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In the first months of life, memory manifests itself at the level of conditioned reflexes (for example, hearing the voice of the mother, the child stops crying). By six months, the process of recognizing what is more often is revealed; surrounds the child (toys, parents, etc.). This age is characterized by the phenomenon of the “latent period”: it is worth the one with whom the child constantly has contact to disappear for several days, as he ceases to recognize him. With age, the duration of the latent period increases. Related to this is the fact that the events of the first three years are poorly reproduced at an older age. (Earlier it was noted that the “failure” in memory for this period is due to the underdevelopment of the hippocampus at this age.) The process of reproducing information manifests itself in the second year of life.
Before school age- this is predominantly involuntary memory and the beginning of the development of socially conditioned types of memory (arbitrary, mediated and logical). School age is characterized by intensive development arbitrary memory, which is due to the nature learning activities. At the same time, until adolescence, the priority in development belongs to natural memory, but later this dynamics of natural and socially conditioned memory levels off.
It has been established that up to 20-25 years old memory improves. Approximately by the age of 30-40, socially conditioned types of memory take over the "baton" in development, which maintain its general properties at a constant level. Further, a person's memory "ages" and deteriorates. First, the memory for current events weakens, then for knowledge, feelings and habits. By old age, a person "falls into childhood" - detailed episodes of distant childish years are resurrected in memory.
In 1927, L. S. Vygotsky, together with a group of colleagues (A. N. Leontiev, A. R. Luria, A. V. Zaporozhets, L. I. Bozhovich, etc.), began to conduct a detailed series of experimental studies, the results of which allowed him to subsequently formulate the main provisions of the cultural-historical theory - the theory of the development of mental functions specific to a person (attention, memory, thinking, etc.) that have a social, cultural, lifetime origin and are mediated by special means - signs that arise during human history. At the same time, the sign, from the point of view of L. S. Vygotsky, is primarily a social tool for a person, a kind of “psychological tool”.
L. S. Vygotsky formulated a general genetic law the existence of any mental function of a person: “... Every function in the cultural development of a child appears on the scene twice, on two planes: first - social, then psychological, first between people ... then inside the child ... Functions first develop in a team in the form of relations between children, then become the mental functions of the personality.
According to L. S. Vygotsky, two types of mental development - biological and historical (cultural) - presented in a separate form in phylogenesis and connected by a relationship of continuity and sequence, actually exist in a merged form and form single process in ontogeny.
The main laws of mental development formulated by L. S. Vygotsky:
Child development has a complex organization in time: its own rhythm, which does not coincide with the rhythm of time (a year in infancy is not equal to a year of life in adolescence).
The law of metamorphosis child development(a child is not just a small adult, but a creature with a qualitatively different psyche).
The law of uneven development: each side in the child's psyche has its own optimal period of development.
The law of development of higher mental functions "from outside to inside".
Distinctive qualities of higher mental functions: mediation, awareness, arbitrariness, consistency; they are formed as a result of mastering special tools, means developed in the course of historical development society.
Education - driving force mental development, which creates the zone of proximal development of the child (the distance between the level of actual development and the level of possible development).
Memory is like a WPF. In humans, HMF rises on the basis of natural
HPF signs:
- social in origin
- mediated - artificial stimuli are used
- arbitrary - they can be controlled, associated with personal development.
- consistency - the HMF consists of several PFs, their structure and layout changes.
Development of memory in sociogenesis (Leontiev)
- external development - the appearance of writing (notches, knot writing)
- internal development - addition of external signs from the inside (speech, language)
leads to verbal-logical memory in humans.
The line of natural development is replaced by the development of the HMF.
Double stimulation technique (Leontiev)
Three groups of subjects: preschoolers, schoolchildren, students.
a) Without the use of incentives - funds
b) With the use of incentives - means (cards with images of objects.)
You need to memorize 15 words
Results:
Without use
incentives - means
Preschoolers schoolchildren students
Memory productivity is better with the use of flashcards. This speaks to the role of artificial means to improve memory.
Preschoolers are not yet able to use external stimuli - means. Schoolchildren are at the stage of their use. Adults - at the stage of using internal stimuli - means (images, verbal description), they do not want to use external means.
7. Pathogenesis (Ribot: see question 2-B).
8. Actualgenesis (cognitive psychology: see question 16-A).
Blonsky's genetic classification.
 Development Species (name and who studied) | Ontogenesis | Phylogenesis | ||
| Start | heyday | Ending | ||
| Motor (Watson, classics of experimental psychology of memory, Loeb). memory-habit | The first months of life - the first associative reflex: feeding position | Primary school age: manual labor, skating, etc. | Puberty: does not progress | Already in the simplest (addictive) |
| Affective (Ribot). Memory of feelings | 6 months and before | Not known, but about 5 years | Not known | Yerkes: Earthworms were electrocuted if they crawled into the wrong tunnel in the Y-maze. Blonsky: affective memory |
| Figurative (Aristotle). memory-imagination | Stern: 6 months - 2 years | Early childhood: " creative thinking» - imagination | Eidetic images are greatly weakened after puberty | Higher milks. Some dogs "hunt" in their sleep |
| Verbal-logical (Jane). memory-story | Janet: starts at 3-4 years | Continues into adolescence | Not really known | Appears only in humans |
A. Brown A. L. Brown) defines metacognition as knowledge about one's own knowledge. She divided metacognition into two broad categories:
1. knowledge about cognition - a set of activities, including conscious reflection on cognitive actions and abilities;
2. regulation of cognition - a set of activities that require self-regulation mechanisms throughout learning or problem solving.
Metamemory - A person's knowledge of how his memory functions; for example, knowing that you need to repeat a series of numbers several times to keep them in memory.
12. The problem of improving memory. Mnemonics and summer techniques: types and examples of use. Phenomenal memory.
The problem of improving memory worries people from memory times (Aristotle, Cicero). J There are many factors that contribute to a good memory.
Firstly, this is the normal functioning of the brain and somatic systems (Þ you need to limit yourself in drinking alcohol, smoking and, conversely, “a healthy mind in a healthy body” + glucose for the brain).
Secondly, under the condition of functioning material(brain and body) must be specially tuned perfect(i.e. our mental functions). An example of artificial memory tuning is a mnemonic.
Mnemonics(= mnemonics) is a system of various techniques that facilitate memorization and increase the amount of memory by forming artificial associations. Types of mnemonics (Klacki, Solso):
· Place method (topological method, placement method). Yeats:
1. Identification of familiar places in sequence.
2. Creation of images of elements to be reproduced and associated with places.
3. Reproduction by "visiting" these places, serving as signs for the elements.
· Making up a story . You need to remember the number pi. Pr .: "You just have to try and remember everything as it is: three, fourteen, fifteen, ninety-two and six." What do I know about circles? “Whoever, jokingly and soon, desires to know pi, already knows the number.” “I know this and remember it perfectly: and many signs are superfluous to me, in vain.”
· « hanger words». Some words are learned using the rhyme method (“one is bun, two is shoe ...”), and the second list of words (milk, loaf) is “hung” on the first one. Ex: Milk is poured onto a bun, the shoe hits the loaf and breaks it in half.
· Keyword Method . Etc.: English word"vessel" (ship) → Russian word"oar"→image "ship with oars".
In general, the main thing is that all ways of improving should be together and at the same time not in a heap: for each situation there is its own heuristic method.
Summer technique is a system of techniques that facilitate forgetting (for example, for students: after the first exam, they must urgently forget the relevant material so that it does not interfere with preparation for another exam J). A classic example of summer technology is Sh's forgetting in Luria's study (see question 6-A).
MEMORY IS PHENOMENAL
(English phenomenal memory) - the ability of exceptionally fast memorization and accurate reproduction of a large amount of material, devoid of internal semantic connection ( individual words, numbers, dates, etc.). P. f. often observed in prominent people, while acting as a highly developed professional memory (musical - in W. Mozart, A. Glazunov, visual - in F. M. Dostoevsky, etc.). See Hypermnesia. (T. P. Zinchenko.)
HYPERMNESIA
(English) hypermnesia) - gain memory. G., as a rule, is innate in nature and consists in the ability to remember information (visual, symbolic) in a larger volume than normal and for the longest period. In some cases, the boundaries of volume and strength memorization install fails.
13. Memory and motivation: Comparative characteristics various approaches (associationism, psychoanalysis, Gestalt psychology, constructive and activity approaches).
I. Associationism.
II. Psychoanalysis. Freud (Psychopathology of Everyday Life) suggested that along with ordinary forgetting (time), there is also motivationally conditioned forgetting. We forget something when, in fact, we do not want remember him. According to Freud, memory content can be pushed into the unconscious(“forgotten”) for two reasons: 1) the memory carries a traumatic experience; 2) the content of the memory itself is neutral, but can be associated with other, traumatic content. Ex: Freud forgot to buy his favorite type of paper (fliesspapier) in the store three times. As a result of the analysis, he came to the conclusion that this word is also consonant with the name of a person unpleasant for him (Dr. Fliess) and therefore was supplanted and, as a result, forgotten.
III. Gestalt psychology.
great attention L.S. Vygotsky devoted to the study of eidetic memory as one of the stages in the development of human memory. This memory is characterized by the fact that the child can remember any picture accurately and for a sufficiently long time with the smallest details. This ability is called "eidetic memory". In human phylogeny, this stage in the development of memory can be correlated with the memory of primitive man. Natives, for example, can unmistakably recognize the trail of any animal known to them and determine in which direction it ran, and these people also perfectly remember the area (topographic memory). For Indians, for example, it is enough to see the landscape once in order to remember it in the smallest detail and not get lost there. Likewise “Livingston celebrates the outstanding memory of the natives of Africa. He observed it among the messengers of the leaders, who carry very long messages over vast distances and repeat them word for word” (L.S. Vygotsky, A.R. Luria). Accordingly, they do not have a written language. In the words of Engels: "man is used by memory, but does not dominate it", but rather it takes over him. “She prompts him with unreal fictions, imaginary images and constructions. It leads him to the creation of mythology, which is often an obstacle to the development of his experience, obscuring the objective picture of the world with subjective constructions ”(L.S. Vygotsky, A.R. Luria).
And, as soon as a person was able to "bridle" his memory, becoming its master and creating auxiliary means, he was able to move to a higher level of development. With the advent of writing and, a little earlier, a certain symbolism, the development of a more perfect memory began. Initially, mediation took place with the help of improvised means: notches on sticks or knots on clothes, but these simple techniques later became more sophisticated and complex, for example, quipu, used in ancient Peru, in Ancient China, Japan and some other countries . Quipu- these are messages made with the help of knots, which, tied in a certain sequence and in a special way, carry messages. With their help, before the invention of writing, people communicated, shared information and important news. It is the discovery of symbols as a way to simplify memorization that can be considered the evolution of memory. “Claude considers the mnemonic stage to be the first stage in the development of writing. Any sign or object is a means of mnemonic memorization” (L.S. Vygotsky, A.R. Luria).
Research that A.N. Leontiev cites in his article "Development higher forms memorization” are aimed at proving the development of memorization through the process of mediation.
A.N. Leontiev describes a number of experiments that were carried out on children from 4 to 13 years old and on students. Their essence was as follows: the subjects were dictated words, after the first series, the children simply had to repeat the words that were spoken, in the second and third series they were offered additional material - picture cards, the content of which did not coincide with the list of dictated words during these sessions.
While listening to a series of words, it was suggested to choose a card that, in his opinion, would help to remember a certain word: “When I say the word, look at the cards, choose and set aside a card that will help you remember the word” (A.N. Leontiev ).
After analyzing the results, several facts became apparent:
Firstly, the third series in children 4-5 years old differs very little from the second (the indicators of the third are slightly higher), but the next age group of children (6-7 years old) showed better results, which proves that fast development indirect, logical memory.
Secondly, children from 7 to 12 years old also showed good results, but the rate of development of their memory compared to the previous age group a little lower. The difference between the second and third series becomes less noticeable and, as it were, “smoothes out”.
The following conclusion can be drawn from this: preschool age the rate of development of memorization with the help of external means significantly exceeds the rate of development without the help of cards ”(A.N. Leontiev).
If we present these changes in a graphical form, then the graphical form will look like a parallelogram: “Both lines (the second and third series) of development are curves, two curves converging in the lower and upper limits” (A.N. Leontiev).
In general, this experiment shows how memory develops in the process of growing up, how it transforms from eidetic (discussed above) into logical using signs-symbols that simplify the process of remembering. “Before becoming internal, these stimuli-signs appear in the form of stimuli acting from outside. Only as a result of a peculiar process of their “growing” do they turn into internal signs, and thus from the originally direct memorization grows the highest, “logical” memory ”(A.N. Leontiev).
Memory is the highest mental function, which means a complex mental process that is formed in vivo, social in origin and consciously performed. The most important characteristic of the higher mental function is its mediation by various sign systems which are the result of the cultural and historical development of mankind. The higher mental function is a psychological system that is formed by building new formations over the old ones, while the old ones are preserved in the form of subordinate layers within the new whole.
The essential role of the development of mediated memorization in his works was noted by L.S. Vygotsky. He said that as a person developed mediated memorization, he could subordinate memory to his goals, control the course of memorization, and make it more and more volitional.
Mediated memory, as L.S. Vygotsky, is a reflection of more and more specific features of human consciousness. The problem of mediated memorization can lead to the problem of verbal memory, which plays a significant role in the life of a modern cultural person and which is based on memorizing a verbal record of events, their verbal formulation.
With the development of mediated memorization, not only the structure of the memory function itself can begin to change, but also the nature of the functions through which memorization occurs, as well as interfunctional relationships between memory and other functions.
“Memory at an early age is one of the central, basic mental functions, depending on which all other functions are built.” From Vygotsky's point of view, the child's thinking early age is largely determined by his memory, to think for him means to remember.
Thinking develops in direct dependence on memory, and in order to demonstrate this, L.S. Vygotsky gives an example of the development of concepts in children. (for example, define "snail"). At a certain stage, the child gives concise descriptions of memories of the subject; the logical structure of concepts is not important here. At this stage, recollection is important, the concreteness of children's thinking will manifest itself, from which a general concept of things follows, it is completely connected with memory, and cannot yet be of the nature of an abstraction.
The experience and the direct influence of the child's experience, which is contained in the memory, determine the structure of thinking in the early stages of development. “Not thinking, and in particular not abstract thinking, stands at the beginning of development, the defining moment is the memory of the child "
Activity Theory:
Memory is a special kind psychological activity, which includes a system of theoretical and practical actions subject to the solution of a mnemonic task - memorization, preservation and reproduction of various information. Here, the composition of mnemonic actions and operations is carefully studied, the dependence of memory productivity on the place in the structure of the goal and means of memorization (or reproduction), the comparative productivity of voluntary and involuntary memorization, depending on the organization of mnemonic activity.
In our country, this concept was further developed in the cultural-historical theory of the origin of higher mental functions. The stages of phylo- and ontogenetic development of memory, especially voluntary and involuntary, direct and mediated, were identified. According to the activity theory of memory, the formation of links-associations between different representations, as well as the memorization, storage and reproduction of material are explained by what a person does with this material in the process of its mnemonic processing.
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