Ozm in physics definition. See what "OZM" is in other dictionaries

5v OZM and ways to solve it for rectilinear motion 10

The pedestrian is moving at a speed of 3.6 km/h. A cyclist is moving towards him at a speed of -6 m/s. Find the speed of the pedestrian relative to the cyclist.

1) 2 s 2) 3 s 3) 4 s 4) 1.5 s

6v OZM and ways to solve it for rectilinear motion 10

The car is moving at a speed of 36 km/h. A cyclist is moving towards him at a speed of 6 m/s. Find the speed of the car relative to the cyclist.

1) 0 2) g , directed downwards 3) g , directed upwards 4) g /2

1) 50 cm 2) 60 cm 3) 1600 cm 4) 180 cm

1) 9 s 2) 8 s 3) 6 s 4) 3 s

5 The acceleration of the cyclist on the descent of the track is 1.5 m/s 2 On this descent, his speed increases by 15 m/s. The cyclist finishes his descent after starting through

7v OZM and ways to solve it for rectilinear motion 10

1 The pedestrian is moving at a speed of 3.6 km/h. A cyclist is moving towards him at a speed of -6 m/s. Find the speed of the pedestrian relative to the cyclist.

1) 2.4 m/s 2) -5 m/s 3) 7 m/s 4) -7 m/s

2. The ball is thrown vertically up. What is its acceleration at the top of the trajectory, where its speed is 0?

1) 0 2) g , directed downwards 3) g , directed upwards 4) g /2

3. The train starts off and moves with uniform acceleration. In the first second it travels a distance of 5 cm. How far will it travel in the fourth second?

1) 35 cm 2) 50 cm 3) 60 cm 4) 70 cm

4 A stone is thrown vertically upwards with a speed of 20 m/s. How long was the stone in flight?

1) 2 s 2) 3 s 3) 4 s 4) 1.5 s

5 The acceleration of a cyclist downhill is 1.2 m/s 2 . On this descent, its speed increases by 18 m/s. The cyclist finishes his descent after starting through

1) 0.07 s 2) 7.5 s 3) 15 s 4) 21.6 s

8v OZM and ways to solve it for rectilinear motion 10

The car is moving at a speed of -36 km/h. A cyclist moves towards him with a speed of 6 m/s. Find the speed of the car relative to the cyclist.

1) 30 m/s 2) -10 m/s 3) 16 m/s 4) -16 m/s

2. The ball is thrown vertically up. What is its acceleration in the middle of the journey?

1) 0 2) g , directed downwards 3) g , directed upwards 4) g /2

3. The tram starts off and moves with uniform acceleration. In the first second, he travels a distance of 0.2 m. How far will he travel in the fifth second?

1) 50 cm 2) 60 cm 3) 160 cm 4) 180 cm

4 The boom is launched vertically upwards at a speed of 30 m/s. How long was the arrow in flight?

1) 9 s 2) 8 s 3) 6 s 4) 3 s

5 The acceleration of a cyclist downhill is 1.5 m/s 2 . On this descent, its speed increases by 15 m/s. The cyclist finishes his descent after starting through

1) 0.7 s 2) 7.5 s 3) 10 s 4) 12.5 s

Cheat sheet with formulas in physics for the exam

and not only (may need 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 classes).

For starters, a picture that can be printed in a compact form.

Mechanics

Pressure P=F/S
Density ρ=m/V
Pressure at the depth of the liquid P=ρ∙g∙h
Gravity Ft=mg
5. Archimedean force Fa=ρ w ∙g∙Vt
Equation of motion for uniformly accelerated motion

X=X0 + υ 0∙t+(a∙t 2)/2 S=( υ 2 -υ 0 2) /2а S=( υ +υ 0) ∙t /2

Velocity equation for uniformly accelerated motion υ =υ 0 +a∙t
Acceleration a=( υ -υ 0)/t
Circular speed υ =2πR/T
Centripetal acceleration a= υ 2/R
Relationship between period and frequency ν=1/T=ω/2π
Newton's II law F=ma
Hooke's law Fy=-kx
Law gravity F=G∙M∙m/R 2
The weight of a body moving with acceleration a P \u003d m (g + a)
The weight of a body moving with acceleration a ↓ P \u003d m (g-a)
Friction force Ffr=µN
Body momentum p=m υ
Force impulse Ft=∆p
Moment M=F∙ℓ
Potential energy of a body raised above the ground Ep=mgh
Potential energy of elastically deformed body Ep=kx 2 /2
Kinetic energy of the body Ek=m υ 2 /2
Work A=F∙S∙cosα
Power N=A/t=F∙ υ
Efficiency η=Ap/Az
Oscillation period of the mathematical pendulum T=2π√ℓ/g
Oscillation period of a spring pendulum T=2 π √m/k
The equation of harmonic oscillations Х=Хmax∙cos ωt
Relationship of the wavelength, its speed and period λ= υ T

Molecular physics and thermodynamics

Amount of substance ν=N/ Na
Molar mass M=m/ν
Wed. kin. energy of monatomic gas molecules Ek=3/2∙kT
Basic equation of MKT P=nkT=1/3nm 0 υ 2
Gay-Lussac law (isobaric process) V/T =const
Charles' Law ( isochoric process) P/T = const
Relative humidity φ=P/P 0 ∙100%
Int. ideal energy. monatomic gas U=3/2∙M/µ∙RT
Gas work A=P∙ΔV
Boyle's law - Mariotte (isothermal process) PV=const
The amount of heat during heating Q \u003d Cm (T 2 -T 1)
The amount of heat during melting Q=λm
The amount of heat during vaporization Q=Lm
The amount of heat during fuel combustion Q=qm
State equation ideal gas PV=m/M∙RT
First law of thermodynamics ΔU=A+Q
Efficiency of heat engines η= (Q 1 - Q 2) / Q 1
Ideal efficiency. engines (Carnot cycle) η \u003d (T 1 - T 2) / T 1

Electrostatics and electrodynamics - formulas in physics

Coulomb's law F=k∙q 1 ∙q 2 /R 2
tension electric field E=F/q
Email tension. field of a point charge E=k∙q/R 2
Surface charge density σ = q/S
Email tension. fields of the infinite plane E=2πkσ
Dielectric constant ε=E 0 /E
Potential energy of interaction. charges W= k∙q 1 q 2 /R
Potential φ=W/q
Point charge potential φ=k∙q/R
Voltage U=A/q
For a uniform electric field U=E∙d
Electric capacity C=q/U
Capacitance of a flat capacitor C=S∙ ε ∙ε 0/d
Energy of a charged capacitor W=qU/2=q²/2С=CU²/2
Current I=q/t
Conductor resistance R=ρ∙ℓ/S
Ohm's law for the circuit section I=U/R
The laws of the last compounds I 1 \u003d I 2 \u003d I, U 1 + U 2 \u003d U, R 1 + R 2 \u003d R
Parallel laws. conn. U 1 \u003d U 2 \u003d U, I 1 + I 2 \u003d I, 1 / R 1 + 1 / R 2 \u003d 1 / R
Power electric current P=I∙U
Joule-Lenz law Q=I 2 Rt
Ohm's law for a complete chain I=ε/(R+r)
Short circuit current (R=0) I=ε/r
Magnetic induction vector B=Fmax/ℓ∙I
Ampere Force Fa=IBℓsin α
Lorentz force Fл=Bqυsin α
Magnetic flux Ф=BSсos α Ф=LI
Law of electromagnetic induction Ei=ΔФ/Δt
EMF of induction in moving conductor Ei=Вℓ υ sinα
EMF of self-induction Esi=-L∙ΔI/Δt
Energy magnetic field coils Wm=LI 2 /2
Oscillation period count. contour T=2π ∙√LC
Inductive reactance X L =ωL=2πLν
Capacitance Xc=1/ωC
The current value of the current Id \u003d Imax / √2,
RMS voltage Ud=Umax/√2
Impedance Z=√(Xc-X L) 2 +R 2

Optics

The law of refraction of light n 21 \u003d n 2 / n 1 \u003d υ 1 / υ 2
Refractive index n 21 =sin α/sin γ
Thin lens formula 1/F=1/d + 1/f
Optical power of the lens D=1/F
max interference: Δd=kλ,
min interference: Δd=(2k+1)λ/2
Differential grating d∙sin φ=k λ

The quantum physics

Einstein's formula for the photoelectric effect hν=Aout+Ek, Ek=U ze
Red border of the photoelectric effect ν to = Aout/h
Photon momentum P=mc=h/ λ=E/s

Physics of the atomic nucleus

Lecture #1
Physics in the knowledge of matter,
fields, space and time.
Kalensky Alexander
Vasilevich
Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Professor KhTTi
HM

Physics and chemistry

Physics as a science has developed over
centuries-old history of development
humanity.
Physics studies the most general
patterns of natural phenomena, structure and
properties of matter, the laws of its motion,
change and transformation from one species to another.
CHEMISTRY - the science of chemical elements, them
compounds and transformations that take place
as a result of chemical reactions.
Chemistry is the science that studies the properties,
structure and composition of substances, transformations of substances and
the laws by which they occur.

Physics is the science of nature

Physics operates with two objects of matter:
matter and fields.
The first type of matter - particles (substance) -
form atoms, molecules and bodies consisting of them.
The second type - physical fields - a type of matter,
through which
interactions between bodies. Examples of such
fields are the electromagnetic field,
gravitational and a number of others. Different kinds
matter can interact and transform
into each other.

Physics

Physics is one of the most ancient sciences
nature. The word physics comes from
The Greek word fusis, which means nature.
Aristotle (384 BC - 322 BC)
e.) The greatest of the ancients
scientists who introduced into science
the word "physics".

Tasks

The process of knowing and establishing the laws of physics
complex and varied. Physics faces the following
tasks:
a) explore natural phenomena and
establish the laws by which they
obey;
b) establish a causal
connection between discovered phenomena and
phenomena previously studied.

Basic methods of scientific knowledge

1) observation, i.e., the study of phenomena in natural
setting;
2) experiment - the study of phenomena through their
reproduction in a laboratory setting.
Experiment has a great advantage over observation, since
sometimes allows you to speed up or slow down the observed phenomenon, as well as
repeat it many times;
3)
hypothesis is a scientific hypothesis put forward for
explanations for the observed phenomena.
Any hypothesis requires verification and proof. If she does not enter
contradiction with any of the experimental facts, then it passes
4) theory - a scientific assumption that has become a law.
Physical theory gives qualitative and quantitative
explanation of a whole group of natural phenomena with a single
points of view.

Limits of applicability of physical laws and theories

Limits of applicability
theories
determined
physical
simplifying
assumptions
made when setting the task and in
ratio derivation process.
Matching Principle: Predictions
new theory must match
predictions
former
theories
the limits of its applicability.
with
in

Modern physical picture of the world

matter is made up of tiny
particle,
between
which
exist
some
types
fundamental interactions:
strong,
"Great
weak
Union"
electromagnetic,
gravitational.

Mechanics
Kinematics
Dynamics
Statics
Conservation laws in mechanics
Mechanical vibrations and waves
VOLKENSTEIN V.S. Collection of tasks for general
course of physics// Textbook.- 11th ed.,
revised M.: Nauka, Main edition of physical and mathematical literature, 1985. - 384 p.

10. Kinematics

1.
Mechanical movement and its types
2.
Relativity of mechanical motion
3.
Speed.
4.
Acceleration.
5.
Uniform movement.
6.
Rectilinear uniformly accelerated motion.
7.
Free fall (acceleration free fall).
8.
The movement of the body in a circle. Centripetal
acceleration.

11. physical model

In school physics, something else is often found
understanding of the term physical model as
"a simplified version of the physical system
(process) that preserves its (his) main
features."
The physical model can be
separate installation, device,
device to produce
physical modeling by substitution
the physical process being studied is similar to it
process of the same physical nature.

12. Example

Landing vehicle (Phoenix) on a parachute.
Shooting with MRO camera
resolution, from a distance of about 760 km
Pop up air bubble

13. Physical quantities

Physical quantity - property
material object or phenomenon
common in terms of quality
class of objects or phenomena, but in
quantitatively
individual for each of them.
Physical quantities have the genus
(homogeneous values: length width),
unit of measure and value.

14. Physical quantities

The variety of physical quantities is ordered
using systems of physical quantities.
Distinguish between basic and derived quantities
which are derived from the main
using the connection equations. In the International
system of quantities C (International System of
Quantities, ISQ) seven
values:
L - length;
M - mass;
T - time;
I - current strength;
Θ - temperature;
N is the amount of substance;
J - light intensity.

15. Dimension of a physical quantity

Main
quantities
Dimensional Sim
st
ox
Description
SI unit
second (s)
Time
T
t
Event duration.
Length
L
N
l
n
The length of an object in one
measurement.
meter (m)
Number of similar
structural units, of which
substance consists.
mole (mol)
m
The value that determines
inertial and gravitational
phone properties.
kilogram
(kg)
IV
The amount of light energy
radiated in a given direction
per unit of time
candela (cd)
I
Flowing per unit of time
charge.
ampere (A)
T
Average kinetic
the energy of the particles of the object.
kelvin (K)
Quantity
substances
Weight
The power of light
Current strength
Temperature
M
J
I
Θ

16. Definition of dimension

Dimension definition
In general
dim(x) =
Tα LβNγ M δ Jε Iζ Θ η
The product of the symbols of the fundamental quantities in
various
degrees.
At
definition
dimensions
degrees
may
be
positive
negative
and
zero,
apply
standard
mathematical operations. If in dimension
no factors left with
non-zero
degrees
then
magnitude
called dimensionless.

17. Example

Example
Value
The equation
connections
Dimension in
SI
Name
units
Speed
V=l/t
L1T-1
Not
L1T-2
Not
M1L1T-2
newton
L3
Not
Accelerated a= V/t=l/t2
ie
Force F=ma=ml/t2
Volume
V=l3

18. What do you need to know?

Matter, interaction and motion.
Space and time. The subject of physics.
Methods of physical research.
Physical model. Abstract and
limited models. Role of experiment
and theory in physical research.
macroscopic and microscopic
methods for describing physical phenomena.
Physical quantities and their measurement.
Units of measurement of physical quantities.
Physics and Philosophy. Physics and mathematics.
The value of physics for chemistry.

19. Basic concepts of kinematics

19.02.2017
Basic concepts
kinematics
Reference system
Material point
Trajectory, path, movement

20 Definitions

Mechanical movement
change
provisions
body
called
relatively
other bodies over time.
The main task of mechanics (OZM)
is an
any
definition
moment
provisions
time
if
body
in
known
position and speed of the body in the initial
moment of time. (An analogue of the Cauchy problem in
chemistry)

21. Material point

Body,
dimensions
whom
can
neglect under the conditions of the considered
problem is called a material point.
The body can be taken as a material point,
if:
1. it moves forward, while it
must not turn or rotate.
2. it travels a long distance
exceeding its size.

22. Reference system

The reference system is formed by:
coordinate system,
reference body,
device for determining the time.
z, m
mind
hm

23. 24. Relativity of motion

Example: from the shelf of a moving car
falls
suitcase.
Define
view
suitcase trajectory relative to:
Carriage (line segment);
Earth (arc of a parabola);
Conclusion: the shape of the trajectory depends on
selected reference system.

25.

AT
s
s
BUT

26. Definitions

The trajectory of movement is a line in space, along
which the body is moving.
The path is the length of the path.
s m
Displacement is a vector connecting the initial
position of the body with its subsequent position.
s m

27. Differences between path and movement

Moving and passed
physical quantities:
way
–
This
various
1.
Displacement is a vector quantity, and traveled
path is scalar.
2.
moving
matches
on
size
with
traversed path only with a rectilinear
moving in one direction, in all others
cases, the movement is less.
3.
At
movement
body
way
maybe
only
increase, and the displacement modulus can both
increase as well as decrease.

28. Solve Problems

Two
body,
committed
moving
the same
straightforward,
movement.
Are the completed courses necessarily the same?
their way?
The ball fell from a height of 4 m, rebounded and was
caught at a height of 1 m. Find a way and
ball movement module.

29. Solve the problem

At the initial moment of time, the body was in
point with coordinate -2 m, and then moved
to a point with a coordinate of 5 m. Construct a vector
movement.
Given:
xA = -2 m
Decision:
s
BUT
AT
xB = 5 m
s?
Ha
0
1
xB
hm

30. Solve the problem

At the initial moment of time, the body
was at a point with coordinates (-3; 3) m,
and then moved to the point with
coordinate (3; -2) m. Construct a vector
movement.
Given:
A (-3; 3) m
In (3; -2) m
s?
Decision:

31. Solution:

mind
BUT
uA
s
1
Ha
xB
hm
0 1
UV
AT

32. Task

The figure shows graphs of dependence on time
path and displacement module for two different
movements. Which chart is wrong? Answer
justify.
s
s
0
t
0
t

33. What do you need to know?

Mechanical motion is the change with the flow
time of the position of the body in space relative to
other tel.
The main task of mechanics is to determine
the position of the body in space at any given time,
if the position and velocity of the body in the initial
moment.
The reference system consists of:
– body of reference;
– associated coordinate system;
- hours.
The body, the dimensions of which in this problem can be neglected,
called a material point.
The trajectory of a body is an imaginary line
in the space in which the body is moving.
The path is the length of the path.
The displacement of the body is called a directed segment,
drawn from the initial position of the body to its position in
this moment time.

34.

Uniform movement is
the movement of a body at which its speed
stays constant (
),i.e
moving at the same speed all the time
no acceleration or deceleration
).
Rectilinear motion is
movement of a body in a straight line
the trajectory we get is a straight line.
Speed of uniform rectilinear

Teaching physics in Russian schools is traditionally conducted by the audiovisual method: the teacher explains the material and shows experiments, or students, under the guidance of a teacher, pave their own way to knowledge with the help of experiments, a textbook, and discussions.

There are many methods, but in each class there are children who are only present (quietly or not) at this celebration of intelligence called good physics lesson. They don't care because they don't understand. Such students come to life only in laboratory work. Only what has passed "through the hands" becomes for them an element of knowledge. kinesthetics- students who are aware of the essence and coherence of the material through other than sight and hearing, sensory organs and through movement. Physics lessons give a lot of opportunities for learning through movement. The inclusion of these techniques in the lesson is very revitalizing, provides all students, and not just kinesthetics, the opportunity to look at the material in a different way. These techniques are applicable to work with students of any age. Below are examples of 5-minute learning activities with things that are always on student tables, and experiments with the simplest equipment using the example of studying mechanics in the 9th grade.

1. The concept of mechanical movement. OZM

We randomly place objects from the pencil case on the table (eraser, pen, sharpener, compasses ...) and remember their location. We ask the neighbor to shift one object and describe the change in its position. We move the body to its original position. And now the questions: What happened to the body? (The body moved, moved.) How can you describe the change in body position? (Relative to other phones). What else has changed besides the position of the body? (Time.)

We repeat the experiment with another body on our own and pronounce (at the suggestion of the teacher) the change in the state of the body. We solve OZM!

2. Reference system. Move. We tie a small object to a long thread - paper, a pencil stub, but best of all a toy small bug or a fly. We fix the free end of the thread with the button on the far left corner of the desk, we take this point as the starting point. Selecting axes X and Y along the edges of the desk. Pulling the thread, we allow our "insect" to crawl across the desk. We define several positions and write down the coordinates ( x, y). We raise the “insect” into the air, consider the possibilities of its flight, fix several positions (coordinates x, y, z). We determine (measure with a ruler) the displacement in each case when moving along the plane. It is very good to confirm this with a drawing or calculation.

It is useful to do the experience together with a neighbor on the desk, choosing different reference systems and comparing the results.

3. Types of movement. Material point. On the instructions of the teacher, we take a sheet of paper and set it in motion - translational uniform, rotational uniform, translational uneven, etc. When studying a uniform and uniformly accelerated movement, it can be very interesting to model it by moving a pencil case, an eraser, a fountain pen in different directions - horizontally and vertically - at different speeds, evenly and with acceleration or deceleration. It is even better if the movement is accompanied by an appropriate sound, as kids do when playing cars. Using a metronome, we evaluate both the speed of the uniform movement of the body on the table and the average speed of the uneven movement of various bodies, and then compare our results with the results of different students.

4. Uniformly accelerated motion. Just as in experiment 3, we consider how the body moves with the co-direction and opposite direction of the vectors a and 0 (acceleration and deceleration). Using the handle as an indicator of the direction of the selected reference axis, we consider the signs of the projections of velocities and accelerations and, accordingly, model the movement according to the coordinate equation and the velocity equation (initial speed 0.1 m/s 2 , acceleration 0.3 m/s 2).

5. Relativity of motion. When studying the relativity of motion and Galileo's law of addition of velocities, we use a table as a fixed frame of reference, and a textbook and an eraser on it as a moving frame of reference (as a moving body). We simulate: 1) the situation of doubling the speed of the eraser relative to the table, moving the textbook in the same direction as the eraser; 2) the situation of rest of the eraser relative to the table, moving the eraser in one direction, and the textbook in the opposite direction; 3) “swimming” with an eraser of a “river” (table) for different directions of the river flow (textbook movement) when adding mutually perpendicular velocities.

6. Free fall. The traditional demonstration experience - comparing the fall time of a straightened sheet of paper (folded and then crumpled - it is better to take thin and soft paper) is much more useful to set as frontal. Students better understand that the rate of fall is determined by the shape of the body (air resistance) and not by its mass. It is easier to pass from the analysis of this independent experience to Galileo's experiments.

7. Free fall time. A well-known, but always effective, experience in determining the reaction time of a student: one of the couple sitting at the desk releases the ruler (approximately 30 cm long) with a zero division down, the second, having waited for the start, tries to catch the ruler with the index and thumb. According to indications l capture locations calculate each student's reaction time ( t= ), discuss the results and the accuracy of the experiment.

8. Movement of a body thrown vertically upwards. This experience is only possible in a well organized and disciplined classroom. when studying the movement of a body thrown vertically upwards, by throwing up an eraser, we achieve that the time of its movement is 1 s and 1.5 s (according to the beats of the metronome). Knowing the flight time, we estimate the throwing speed = gt flight /2, we check the accuracy of the calculation by measuring the height of the ascent and evaluate the effect of air resistance.

9. Newton's second law. 1) We consider the change in the speed of iron balls of different masses under the action of a bar magnet (movement in a straight line) and draw a conclusion about the effect of mass on the acceleration of the body (we measure the speed). 2) We carry out a similar experiment, but with two magnets folded in parallel, with the same poles in one direction. We draw a conclusion about the influence of the magnitude of the magnetic force on the acceleration and change in speed. 3) We roll the ball perpendicular to the bar magnet and observe the transition from a straight trajectory to a curvilinear one. We conclude that the velocity vector has changed in this case as well.

10. Newton's third law. When studying Newton's third law, you can use the palms of the students themselves: we suggest that they fold their palms in front of their chest and try to move one palm (not their shoulders!) With the other. Students immediately understand that the interaction is one, the forces are two, the interacting bodies are two, the forces are equal and oppositely directed.

Joyful children's faces, which reflect the feeling of understanding the essence of laws and phenomena, passed not only through analytical thinking, the associative series of examples given, but also through bodily sensations, are the best reward for the time and effort spent on organizing, conducting and jointly analyzing these simple experiments.

Sections: Physics

As a schoolboy who had already studied physics, I began to be interested in questions: “Why was a new concept introduced? Why was the concept introduced in this way and not another? Can the introduced concept be replaced by another concept? This question also interested me at the institute, but by the end of the institute I did not have any intelligible answers on this issue. Similar questions were asked by some of my students. Further pedagogical practice showed that one of the distinguishing features of the most successful students in the application of knowledge was their possession of concepts, their meaningful use as a tool for analysis and synthesis in situations requiring resolution. One of the components of a competent specialist for me was his possession of a conceptual apparatus.

The CONCEPT for the modernization of Russian education for the period up to 2010 states that the basic element of education is a general education school, the modernization of which implies the orientation of education not only towards the assimilation of a certain amount of knowledge by students, but also towards the development of their personality, their cognitive and creative abilities. Also in this document it is noted that the student must gain experience of independent activity.

It is obvious that one of the ways to solve the set tasks is to involve the student in research activities.

If we take the position of research activity, then one of its products are concepts, the conceptual apparatus of science. Lately in normative documents for quality control of student training, more attention has been paid to control over the conceptual apparatus of students. For example, in the collection “Assessment of the quality of training of graduates of a basic school”, published by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation by the DROFA publishing house in 2000, it is said that a student must master the basic concepts, give definitions of physical quantities. Describe physical phenomena and processes, which is almost impossible without mastering the conceptual apparatus.

If we consider the federal component of the state standard for general education in physics, then the section on the requirements for the level of graduate training states that as a result of studying physics, the student must know/understand

meaning of concepts: (there is an enumeration of concepts);
the meaning of physical quantities: (the enumeration of physical quantities is in progress);

It is clear that this is a completely different level of requirements, and rightly so.

However, despite increased emphasis in policy documents on increased attention to concepts, in methodical literature and the practice of teachers' work, this issue has not been adequately reflected. Moreover, the new physics textbooks are no different from the old textbooks. They simply give definitions of concepts, there were no changes in the technology of forming the meanings of concepts and their understanding! In school problem books and textbooks, tasks aimed at checking and correcting the conceptual apparatus are practically absent. The quality of the graduate's training and success in his professional activity largely depend on the quality of the formed conceptual apparatus. Concepts are an integral part of knowledge and are directly involved in the application of knowledge and the development of skills.

Thus, there is a contradiction between the requirements of the federal component of the state standard in physics for the conceptual apparatus, technologies for the formation of concepts and their control in methodological literature, the content school textbooks and practice of teachers.

Questions of the formation of concepts in the experiment and in schooling psychologists were engaged: B.G. Ananiev, L.S. Vygodsky, G.S. Kostyuk, N.A. Menchinskaya, R.G. Natadze, L.S. Sakharov, D.N. Uznadze and others.

As quite rightly noted by P.Ya. Galperin, that the process of concept formation in school education, “mainly occurs spontaneously , i.e. with very poor management and the suppression of many scientific and accidental causes.”

L.S. Vygodsky notes that “only when a certain need arises, the need for a concept, only in the process of some kind of meaningful expedient activity aimed at achieving a known goal or solving a specific problem, can a concept arise and take shape.”

One of the new principles for the construction of educational subjects put forward by V.V. Davydov also concerns concepts. He believes that “all concepts constituting a given academic subject or its main sections, should be assimilated by children by considering the subject-material conditions of their origin through which they become necessary(in other words, concepts are not given as “ready-made knowledge”)”.

In psychology, there are various methods of forming concepts. The most complete and qualitative, from our point of view, the technology of developmental education (ED) of Elkonin-Davydov forms the conceptual apparatus of students. Solving the system learning objectives, the student, among other things, forms his own conceptual apparatus. However, we do not have methodological recommendations for the teacher and educational literature for the student, where this idea would be implemented for teaching physics. In this paper, we will try to give our own options for the formation of concepts in the Elkonin-Davydov RO system.

In our opinion, the first difficulty in implementing this idea in the practice of organizing the teaching of students for the teacher is the creation of a teacher system learning objectives (UZ). The teacher needs to create a situation that is understandable for the student and present the requirements that must be met in this situation. Moreover, both the situation and the requirements must be in the context of the main task being solved by the subject being studied. For physics, the subject of study is nature, and the main task is to identify the patterns by which nature lives and develops. There are two ways of cognition used by science - empirical and theoretical. They require two types of thinking - empirical and theoretical thinking. Accordingly, there are different ways of forming concepts, and, consequently, different levels of mastery of the concept as a tool for the analysis and synthesis of tasks solved by a person.

The second difficulty of the teacher in the implementation of this concept is the “reworking” of the psychology and activity of the student, who, before studying physics, did not study in the RO system. The student reproduced at best theoretical material textbook, as a rule, without understanding the meanings and performed actions according to external signs in solving problems. It is necessary to instill confidence in the mind of the student in the ability to solve educational problems, to master theoretical material at a high level. theoretical level difficulties.

The third difficulty of the teacher is teaching the student to competently build communication interaction with the participants in the educational process in the process of solving educational problems.

It should be noted special work teachers and students on the application of the acquired knowledge. This is a separate very interesting question and we will not specifically consider it.

As an example, consider how the conceptual apparatus of students is formed when studying mechanics. The leading problem to be solved in this section is to determine the position of the body in space at any moment of time (hereinafter referred to as the BMP). This task is given to the students. But physics as a science must also describe this situation (we observe, describe, identify patterns, check the identified patterns and fix and apply them - an empirical way of knowing). Students are invited to describe the location of various bodies at the everyday level and to identify patterns in the descriptions, to generalize. Find out what is in each description. This task requires students to master the meanings inherent in the description, it is necessary to know the purpose, function of each word. You can suggest removing some of the words and sentences from the descriptions with an explanation of the reasons for such a decision. Here, the teacher is required to be able to act according to the situation, take into account the situation, the level of development of students and not forget about his goal, which hidden university and is not explicitly presented to students. Often the teacher is in time trouble. As a rule, students single out a landmark (reference body), the body itself, the position of which they described. Due to the unformed concept of coordinates and, accordingly, the coordinate system, students are not always able to find this pattern in the description. If this cannot be done, then this pattern is simply reported by the teacher using an example. And then the students determine what kind of coordinate system they had in their descriptions. This is very important to do, since each student must find out for himself how close he came to identifying this pattern, what was not enough for him to say about it. In this situation, a special gift of the teacher is required to work with meanings, which, albeit intricately, but from the heart, the student tried to formulate and introduce into the resulting product of activity in the lesson. The desire to accurately express a thought and the ability to capture meanings are constantly in the field of activity of the teacher and student.

Sometimes it is difficult for students to isolate the point in time at which they fixed the location of the body. To remove this difficulty can hint made by the teacher in an implicit form. The ability to use a hint implicitly by a student develops his thinking, strengthens his self-confidence. You can remind them how in childhood their parents were looking for them, what neighbors told them about your location. We saw it five minutes ago ... It is clear that we need a device for measuring time.

Now the revealed regularities are fixed in the concept of reference system (RS). It becomes clear that the reference system “lived” at the everyday level without the majority of people realizing that it exists and is needed by a person.

Thus, in order to solve the OZM, it is necessary to choose a CO. What tasks, questions do students have after this lesson, where will these tasks lead the class further in the study of mechanics? This is again the most important moment in technology, since, in the end, the student must learn to set learning tasks for himself and solve them. Then learning in the classroom turns into self-learning, self-development. The natural mechanism of cognition and inquisitiveness of the human mind is launched. This is one of the advantages of this technology.

At first glance, everything is fine. The concept of SO is formulated, students (albeit not all) took part in this. But who is what took for their activities from this product in the collective-distributive activities of the class in the lesson? Who mastered what, who understood what, who misunderstood how this concept should be used, applied? Now we need a system of tasks and long hard work to get the teacher to answer the above questions. All this work remains behind the scenes of our work. This is a separate topic and we will not touch on it.

Thus, a situation was created as an option, where the variant of the birth of the concept of CO is visible.

The goal of the teacher is to create a situation in which the students will have the concept of mechanical movement and rest. US option. Solve the OZM at different moments of time in the CO associated with the Earth for bodies: your house, any car and the Moon and identify patterns in the resulting descriptions.

As a rule, this US can always be solved in the lesson. Students say that the house does not change its location relative to the Earth, but the Moon changes its location all the time. Thus, two groups of bodies are obtained: those that do not change their location and those that change their location over time in our CO. The car moves from one group to another and does not occupy a permanent place in the group. What to do next? Fix the obtained patterns. Give a name to these groups indicating the signs by which we can attribute the bodies to one or another group. The birth of a concept ends with the formulation of its definition. The change in the location of a body in space relative to other bodies over time is called mechanical movement. Rest is a state of the body in which its location does not change over time.

A man gets on a bus and travels from one part of the city to another. Is he moving or at rest? Resting relative to the bus, but moving relative to the Earth. It becomes clear that the concepts of mechanical motion and rest are relative concepts. Informing about the movement of the body, we must also inform about the SO in which this occurs. The result of the observed phenomenon also depends on CO. Observing the same body in the same period of time, we can get different results depending on the CO.

It is clear that for bodies at rest in our SS the MSM has been solved, but for moving bodies it must be solved. We can solve OZM in two ways - empirically and theoretically.

Let's solve the OZM theoretically. To do this, we report the names of the existing methods for solving the MRP - natural (trajectory), vector and coordinate. What will we do next? As a rule, students begin to analyze the names of the methods. The search for a keyword and its correlation with the OZM begins. The trajectory is the line along which the body moves (the trace left by the body). We draw on the board and in the notebook an arbitrary trajectory in the selected CO. How does the trajectory help us in solving the MRR? The trajectory limits the body search area, it is clear that the body must be searched for on this trajectory. What else is needed for this? If the student has formed the concept of length from mathematics, he owns it in his activity, he consciously used it before, then the answer is obvious - you need to know the length of the line that the body has traveled to a given point in time (the path traveled by the body). We encourage students to mark the path with a letter l, not to be confused with the modulus of the displacement vector S, because l= S only under certain conditions, when the movement is straight in one direction. Naturally, the question arises - where to get the path? Path and time are linked. We see this from the analysis of proper motion, but how to show this relationship analytically, how to find l=f(t)?

An analysis of previous activity shows that the path and time are heterogeneous quantities and for them connections analytically introduced a special quantity - the speed of mechanical movement.

If for the class such work turns out to be unbearable, then the following problem can be solved. Mom bought for a family from three people 6 kg of fruit. They ate the fruit two days later. How many fruits do you need to buy for mom for the next three days, if guests in the amount of four people came to the family. Usually, students solve this problem successfully. The concept of the speed of eating fruits by one person is introduced. After discussing the decision, we ask you to give a guarantee of the calculations made. And students introduce significant additions that this is the average speed of eating fruits, and if it does not change, then our calculations will turn out to be correct. It is advisable to form (it is possible to simply inform, and then give special tasks for the student to “take root” in the consciousness and activity of this concept) a general concept of speed. Velocity is a quantity that characterizes how quickly one quantity changes when another quantity changes. ?y/?x is the average rate of change of the function in the area?x. By this we remove the student's one-sided understanding of speed as a physical quantity, showing the speed of change in the path traveled by the body over time. And he understands much better that ?v/ ?t and ?Ф/ ?t are also speeds. And when the derivative is studied - as a new way of describing reality, then the translation of the previous analytical texts into the language of the derivative occurs very quickly with 100% quality.

But back to the concept of average ground speed. The average ground speed is a physical quantity that shows how quickly the path traveled by the body changes over a certain period of time, and is calculated V cf,l=l/t. It should be noted that the average speed always refers to a section of the path or to a period of time. When applying any physical quantity, it is necessary to clearly distinguish to which physical body it is applied. It is also necessary to highlight the sequence of actions that need to be performed in order to find the physical value, the purpose of these actions and their foundations. Moreover, all this goes in a complex and should come from the meanings inherent in this physical quantity. In the concept, in a folded form, there is always a situation with a requirement (task), a method for solving it, an idea for a solution, and the need to introduce this physical quantity in the context of the leading, main problem being solved. The absence of one of the components drastically reduces the quality of the operations, turning them into a mechanical set of actions, which drastically reduces the quality of the student's training.

Now we have the answer to our UZ - l \u003d V cf,l t. Naturally, the question arises, what do we do next? Check the obtained regularity in practice. You can give the students the opportunity to make up a task themselves to test the identified patterns in practice. You can suggest looking for the location of a group of tourists on the map with their route, if the average ground speed for the entire time of movement is known. Based on their life experience, students talk about the discrepancies between theory and practice. They see the reason in the change in the speed of movement of tourists over time. We have solved the MRP by the trajectory method, but such a solution is inaccurate. If inaccuracies (errors) suit us, then we use this method, if not, then we are looking for another way to solve the OZM. We think.

Working in a group, students, as a rule, come to the conclusion that if the magnitude of the speed does not change over time, then l= vt. And our theoretical calculations will be fully confirmed by practice. But students may have a question in this situation: “What speed are we talking about?”. If this question does not arise, then one can ask what physical

disguise measures the speedometer in the car? As a rule, work in groups, followed by a discussion, leads us to the conclusion that this is the speed of the body at a given time, or at a given point in the trajectory. But in this text there is no theoretical way to find this value. We need to find this way. Again it turns out US. And, as a rule, more and more students participate in the compilation of the KM. This is a very important indicator for a teacher. It shows the development of students' thinking, their understanding of the material being studied, the degree of participation in the creation of a group-wide product, and much more.

When looking for a way to determine the value of instantaneous speed, students take the definition of the average ground speed as “source material” and, by reducing the time interval, essentially come to the concept of a derivative. The KM and the method of its solution are ultimately formalized in the definition. There is a folding of information, which is very important for its application. In the definition, the student sees the situation, the requirement and the method of fulfilling this requirement, and this greatly facilitates the performance of actions when finding the instantaneous speed, because behind every action there is a goal of the action and the basis of the action, an idea to be realized, there is something to realize content . In our opinion, this is one of the fundamental issues of technology, when the identified regularity lives in the mind of the student, the development from the inception of KM to its solution, and then folding information in the form of a definition of a concept or law, followed by the application of this concept. With this way of developing knowledge, the application, use of knowledge is greatly facilitated for the student. The quality of students' knowledge is greatly improved. The technology of working with text and the technology of solving problems, in this regard, is fundamentally different! This is a very important technology issue.

A number of concepts related to mechanical motion and rest in our country was born, but this is not enough. Need to follow up life and development of these concepts, both in the mind of the student and in the theory of physics. Special Job over development this concept. The expression of the meanings inherent in the concept through other concepts, the application of this concept to other situations and the expansion of its interpretation. When it comes to the rotation of the body, what in this case will be a mechanical movement? And what will be the OZM when the body rotates?

How else to say in the trajectory method of solving the MRP that the body is moving? How to express this meaning through other concepts? Solving these and similar questions, we check the student's understanding of the material being studied, the ability to use it in a new situation for him. Concepts are meaningfully interconnected, becoming a system of concepts, a single tool for problem analysis and a way to write a solution text. Special tasks are needed for carrying out control and evaluation activities (COD) responsible for the adjustment and control of the conceptual apparatus.

It is useful for students to solve KM at home. Moreover, you can use any literature: textbooks, reference books, encyclopedias ... All this makes students actively solve KM. Working with the textbook, in the end, students see between the lines a system of educational tasks, ways to solve them, the solutions themselves and the answers formulated by the author. Yes, this does not happen immediately, in each class in different ways, but these are already different students. Students who think, justify their actions, are able to meaningfully object and ask, actively supplement and correct texts. They are clearly aware of the need to introduce the concept in the context of the main task, they explicitly talk about the method of solving the problem. Concepts become their tool when analyzing and solving problems.

If no other teacher works in the class in this technology, then one of the ways to check the degree of mastery of this technology by the student is the ability to transfer it to other subjects. If this happens, then the development of the student goes according to the most favorable scenario. Ultimately, the teacher for such a student should act as a consultant, conduct the CODE and participate in the reflection of the processes and results of the CODE.

So the concepts are:

can be born in the mind of the student when he solves the problem, become a product of his own activity, and not an alien element introduced to him from the outside;
can develop in the mind of the student, undergo changes, be expressed over time through other concepts, retaining meanings;
fix the revealed regularities in solving the KM, methods for solving the problem, the requirement of the problem and the purpose of the concept;
contain in an implicit form the sequence of actions for their application;
serve as a tool for analysis and synthesis in solving problems;
require a special CODE on the part of the teacher with subsequent correction of the content or procedural part of the application of the concept;
serve the description of phenomena, facilitate the description of the identified patterns qualitatively and quantitatively;
should be the subject of research, study of both the teacher and the student.

Literature:

P.Ya. Galperin Psychology as an objective science Selected psychological works Edited by AI Podolsky Moscow-Voronezh 2003 p.393.
L.S. Vygotsky Collected Works Volume II Moscow “Pedagogy” 1982 P.127.
V.V. Davydov Types of generalization in teaching Moscow “Pedagogy” 1972. P.397.

total:0
In contact with 0
Google Plus 0
OK 0
Facebook 0