sentry post on the mountain that would try to signal ships passing by the island, a law on how to share fish and how to organize the collection of shellfish in coastal waters, and so on. The people on the island will reproduce those parts of American law that they can remember and that will suit the new conditions of their life and the life of their new community. Ideology would also play a role. Much would depend on who the students who landed on the beach were, on their political views, from which part of the country they came, what their religion was,
Colonial law was similar enough to the legal system created by shipwrecked people. It consisted of three parts: elements of the old law that came to mind, new laws created as a result of the urgent needs of life in a new country, and legal elements formalized
influenced by the religious views of the settlers (for example, Puritanism in Massachusetts). If we take the Law and Liberties of Massachusetts, one of the earliest colonial legal publications (1648), we find dozens of examples of the application of these three characteristic parts. To begin with, we will find all kinds of references to judges and juries, to documents such as wills, to the system of private property - all that was brought from England as part of the baggage of memory and customs of the colonists and was accepted almost unchanged.
On the other hand, life in this desert area required an order that was far from those that were in England of the Stuarts. Here, for example, there was a rule that forbade the sale, as well as the gift, "to any Indian ... any ... weapons or gunpowder, bullets or lead ... or any military weapons and equipment" - a rule that, of course, had no its counterpart in England. Religion also played an important role. It was a community created by purely religious people. There was legal persecution of the Jesuits, Anabaptists, witches (“any man or woman ... who ... has contact with such spirits should be severely punished”). There were laws against heretics as well ("those who intend to undermine or destroy the Christian Faith and Religion by accepting or supporting any heresy").
Massachusetts law was inevitably simpler than English common law. It was mostly devoid of old technical details. These changes were made in order to simplify the application of the law in practice. English law in the 1600s was burdened with a lot of technical tricks. The slow evolution of this right has allowed it to take the form of a dense, monolithic structure of irrational, overlapping elements - a mad bond that has evolved over the centuries. Even a hundred lawyers could not claim to fully understand all the elements of this right. Even if the settlers wanted to, they could hardly duplicate such a system in full. Colonies in this sense always start from scratch.
Hence, essentially, Massachusetts and the other colonies went their own way. For example, consider the royal law of England on primogeniture. According to him, if the landowner died without leaving a will, his lands became the property of the eldest son. Massachusetts has abandoned this practice. All children had the right to inherit, although the eldest son received a double share against the rest of the heirs. Most of the other northern colonies (Rhode Island and New York were exceptions) simply abolished the birthright, and pretty soon. Much longer this law was in force in the southern colonies: in Georgia it was abolished in 1777, in North Carolina - in 1784, in Virginia - in 1785. It is impossible to reject the idea that differences in land ownership depended essentially on the fate of the birthright. Only in the South were large estates and plantations, and in New England "the topography and lands led to a small allotment and a compact settlement." This delayed the moment of the abolition of the birthright law, that is, in fact, the division of this property between all children.
The judicial system in England was as complex as the legal system, if not more so. Lord Coke, who described the judicial system as it was in the 17th century, needed a whole volume just to list and explain the differences between dozens of royal, local, ordinary, special courts - a maze of jurisdiction into which the plaintiff and defendant (and their lawyers) they had to get involved somehow.
Such an irrational system would be simply ridiculous in small, poor, constantly fighting for their existence settlements on the American coast. Massachusetts created a clear and simple system of courts, and so did the other colonies.
The structures of the courts were similar, although they were never completely identical in different groups of colonies. The differences were sometimes even striking. Massachusetts, for example, did not have "equity" courts, which were important
the most (and perplexing) feature of the law in England. South Carolina, on the contrary, had well-developed courts of this type.
In the 18th century, the legal system of both the North and the South seemed to somehow come closer to English law, that is, it became more like the English model. This happened naturally and more unconsciously, partly due to the influence of Britain on its colonies, which began to realize, with some surprise, that it was put at the head of the empire and that she could manage it. As you know, attempts to manage the colonies ended in complete failure. Britain began to attempt imperial pressure too late. The colonists learned to govern themselves, and when England tried new taxes, new courts, and behaved like an imperialist accordingly, she caused a revolution. As a result, England lost a brilliant piece of her empire.
But the desire to be more in line with the traditions of England also had natural sources. First of all, despite political differences, the colonies acquired ever closer trade ties with their homeland. The population grew significantly, new cities sprang up, and the colonists needed more developed law based on their needs. This was especially true of commercial law: merchants whose ships sailed to England, Jamaica and the ports of the world increasingly demanded modern commercial law, as practiced in England and the rest of the European world.
Cultural ties with England also remained. The lawyers who lived in the colonies were English, some actually got their profession in England. The legal materials they used were English. Apart from collections of local laws, no books on legal matters were published in the colonies to mention. All definitions and terminology were English. All collections of precedents were English. Anyone who wanted to know anything about law should have studied English editions, and these books, of course, were about the English understanding of law, not about the American one.
In 1756, William Blackstone's Commentary on the Laws of England was first published in England. It became a bestseller, but has gained, perhaps, even greater success on the other side of the ocean. Blackstone had a clear and concise style of presentation. He was writing a book for English gentlemen, laymen who would like to know something about their laws. Americans, laymen and lawyers alike, seized on this book with zeal, for it was a readily available key to the law of the ancestral home. An American edition was published in Philadelphia in 1771-1772. Blackstone would never have become so popular in this country if there had been at least something - like his book - that described American law.
j The colonial period is, firstly, interesting in itself, and secondly, it illustrates one of the important themes of this book: how social conditions shape (the legal system of the country. This principle still applies today; it is also ". the key to ~ "understanding the legal past.
trade colonialism geographical discovery
The first stage of the industrial revolution and its impact on world trade (the second half of the 18th century - the end of the 19th century).
The second period of colonialism differs from the first in two main features:
- - transition to broad territorial seizures;
- - the desire to master the countries of Asia as a market for European goods.
These two policies are linked to each other, but not rigidly. Territorial acquisitions, the subordination of populated areas - the most logical way to ensure access to the relevant markets. But the struggle for territories began in the middle of the 18th century: then the industrial revolution had not yet taken place (even in England) => Europeans did not yet have at their disposal goods that could break into Asian markets. Then the territories were needed mainly to generate income by non-economic methods (by levying taxes) - in order to ensure the former nature of trade with the East.
The fate of future colonies was decided mainly not in wars with local states, but in the course of rivalry between European powers. The fate of India, for example, was decided in the wars between Britain and France. The most significant stages of this struggle are the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) and the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). During Latest England broke the resistance of France and became the only serious contender for the conquest of India. But France was still feared: especially in connection with the revolution (1789) and Egyptian campaign (1798).
Then came the time of wars with the Indian states. In 1849, the last independent Indian state, the Punjab, fell. Although there were principalities-vassals of the British; in 1857 the population of the principalities was 181 million, and of British India - 123 million. Theoretically, all the princes were allies of the OIC, connected with it by subsidiary agreements. At the courts of the princes lived British residents, who vigilantly monitored that the princes behaved well. The recalcitrant prince could be removed.
During the Napoleonic Wars, the British captured Ceylon (1796) and the Cape Colony (1798) from the Dutch. The British acted quickly, because. it was feared that from day to day Napoleon would annex Holland and get all its colonies. The British were in a hurry not in vain: in 1806-1813. France occupied Holland and took over all her surviving colonies =< сражаться англичанам пришлось с французско-голландскими войсками. В 1811 г. англичане сумели захватить Яву. Правда, Яву потом вернули Голландии (в 1814 г. по Парижскому договору.
Other attempts were made to expand possessions beyond India: a successful attempt in the case of Burma (wars 1824-1826, 1852-1853 and 1885), Singapore (1819), Malacca (1824); unsuccessful in the case of Afghanistan (1838-1842, 1878-1880, 1919). Campaigns in Afghanistan are part of the Great Game, an attempt to get it out of Russian influence and protect India.
Other vast colonial empires began to be created: in 1800, the Dutch government nationalized the Dutch OIC and its possessions amounted to the Netherlands East Indies. By 1862, Holland had taken over almost all the islands of Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, part of Borneo and the Moluccas, and by 1920 - all of modern Indonesia).
France, recovering from Napoleonic Wars, in 1830 Algeria invaded, which was completely occupied by 1847. Thus began the colonial division of Africa. By the beginning of the 20th century France controlled the entire northern, western and central Africa. The French also became more active in Southeast Asia. In 1863 they established a protectorate over Cambodia, in 1867-85. took over all of Vietnam. In 1887 Cambodia and Vietnam were merged into French Indochina, to which Laos was added in 1893.
Lucky Thailand - he became a buffer.
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