General didactic goal:
create conditions for
The study and initial understanding of the block of the new educational information about periodization world history.
Application of the ZUN system in familiar, changed and new learning situations.
Triune didactic goal:
Educational aspect:
1. Shape
understanding the reasons that determine different approaches to the principles of periodization of world history;
holistic ideas about the history of human society.
2. Consider different points of view in historical science on the periodization of world history.
H. Compare differences of opinion on what was driving force world development and what was the main thing in it.
4. Find out under what changes in social development one can speak of the onset of a new stage in world history.
Development aspect: to promote the formation and development of basic social and subject competencies of students; development of the ability to consider events and phenomena of reality in motion from the past to the present and future.
Communicative: ability to work in a group mode; master the techniques of public speaking (monologue), express judgments (his opinion on the problem of periodization of world history).
Informational: Search necessary information in sources different type(textbook, reference material).
Technological:“fold” information into tables and diagrams
Educational and research: give a comparative description, definition of concepts, solve problematic tasks.
Social: solve educational and cognitive problems with the help of colleagues in the group.
reflective: assessment of the relevance and practical significance of the studied material.
Educational aspect: to promote the development of the horizons of students, an active life position.
Lesson type: a lesson in the study and primary consolidation of knowledge and methods of activity.
Lesson form: group work "Pinwheel".
Forms of organization cognitive activity:
Frontal (general class).
Group (mini-groups).
Teaching methods used in the lesson:
1. According to the source of knowledge:
verbal ( introduction teachers, group presentations).
Visual (tables, diagrams).
Practical (work with a textbook, reference material).
2. Depending on the characteristics of the cognitive activity of students:
Explanatory and illustrative (teacher's story)
Partially - search
Elements used in the course pedtechnologies:
CSR (collective way of learning).
Level differentiation.
During the lesson, we use pedagogical techniques:
"Associative Series"
Lesson structure:
I. Beginning of the lesson. Organizing time.
II. Stage of goal-setting and motivation.
III. The stage of organizing group cognitive activity
IV. The stage of primary assimilation of a block of new educational information (presentation by groups of the results of their work).
V. Stage of systematization 3UN
V I. stage of reflection.
V II. Homework instruction.
Terms and concepts introduced and analyzed in the lesson:
Updated:
Introduced:
Periodization of history
Primitiveness
Middle Ages
new time
The problem of periodization of history
Civilization approach
local civilization
Newest time
Equipment and visibility:
Additional materials for group work.
Visual material for a multimedia board:
Structural-logical diagram (template).
Scheme "Marxist concept of history"
Table "Stages of human development"
Scheme "General history (periodization)"
Portraits of scientists L. Morgan, J. Condorcet, A. Toynbee, K. Jaspers, K. Marx
Table "Periodization of history Russian Empire and general historical periodization"
Table "Periodization of the course of National History"
Table "Paradigms of historical science"
Table "Civilization approach"
Table "Formational approach"
During the classes
I . Beginning of the lesson. Organizing time(the lesson plan is displayed on the multimedia board:
1. The problem of periodization of world history.
2. Stages of human development
3.Periodization of recent history
II. Stage of goal-setting and motivation.
Teacher's word: We live in difficult times, this is a time of change. The exacerbation of certain problems that manifest themselves at such turning points in history encourages people to revisit the path they have traveled, to rethink it. Rediscovering the inseparable unity of the past and the present, humanity at every stage of its development seeks to gain confidence in the future through history. Today in the lesson we will get acquainted with different views on the periodization of world history, find out what causes these differences. The teacher, relying on the data in the table, briefly dwells on the paradigms of historical science, emphasizing that in more detail with scientific views students will learn about the historical process in this lesson.
Table Paradigms of Historical Science
Name
theories
Criteria
division
Basic concepts
and definitions
religious
The founder of the Christian concept is considered to be the Roman church
writer Eusebius Pamphilus, Bishop of Caesarea from 311. It was completed in the theological concept of the church father, Bishop Augustine (354-430), developed in his work “On the City of God”.
God's Providence
providentialism (from lat. providentia - providence), religious understanding of history as a manifestation
the will of God, the implementation of a predetermined divine plan for the "salvation" of man.
formational
Developed in the 40-60s. 19th century
K. Marx. It was developed in the works of V.I. Lenin
and in the works of Soviet historians and philosophers from the 1930s to the end of the 1980s.
Socio-economic
Socio-economic formation - a historical type of society, which is a certain stage in the progressive development of mankind, based on a certain mode of production with its own base and superstructure. (see table No. 5)
Civilizational
It was developed in the late XIX - early XX centuries.
N.Ya. Danilevsky, About Spengler,
A Toynbee
Socio-cultural
Civilization - there is no universal definition of civilization, each author, depending on the criteria, gives his own definition. There are signs of established civilizations: the duration of their existence, the coverage of vast territories, the spread to a huge number of people, and their uniqueness (originality).
Passionary
L.N. Gumilyov, formulated in 1939, but saw the light in the 70s. 20th century
The dynamics of the development of the ethnos
Ethnos is a group that has internal structure, which opposes itself to other similar groups and has common stereotypes of behavior. Passionarity (from passion - passion) - this is a high determination of individuals who are able, on the way to a real or illusory goal, to sacrifice their lives to achieve the goal and lead other people, infecting them with their enthusiasm.
III. Stage of organization of group cognitive activity.
Teacher:“We will be divided into 4 groups, each of which receives reference material and questions to it. The groups work with the materials they have received, answer questions, and prepare speakers for the class. Based on the results of the discussion, we will fill in together the comparative tables “Periodization of World History” and “Stages of Human Development”
IV. The stage of primary assimilation of a block of new educational information.
1. The problem of periodization of world history. Filling in the table "Periodization of world history"
Work on preparation for filling in the table "Periodization of World History". Tasks for groups:
Group 1 (reproductive level). The approach according to which the main stages of human history are distinguished according to the principle of changing the forms of economic activity and the development of material culture has received wide recognition. Such ideas were expressed by the French philosopher Jean Condorcet(1743-1794) and American historian and ethnographer Lewis Morgan(1818-1881). They divided history into the following eras: savagery (the period of gathering, hunting), barbarism (the predominance of agriculture, cattle breeding) and civilization (the development of writing and metal processing). This periodization was based on changes in the nature of tools. It was recognized by archaeologists when studying the early stages of human existence, which are divided into the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages.
Questions for group 1
1. What principle underlies the periodization of history according to L. Morgan and J. Condorcet? ( changes in the nature of tools)
2. What periods of world history are distinguished by J. Condorcet and L. Morgan? (period of savagery, barbarism and civilization)
3. Fill in the diagram "Periodization of history according to L. Morgan and J. Condorcet"
Group 2 (reproductive level)
Proponents of the theory of world civilizational development see three stages in it, separated by intermediate ones. transitional stages.
The first stage began around the 8th millennium BC.
And it was due to the Neolithic revolution, i.e. transition from gathering and hunting to agriculture, cattle breeding and handicraft production.
The second stage, which began in the middle of the 17th century, was marked by the formation of manufacturing production, when a system of division of labor was formed that made it more productive, conditions arose for the introduction of machines and the transition to the industrial stage of development.
The third stage began in the second half of the 20th century. and was due to the formation of a new type of society (it is most often called “post-industrial or informational”), when the nature of labor activity changed qualitatively with the introduction of computers, and a knowledge production industry arose.
Questions for group 2
1. What principle underlies the periodization of world history by supporters of the theory of world civilizational development? ( change in the nature of work)
2. What periods of world history are distinguished by them? ( Stage 1 - traditional society, stage 2 - industrial society, stage 3 - post-industrial or information society)
3. Fill in the chart "Periodization of history by supporters of civilizational development"
Group 3 (structural level)
Proponents of the perception of history as a change of local civilizations (antique; Greco-Byzantine, Islamic, Christian medieval Europe, etc.) measure historical eras by the duration of their existence, which ranges from several centuries to millennia. A. Toynbee believed that thirteen unique independent civilizations had changed in world history (he interpreted the rest as their offshoots).
German scientist Karl Jaspers(1883-1969), given that not all local civilizations left a noticeable mark on history, proposed to single out the "axial peoples", whose achievements affected the modern face of the world. Their development, according to Jaspers, determined the "axial time" of historical processes.
Within each local civilization, periods of formation, prosperity and decline were distinguished.
Questions for group 3
1. What principle underlies the periodization of history according to A. Toynbee and K. Jaspers? (change of local civilizations)
2. What is the difference between their points of view? (A. Toynbee singled out 30 unique independent civilizations, K Jaspers singled out “axial peoples” from local civilizations, the achievements of which affected the modern image of the world).
3. Make a diagram illustrating the periodization of history according to A. Toynbee and K. Jaspers . (World history development of local civilizations:
(ancient Greco-Byzantine Islamic Christian medieval Europe)
Group 4 (creative level)
According to Marxist (formational) theory, the history of mankind has five main eras, each of which is more progressive than the previous one.
Epoch primitive communal system characterized by an extremely low level of development of productive forces, when there was no private property yet, people were completely dependent on nature and could survive only on the condition of joint, collective labor and consumption. Transition to slave formation associated with the improvement of tools, the emergence of the possibility of producing a surplus product and its sole appropriation, the emergence of private property. At the same time, the owner-slave owner owned not only the land and means of labor, but also the workers themselves, the slaves, whom he perceived as “talking tools”.
feudal society distinguished partial personal dependence of workers on land owners - feudal lords. The peasants, who made up the bulk of the workers, had personal ownership of the tools of labor, could dispose of part of the product produced. This determined their interest in increasing labor productivity, which the slaves did not have.
Within the framework of the formation that Marxism defined as capitalist the worker is personally free. However, having no sources of livelihood, he is forced to sell his ability to work to the entrepreneur. The latter appropriates the unpaid part of the surplus product produced by the worker.
It was assumed that with the onset of the next communist formation, the withering away of private property and its replacement by public property will occur; a person will gain true freedom, will work exclusively for himself and the needs of society as a whole, he himself will become the master of his life.
Within the framework of each historically extended era in Marxist theory, periods of formation, flourishing and decline of the corresponding formations were distinguished.
Marxist concept of history
Warring classes
FD
RMATION
Stages of development
P O G R E S S
classless society
communist
Bourgeoisie
Proletariat
capitalist
Feudal lords Peasants
feudal
slave owners
Slaves
slaveholding
No classes
Primitive communal system
Primitive socio-economic formation
Slave-owning socio-economic formation
Feudal socio-economic formation
Capitalist socio-economic formation
Communist socio-economic formation
Appropriating type of economy (gathering, hunting), lack of private property, exploitation of classes and the state. social equality
Private ownership of the means of production; The economy is based on the forced labor of slaves. Main classes: slaves and slave owners. The main function of the state is to suppress the resistance of the exploited slave classes
Private ownership of the means of production, subsistence small-scale production based on the exploitation of economically and legally dependent peasants by feudal lords. Main classes: feudal lords, serfs. The main function of the state is to suppress the resistance of the exploited classes
The capitalist mode of production, based on the domination of commodity-money relations and industrial production, in which the owners of the means of production exploit wage workers. Main classes: bourgeoisie, proletariat, peasantry. The main function of the state is to suppress the resistance of the exploited classes.
Public ownership of the means of production, the absence of exploiting classes, the state.
Questions for group 4
1. What principle underlies the Marxist periodization of history? (property relations, mode of production, opposing classes)
2. What periods of world history are singled out by Marxists? (five OEF - primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist, communist)
Group presentations. Joint filling of the table "Periodization of world history".
№№ p/n
Who is the founder of the studied type of periodization of history
What is the basis of periodization
What periods of history stand out
Questions to the table: 1. Why do you think there is no unequivocal opinion among historians about the principles of periodization of history? (historians view the historical process from different points of view)
2. Is it possible to single out such criteria with the help of which a single periodization of world history would be possible? ( there are no universal criteria
3. What conclusion can be drawn about the need for different approaches to the periodization of history? ( the presence of different approaches to the periodization of world history makes it possible to more accurately comprehend history)
2. Stages of human development.
Teacher's word: The boundaries between epochs and their constituent "periods, as a rule, were determined by large, large-scale historical events who provided big influence to the life of the peoples. At first glance, it may seem that the supporters of different approaches to history should fundamentally diverge in its periodization, but in reality this does not happen. Disputes arise only on certain issues. The fact is that the time of change can be called differently - a change in formation, the collapse of a local civilization, the onset of a new phase of development. The essence of the described events does not change from this.
Each new period of historical development; As a rule, it implies a change in the forms of economic activity, "property relations and is associated with political upheavals, profound changes in spiritual culture.
world development-it is a process of constant changes in all spheres of life of societies, states, in their relations, in the interaction of peoples from natural environment their habitats. When these changes affect the appearance, if not the whole world, then the life of the majority of mankind, it is legitimate to speak of the onset of a new stage in world history. Sometimes it is associated with completely obvious events that directly affect many peoples. In other cases, the transition to a new stage is extended in time. Then a certain conditional date can be accepted as a foreign one.
It should be remembered that any periodization, if we are talking about the history of mankind as a whole, is to a certain extent conditional. The transition to a new era is not a one-time act, but a process extended in time and space. The crisis and decline of society can be combined with the formation in its depths of the sprouts of a new civilization. Changes happen at different times. This is how the formation of the industrial civilization of modern times went. For example, in the middle of the XIX century. some countries have already experienced an industrial revolution, others have only just gone beyond the limits of the estate system and manufactory production, in the third, elements of the old and new systems were combined in a bizarre way.
Work in groups with textbook material. Filling in the table "Stages of human development." Preparation of an answer to the question of what major changes prepared the transition from one stage of human development to another.
Teacher: Now you, working in your groups with the textbook material, will prepare the material for filling in the table “Stages of human development”. To do this, using the knowledge of the history of the Ancient World, the Middle Ages and the New Age, give an answer to the question of what major changes prepared the transition from one stage of human development to another. We analyze the following fragments of the textbook:
1 group from the primitive period to the Ancient world (page 30 of the textbook)
Group 2 from the civilizations of the Ancient World to the Middle Ages (pages 30-31 of the textbook)
Group 3 from the Middle Ages to the New Age (pp. 31-32)
4 group from New to Modern times. (p. 32-33)
Group presentations. The answer to the question, what are the main changes that prepared the transition from one stage of human development to another. Joint filling of the table "Stages of human development"
periodization
Chronology
Summary period
Primitiveness
Ancient world
Middle Ages
new time
recent history
3. Periodization of Recent History
Teacher's word. In order to have a complete picture of the stages of formation of our modern world we have to understand what happened in the world in the 20th century. Without this, we cannot further realize where humanity is heading, what problems may await us in the near future and in a time more distant from us. We can get the main answers to these questions by studying the period of history called the Newest Time. Next year we will begin to study this period of history in detail. And today we have to answer the questions: Why the periodization of modern times is one of the controversial issues. What changes in world social development can be associated with the onset of a new stage?
Independent work of groups with a textbook in preparation for answering questions posed by the teacher
V. The stage of fixing the ZUN system
Teacher: Finishing the lesson and summing up, I would like you to remember :
1. What approaches to the periodization of world history existed in historical science?
2. Why any periodization of the historical process is conditional. Under what changes in social development is it legitimate to speak of the onset of a new stage in world history? (the answers of each group are summarized by the teacher after the end of the discussion)
VI . Reflection stage.(Front work with the class).
1. Teacher: Tables are shown on the multimedia board and a task is given for each, carefully read the tables and answer the question
1 Table "Periodization of the history of Russian history and general historical periodization of world history"
Europe
Russia
Primitive communal system
Primitive society appeared about 40 thousand years ago with the advent of Homo sapiens and the formation of tribal communities and existed before the formation of the first city-states at the end of the 6th millennium BC. in Mesopotamia (Asia). preliterate type of culture.
Primitive communal system
(40 thousand BC - the end of the 4th millennium BC)
There is no information about the existence of Slavic tribes during this period.
Ancient world
(The end of the 4th millennium BC - the end of the 5th century AD)
From the emergence of the first city-states in Mesopotamia to the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476).
slave system. Form of government: eastern despotism, empire, republic.
The emergence of a written type of culture.
Ancient world.
II millennium BC Slavic tribes stand out from the Indo-European language family and by the 5th century. AD the settlement of the Slavs along the Dnieper begins.
Primitive communal system
Middle Ages
5th century AD - ser. 17th century
feudal system. The predominant form of government in Europe is monarchy(all types).
Religious nature of culture .
Middle Ages
5th century AD – IX century. AD - the decomposition of the primitive communal system, military democracy., the folding of the prerequisites for education th states of the Eastern Slavs
IX AD – 17th century feudal system. Forms of government: monarchy(all types), boyar republic.
Religious nature of culture .
new time
(Mid. XVII - early XX century.)
Spreading capitalist relations relations. Industrial revolutions, the formation of industrial societies.
Various forms of government monarchy, limited monarchy, republic).
Secular culture.
new time
(Mid. XVII - early XX century.)
domination feudal-serf relations to ser. XIX century. Origin capitalist relations, their rapid development in industry after the abolition of serfdom in 1861 Industrial Revolution. Preservation of feudal vestiges.
Forms of government: absolute monarchy, Duma monarchy (1906-1917).
The origin and establishment of secular principles in culture, the split of culture into noble and folk culture in the first quarter of the 18th century.
Newest time
(Beginning of the 20th century - beginning of the 21st century)
The variety of ways of development of the economy, politics and culture, the formation of the information society.
Newest time
(Beginning of the 20th century - beginning of the 21st century)
An attempt to build a socialist society, the design of the Soviet republic.
The dominance of "socialist culture".
The collapse of the USSR (1991).
Return to market relations, the establishment of a multi-party system, the formation of a presidential republic.
The spread of Western trends in culture.
Question to the table, how can one explain the dissimilarity of the chronological framework of the same periodization of the history of Russia and the history of Western Europe.
2 Table. __________________ an approach
Definition of civilization
G. Morgan
_____________ is a certain stage in the development of society following savagery and barbarism
N.Ya. Danilevsky
_____________ is the history of the development of an independent, local and unique cultural-historical type
O. Spengler
_____________ is the sunset (falling phase) of the development of mutually permeable and individual cultures, characterized by "ossification", the flourishing of technology, metropolitan cities, the emergence of a mass, technology-oriented culture.
A. Toynbee
____________ is a closed local state of society, characterized by a peculiarity of cultural, religious and geographical features.
Task Insert the missing word in the table and name the approach to periodization of history
3 Table. Periodization of the course national history
Period name
Chronological framework
Characteristic
The second half of the X - the first third of the XII century.
The period of the emergence, formation and development of a single state among the Eastern Slavs in the form of an early feudal monarchy
Russian lands during the period of political fragmentation and the Mongol-Tatar invasion
The second half of the 12th century - the middle of the 13th century.
The period of existence of independent appanages in Russia with various forms of political structure from a feudal monarchy to a feudal republic.
Establishment of the Horde yoke over the northeastern and northwestern Russian lands; entry of the southwestern lands into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia.
Formation and development of the Moscow state
XIV - XV II centuries.
The period of formation of the Moscow centralized state and estate-representative monarchy
the Russian Empire
XVIII - early XX centuries.
Period of absolute monarchy.
Russian Empire during the period of transition to a limited monarchy
1906-1917
Registration in Russia of a limited (Duma) monarchy
Russia
during the period of the bourgeois-democratic republic
February-October 1917
The overthrow of the autocracy, the establishment of a republican form of government
Formation and existence of the Soviet state.
1918-1991
1) 1918–until the end of the 1920s
1) Creation of a new state system (the state of the dictatorship of the proletariat). Formation of a federal union state.
2) 1930-ser. 50s
2) The establishment of a totalitarian state, the merging of state and party apparatuses.
3) ser. 50s - ser. 80s
3) Weakening of control over society. Preservation of the leading role of the CPSU in the state.
4) 1985-1991
4) An attempt to reform the Soviet system within the framework of the socialist system. Formation of a multi-party parliament.
Formation
Russian Federation
1991-2005
Registration of a presidential republic based on the principle of separation of powers.
Question to the table: What principle underlies the periodization of the course of National History.
2. Teacher: Name the chain of association words that arise when the concept of modern times is mentioned.
3. Teacher:. Answer the questions
What do you know about the 20th century? What else would you like to know about it?
VI I . Homework instruction
Homework . Name approaches to the periodization of history, give them short description(reproductive level)
Prepare reports on thinkers who proposed their own theories of historical development, and their views (constructive level).
Compose a text for classmates with errors on the content of the lesson (creative level)
The periodization of the history of Russia contains such time periods of the development of the country that differ from each other by political, economic, social, cultural and other fundamental criteria.
initial periodization. Dozens of periodizations of the history of Russia are known. Let us take for example those proposed by the patriarchs of Russian history: N.M. Karamzin (main work "History of the Russian State"), S.M. Solovyov (the main work "History of Russia since ancient times), V.O. Klyuchevsky (main work "Course of Russian History").
N.M. Karamzin distinguishes three periods in the history of Russia (Table 1):
Table 1
As you can see, N.M. Karamzin laid down the concept: "The history of the people belongs to the tsar."
CM. Solovyov identified four periods in Russian history (Table 2):
table 2
|
Period |
Nominal or chronological framework | ||
|
From Rurik to Andrey Bogolyubsky |
period of tribal domination relations in political |
||
|
From Andrey Bogolyubsky before early XVII in. |
Period of ancestral struggle and state principles, complete triumph state beginning |
||
|
a) from Andrei Bogolyubsky to Ivan Kalita |
The beginning of the struggle of tribal and public relations |
||
|
b) from Ivan Kalita to |
Time for the unification of Russia around Moscow |
||
|
c) from Ivan III to the beginning |
The period of struggle for complete triumph of the state |
||
|
From the beginning of the XVII to mid-eighteenth centuries |
Entry period Russia into the system European states |
||
|
From the middle of the XVIII to the reforms of the 60s of the XIX centuries. |
New period of Russian |
Periodization S.M. Solovyov reflects, first of all, the history of statehood.
IN. Klyuchevsky also distinguished four periods in the history of Russia (Table 3):
Table 3
|
period |
Chronological framework | |
|
From the 7th to the 13th century |
Russia Dnieper, urban, commercial |
|
|
From the thirteenth to the middle of the fifteenth century. |
Russia Upper Volga, specific princely, free agricultural |
|
|
From the middle of the 15th century to the second decade of the 17th century. |
Great Russia, Moscow, royal boyar, military-agricultural |
|
|
From the beginning of the XVII to half of XIX in. |
All-Russian period imperial nobility, serf period economy, agricultural and factory |
The basis of the periodization of the historical development of Russia V.O. Klyuchevsky put to a greater extent the economy of the uvestadial development, focusing considerable attention on the factor of colonization.
Meanwhile, we believe that the periodization of N.M. Karamzin, S.M. Solovieva, V.O. Klyuchevsky were acceptable for their time (the level of scientific development of historiography and source studies), today it is enough to know them, and not use them as the basis for teaching a university course in history - too much time has passed since then.
The time of obvious active searches for the periodization of history was the end of the 19th and 20th centuries. At the same time, the first period of development of the Russian state has always caused the greatest controversy.
In textbooks of pre-revolutionary (D.I. Ilovaisky and others) and post-revolutionary (M.V. Nechkina and A.V. Fadeeva, B.A. Rybakov and others), including the latest (late 90s. XX century - A. N. Sakharova and V. I. Buganova, Sh. M. Munchaeva and V. M. Ustinova, etc.), it is easy to see that, for example, the concepts Kievan Rus and Novgorod are used either sporadically or not at all. It must be assumed that the textbooks reflect various conceptions of the origin of Russia. There are many of them, but in modern conditions the Norman, Kyiv and the theory of the heterogeneous origin of the Russian and Ukrainian peoples are the most common (at the same time, we do not accept the "theories" of Fomenko, Koder, Kondyba and Zolin with their "exotic" concepts of the history of Russia, far from scientific justification and frankly Russophobic-falsified). In textbooks, the Norman, or "Kyiv" version of the origin of Russia is most often considered.
According to the "Kiev" concept, Kyiv and only Kyiv is the starting point of Russian statehood. At the same time, Novgorod is not given any role, Vladimir and Moscow are considered a continuation of the development of Kievan Rus.
The Norman theory to a certain extent confirms the Novgorod beginning of Russia, but at the same time, it seems to infringe on the pride of the Russians: after all, according to the annals, the Varangians began to reign in the Novgorod land - the brothers Rurik (in Novgorod), Sineus (in Beloozero) and Truvor (in Izborsk). one
And if these lands are considered the fundamental foundation of the Russian state, then such an assumption, as it were, strengthens the Norman theory. Proceeding from this, apparently, the emphasis was placed on the "Kievan Rus", as the only beginning of the Russian state.
I would like to give some considerations regarding the Norman roots of Russian statehood. Of the three princes mentioned in the annals (PVL), only Rurik, as proved, was a real person. As for Sineus and Truvor, their appearance on the historical stage, according to A.M. Kuznetsov, is nothing but a "curiosity of historiography". Academician B.A. Rybakov in his work “The Initial Ages of Russian History” writes: “Historians have long paid attention to the anecdotal nature of Rurik’s “brothers” ..., “brothers” turned out to be a Russian translation of Swedish words. It is said about Rurik that he came “from his birth” (“Sineuse” - “his relatives” - Sineus) and a faithful squad (“Truwar” - “faithful squad” - Truvor) ... In other words, a retelling of some the Scandinavian legend about the activities of Rurik (the author of the chronicle, a Novgorodian who did not know Swedish well, took the mention in oral care (presentation - I.P.) of the traditional environment of the king for the names of his brothers). The reliability of the legend as a whole ... is not great. 2
Regarding the beginning of Russian statehood, we will make the following assumption. Many detachments (teams) of the Varangians (Normans, Scandinavians) rushed (for various reasons, in our opinion, the main one was material and economic) to the West, South and East for robberies, seizure of land, with the aim of settling on them, etc. One of these detachments, led by the military leader Rurik, who was looking for land for robberies, ended up in Novgorod land, and for a short time captured Novgorod, becoming its ruler (according to another version, the Ilmen Slavs called him to reign along with the “brothers” Sineus and Truvor in Novgorod; the fact of inviting the Varangians to reign in the Russian land has not been established). Meanwhile, soon the Varangians were expelled from Novgorod. N.M. Karamzin writes: “Slavic boyars (led by an elder, Prince Gostomysl - I.P.), dissatisfied with the power of the conquerors, which destroyed their own ..., armed (Novgorodians - I.P.) against the Normans, and drove them out ... ". 3 Consequently, in Novgorod there was a princely power headed by Prince Gostomysl (the first half of the 9th century). Moreover, in the “Life of St. Stephen of Surozh”, who was for a long time an archbishop in the Byzantine colony in the Crimea in the city of Surozh (present-day Sudak) and died in 787, the Novgorod prince Bravlin is told: “The warlike and strong prince of Russian Novgorod ... Bravlin ... with a large army, he devastated places from Korsun to Kerch, approached Surozh with great force ... broke the iron gates, entered the city ... ". 4 And thus, "Life ..." testifies that Novgorod already existed in the 8th century. and Bravlin reigned in it. Since the reign of Bravlin (the second half of the 8th century) and Gostomysl (the first half of the 9th century) already implies statehood, we believe the beginning of Russia as a state formation in the second half of the 8th century. (Novgorod), and not the end of the 9th century. (associated with the "calling" of the Varangians to reign in Kyiv.) It can be assumed that on this basis A.T. Stepanishchev considers Novgorod the first capital of the Old Russian state and therefore the "Norman theory" of origin Russian state untenable from his point of view. Taking into account the reasoning of A.T. Stepanishchev about Novgorod - the first capital of the Old Russian state - the periodization of the last two centuries of the first millennium and the first three centuries of the second millennium could have the following specific form - coinciding with the time of the transfer of the capital of the Russian lands: Novgorod period - up to 882 G.; Kyiv period - until 1157; Vladimir-Suzdal period - until 1326; Moscow period - after 1326 5
To a certain extent, one could agree with the reasoning of A. T. Stepanishchev. But still, I would like to clarify the position regarding the "first capital" and the beginning of Russian statehood. According to the research of Acad. B.A. Rybakov "... who in Kyiv began first of the princes ...", he refers to the VI century. (the reign of the Byzantine emperor Justinian (527-565), which is also dated by Byzantine coins). In all likelihood, it was at this time that several forest-steppe Slavic tribes merged into one large union. The union of the Middle Dnieper Slavic tribes was called Rus (primacy in the new union, one might think, originally belonged to the Rus, but Polyansky Kyiv became the capital). At the turn of the VIII-IX centuries. there is a development of the Dnieper union into a superunion, uniting several unions of Slavic tribes. Such an association was already a real state or was becoming one. This is another evidence of the failure of the "Norman theory" of the origin of the Russian state.
In our opinion, Novgorod statehood was already taking shape at the beginning of the 8th century, in the form of an early feudal republic, administratively divided into quintuples, headed by elected government bodies - the posadnik, the thousand and the veche - which exercised direct democracy (people's rule) and survived until the end of the 15th century. - early 16th century Kyiv statehood began to take shape in the 9th century, in the form of an early feudal monarchy, administratively and territorially divided into volosts and destinies, with the Grand Duke and the feudal assembly of the nobility at the head. It can be assumed that two centers with different types (republic and monarchy) of Russian statehood were formed. The interaction of these two centers, as well as international interaction with other states (Novgorod with the Hanseatic League, the Scandinavian countries, etc.; Kyiv with Byzantium, Western European countries, etc.) formed the Old Russian state (the specifics of Novgorod statehood persisted until the 15th and even until the 18th centuries). 6
After 1917, the Norman theory became unacceptable for Soviet historiography and source studies for political, ideological and patriotic reasons. Therefore, along with the Norman theory, Novgorod was also pushed aside as part of it. At the same time, the concept of "Kievan Rus" was not particularly advertised, and the development of the theory and heterogeneity of the origin of Russia and Ukraine was held back.
Another topical moment in the development of the periodization of the history of Russia is the abolition of serfdom as the main milestone in the transition from feudalism to capitalism. Many authors argue that the Manifesto of February 19, 1861 gave practically nothing to Russia and the situation of the peasants worsened even more, etc., although they note this act as a turning point in the movement towards capitalism. There are also supporters of another concept, who propose to consider the bourgeois-democratic revolution of 1905-1907 as the beginning of the development of capitalism in Russia. and the subsequent Stolypin agrarian reform. In addition, parliamentarism as a sign of bourgeoisness was born precisely in these years. There is something to think about here, since Stolypin's agrarian reform also did little for Russia, it even provoked protests from the peasantry, which went as far as clashes with the police.
Along with the uncertainty of certain provisions of the periodization of the history of Russia until October 1917, there are difficulties in assessing the time from 1917 to 1991, etc. Based on the analysis of the concepts of many modern historians, it is possible to propose the use of the following periodization in the university course of Russian history (Table 4):
Table 4
|
Chronological framework | ||
|
From the turn of the 7th-9th centuries. until the 13th century |
Education and becoming Old Russian states |
|
|
From the 13th century until the middle of the fifteenth century. |
Specific fragmentation |
|
|
15th - 18th centuries |
Russian unification principalities into one centralized state, extension Russian lands |
|
|
18th - early 20th centuries |
The Russian Empire |
|
|
Late 10s - late 80s of XX century. |
Soviet state |
|
|
Since the beginning of the 90s. |
New Russia (provisional name) |
It should be noted that this periodization of the history of Russia is not indisputable, but it incorporates a variety of points of view of different authors and specialists. In educational and teaching work, one should also consider the re-odization given in the textbooks that students work on.
2. General periodization of world history
|
Primitive society (40 thousand years ago - 4-3 thousand BC) |
the time of pre-civilized, pre-state existence of mankind |
|
Ancient world (4-3 thousand BC - V century AD) |
the time of formation of the main types of development: eastern and western |
|
Middle Ages |
Arab-Muslim civilization formed in the Near and Middle East in Asia - Chinese-Confucian and Indian civilizations; on the European continent, East European and West European civilizations were formed |
|
new time (XVI-50s of XX centuries) |
approval of the capitalist mode of production, market economy, liberal political views, a rational secular picture of the world, the priority of science, religious tolerance, mass culture |
|
Newest time (since the 60s of the twentieth century) |
the formation of the information society, the collapse colonial system, exacerbation of global problems of our time (depletion of resources, the North-South problem, the growth of Islamic extremism, the environmental issue) |
3. The problem of the place and role of Russia in world history
There is no consensus in historical science regarding place of Russia in world history. Everyone who seeks to answer this question, to correlate Russia with other societies, to determine the civilizational affiliation of our fatherland, faces many problems.
Supporters Western concepts argue that our country is developing in the same way as the West (Europe), but lagged behind on this path, which resulted in its historical originality. Therefore, Russia needs modernization and Westernization (Europeanization).
Westernization is a variant development echelons concept. It is believed that all peoples and states go through the same historical periods, but countries of different echelons - at different times. Criteria for selecting countries of the first, second, third and other echelons - level of economic development at any given moment in history. Russia, within the framework of this concept, belongs to the countries of the second echelon.
According to modernization theory, For one reason or another, Russia periodically lags behind Western countries, and there is a need for a quick leap forward - modernization, which can be more or less comprehensive, more or less successful. In the history of Russia allocate Peter's modernization (reforms of the first quarter of the 18th century), Alexandrovskaya(reforms of the middle of the XIX century), Stolypin(reforms of the beginning of the 20th century), Stalinist(industrialization of the 30s of the XX century) and Yeltsin(reforms at the end of the 20th century). The West acts as a model in all cases.
Modern Western historians, supporters of a civilizational approach to history consider Russia as an organic part of Western (European) civilization. At the same time, given the fact that Western Europe and the United States are currently the civilizational center of the Western world, Russia, as well as the countries of Eastern Europe, is assigned the role of a periphery. Within the framework of this version, the concept of Russia has all the same features as the civilizational center, but in a "weakened" form. Critics of this point of view argue, not without reason, that Russia itself is a civilizational center - an area of attraction for other states and peoples.
There is a theory that proposes to classify Russia as an Eastern type of society. It assumes that all attempts to transfer the country to the Western path of development (the adoption of Christianity, the reforms of Peter I, etc.) were unsuccessful. After the Bolsheviks came to power, the country turned into a typical Eastern despotism headed by a tyrant - the party leader.
The modern version of this view is Russia concept as an Asian-European state, that is, originally an eastern society, striving during periods of weakening external regulators of behavior due to the decline of power to free itself from everything western as superficial and alien to the broad masses of the country's population.
No less influential than Westernism is approach that affirms the identity of Russia. The first theory of this type can be considered the concept created in the 15th century by the elder Philotheus and called " Moscow is the third Rome. According to its author, Russia is the only fair state in the world that brings the light of truth - the Orthodox religion - to other peoples. The uniqueness of Russia is associated with continuity in relation to the disappeared state - Byzantium. The ideological heirs of the views of Philotheus were Slavophilism and Eurasianism.
Slavophile concept history of Russia arose at the turn of the 30s and 40s of the XIX century. According to its creators, Russia initially developed in an original way, but the reforms of Peter I disrupted the natural course of history, introducing European forms of life organization into Russia. It is impossible to return to the past, it is impossible to forget what has been acquired, and now it is no longer necessary. It is necessary to carry out a synthesis of all the best that was in pre-Petrine Russia (freedom of the peasants, loyalty to Orthodoxy, the power of the tsar, based on the opinion of the people, expressed at the Zemsky Sobors) and what was borrowed from the West. This synthesis will mean a newfound identity for the country. Thus, in the history of Russia, the Slavophils saw uniqueness and Western influence, moreover, they identified and described the original features, but did not correlate them with the features of the East or West, seeing in them an indivisible integrity.
Eurasians differently approached the Russian identity. According to them concepts Russia is a special Eurasian world(in the modern version of the supporters of the civilizational approach - the Eurasian civilization), which was the result of a synthesis of Eastern and Western influences. This is a "complex historical formation", "a special historical world", which includes the cultures of Europe and Asia. The specificity of Eurasia-Russia, its role as a spiritual stronghold, opposing the "world evil", is connected, first of all, with Orthodoxy. It is thanks to Orthodoxy as the only true, universal and at the same time individualized religion, as well as national identity as a synthesis of the cultures of Europe and Asia, that Eurasia-Russia will be able to play a messianic role in history, to involve Europe in its Eurasian world. In the conditions of the crisis of the West, Russia was capable, the Eurasians believed, of offering the world an alternative path of development and leading it along. This theory took shape in the 20-30s of the 20th century among Russian emigrants. When the crisis of liberalism in the West was overcome, interest in Eurasianism fell.
Supporters of the civilizational approach, who share ideas about non-Westernness, the identity of Russia, either they see it as the center of Orthodox civilization, or single out a special Russian civilization. Among the adherents of both concepts there are historians and culturologists who classify Russian or Orthodox civilization as borderline, that is, they see in it a combination of Eastern and Western principles. Other adherents of these concepts do not consider it necessary to correlate the characteristics of the Orthodox or Russian civilization with the characteristics of other countries and peoples.
The concept of Orthodox (Eastern Christian) civilization unites Russia with Ukraine, Belarus, Serbia, Montenegro, Moldova, Romania, Georgia and Armenia on a confessional and territorial basis. The shortcomings of the concept are determined by the fact that a little less than 20% of the country's population are not carriers of the mentality formed by Orthodoxy, but profess religions such as Islam, Buddhism and paganism.
The concept of Russia as an independent (Russian) civilization is directed mainly against the attribution of our fatherland to the periphery of the Western world, since its supporters emphasize the obvious fact for them that Russia is a center of civilization. On the other hand, the singling out of Russian civilization as one of the world civilizations at the level of generalization of a high order, that is, not along with French, Portuguese, Vietnamese, Iranian, etc., but on a par with Western, Islamic, Confucian, Indo-Buddhist and other major world civilizations, which include entire regions, is based on the size of the country and its multinational composition, forming a kind of supranational cultural and historical unity. The concept emphasizes the integrity and significance of Russia, but, identifying one of the world civilizations with the borders of the Russian state, this point of view asserts that all other countries and peoples are part of other civilizations, and Russia is not a natural center of gravity for anyone, which does not correspond to the historical the past of the country.
There is an opinion that Russia is a civilizationally heterogeneous society, a community of peoples belonging to different types of development. At the sharp turns of history, it shifts now closer to the West, then closer to the East. Therefore, throughout history, Russia has been especially acutely faced with the problem of choosing a path community development. This concept is one of the few that take into account the multinationality and multi-confessional nature of Russia, the diversity of forms of organizing the life of the peoples inhabiting its vast territory. Moreover, it is this factor that plays a decisive role in determining the uniqueness of the historical path of Russia.
There is a concept that proposes to consider Russia as one of the societies belonging to the mixed type of historical development. The eastern type of development was superimposed on the original western one, as a result of which, in many respects, a mechanical combination of eastern and western principles of development took place, and in part - their synthesis. The approach of Russian society either to Eastern or Western models is explained by the lack of organic unity of heterogeneous elements. Attributing Russia to a certain type of historical development seems constructive, since it refutes the opinion that our country is an exception to all the rules. At the same time, this point of view does not take into account the fact that Russia is multinational.
Output: although the problem of the historical and cultural identification of Russia is complex, the specifics of its historical path fairly well studied. It is determined by the following factors (see table)
|
natural and geopolitical components: geographical landscape, climate, population, territory of the state and its position among neighboring countries. The vast territory, the wide possibility of migration of the population determined to a large extent both the nature of our statehood and the peculiarities of socio-economic processes. The people had to expend enormous efforts to develop new lands, and the state sought, as it grew, to consolidate the population in certain territories. The natural openness of the borders, their insecurity led to invasions, raids on our lands, both from the East and the West. The constant threat of military invasions required colossal efforts to ensure the country's security, huge material costs, as well as significant human resources. For a long time, Russia was cut off from the seas and maritime trade, and it had to wage intense bloody wars for centuries in order to break through to the seas. The harsh continental climate of the country sharply reduced the cycle of agricultural work. Low productivity, the dependence of labor results on weather conditions, led to the extreme stability of communal institutions in Russia, which are the guarantor of the survival of the bulk of the rural population. The natural and climatic factor contributed to the extensive nature of agriculture. |
||
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ethnonational The factor of multinationality contributed to the mutual enrichment of the cultures of the peoples inhabiting Russia, contributed to the formation of a unique form of national community of the numerous peoples of Russia |
Religious Orthodoxy laid the foundations of the mentality, i.e. systems of spiritual values and moral guidelines, world outlook and social psychology of the people. |
social state The assertion of collectivist forms of social life and the collectivist type of thinking of the Russian people (this helped to survive in difficult, sometimes extreme conditions) determined the enormous role of the state in the history of Russia. Unlike Western countries, it was in a strong state that people saw the main condition for preserving their historical existence. Personality, state, society were not isolated, as in the West, but interconnected. |
« Who is good to live in Russia? "(N. Nekrasov, prod. "Who is it good to live in Russia?")
« Russia, where are you going? ? (N.V. Gogol, prod. "Dead Souls")
- « Who is guilty? "(A. I. Herzen, prod. "Who is to blame?")
- « What to do? "(I. G. Chernyshevsky, prod. "What to do")
« Who to be? » (V.V. Mayakovsky, prod. “Who to be?”)
Periodization of the history of Russia
Traditionally countdown Russian history conducted with 862 when the Varangians from Scandinavia came to Russia and became princes of the Russian lands. Russian civilization is relatively young.
The history of Russia can be divided into 5 cycles:
9th-13th centuries
The heyday was reached under Yaroslav the Wise in the 12th century, when Kievan Rus became one of the leaders medieval society. The cycle ended as a result of the feudal fragmentation of the state and the Tatar-Mongol invasion.
14th c. - early 17th century
The center of the country was moved to Moscow, formed Moscow state. The cycle reached its peak under Ivan III and ended in a national catastrophe in Time of Troubles.
Early 17th century - early 20th century
The third cycle began with the accession of the Romanov dynasty and reached its peak in the reign of Peter I and Catherine II. the Russian Empire became a world power. However, then conservative tendencies prevailed, there was a delay in the transition to an industrial society (almost a century compared to Europe). The completion of this cycle is a series of national catastrophes: defeat in the war with Japan, in World War I, the collapse of the Russian Empire and civil war.
20 20 c. – 1991
The Russian Bolsheviks with difficulty and methods of violence again gathered most collapsed empire under the authority of a single center. A local civilization is reborn again, but for the first time not under the flag of Orthodoxy, but of socialism. Soviet Union became a superpower. This cycle ended with economic and geopolitical weakening, internal national problems and then the collapse of the USSR.
Many people think that in the 20th century. the natural course of Russian history was interrupted by a catastrophe. Tens of millions of people died at the hands of fellow citizens and with their consent. There was a sharp degradation of morals and culture. Sometimes this situation is compared with the death of classical ancient culture.
Since 1991
Rejecting the socialist ideology and overcoming the economic crisis of the 1990s, the Russian Federation looking for a way to a better future.
(Based on the book by Kononenko, B.I.: Culture. Civilization. Russia.)
Features of Russian history
Several times in the thousand-year history of Russia, a radical socio-political and economic transformation took place (the era of the reign of Peter I, socialism, the reforms of the 90s of the 20th century).
Several times the country entered a dead end (Time of Troubles, socialism). The population often had to experience disasters. There were wars and famines.
However, against the tragic background of the history of Russia, a high culture arose, stages of upsurges of spirituality were observed, and world successes in science were achieved.
East-West
In Russian history, the eastern and western phases alternate. Russians see their country as largely Asian, which needs to be civilized along the European path.
Western historians see in Russia rather a type of Eastern society (the person rules, not the law; power is concentrated in the hands of one person; there is no understanding of the individual as an absolute value).
However, Russian civilization can generally be considered hybrid: it includes elements of Europeanism and Asianism.
Eastern Slavs and Kievan Rus
East Slavs
In the 6th-8th centuries. in the process of the final stage Great Migration different tribes of the Eastern Slavs (for example, Vyatichi, Drevlyans, Krivichi, etc.) settled in a vast area from the Middle Dnieper in the south to Lake Ladoga in the north, from the Western Bug in the west to the Volga in the east.
Although the conditions for the effective development of agriculture in these areas were unsuitable due to the harsh climate (the fertile southern steppe regions were occupied by nomadic tribes - Polovtsy, Pechenegs, Turks, Khazars, etc.), the Eastern Slavs were mainly engaged in agriculture, as well as hunting, fishing and cattle breeding. Traded in honey, wax, furs.
At the head of the East Slavic communities were princes with retinues. Their residences were fortified settlements - castles.
The religion of the Eastern Slavs was paganism - they revered natural gods (Perun - the main god, the god of thunder and lightning, Radegast - the god of the sun).
Rus and Kievan Rus
The north-south water trade route passed along the rivers Dnieper and Volkhov "from the Varangians to the Greeks". This route was chosen by the Varangians, the northern tribe of Scandinavians (Vikings) for trade with Byzantium. On it arose big cities – Novgorod And Kyiv.
In 862, the Varangians created the earliest union of East Slavic lands in Novgorod - Rus, later called Kievan Rus.
The Varangians left traces in the Russian language - for example, the name Vladimir = Waldemar, Olga = Helga. The word "Rus" probably comes from the Finnish "Ruotsi", which, according to one hypothesis, was the name of the tribes of the Eastern Slavs.
The first ruler of Russia is the Varangian prince (Hrörekr, Roderick) who came to Novgorod. The founder of the first dynasty of Russian rulers - Rurikovich. Under Rurik's heir, prince Oleg, Kyiv was annexed to his lands, which became the capital of the principality.
In 988 under the prince Vladimir Orthodox Christianity was adopted, borrowed from Byzantium. A sculpture of the pagan god Perun was thrown into the Dnieper River in Kyiv.
After baptism, Slavic writing, created in the 9th century, penetrates into Russia. Cyril and Methodius.
Kievan Rus developed intensive trade and cultural ties with Byzantium. Byzantine civilization left many traces in Russian society.
Peaks reach Kievan Rus in the middle of the 11th century. at Yaroslav the Wise. At that time, it was part of the advanced European states, and its rich diplomatic and trade ties with Europe were strengthened. Yaroslav's sons married European princesses, daughters married European kings.
Under Yaroslav, the first code of laws was adopted Ancient Russia – Russian Truth
.
In 1125, with the end of the reign Vladimir Monomakh, Kievan Rus broke up into separate principalities.
The first written monument testifying to the early history of Russia is the chronicle Tale of Bygone Years , created by monks in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra.
On the initial stage development of Russia played important role geographical position at the crossroads of Eurasian trade and migration routes. The history of that time is an almost continuous struggle between settled (mainly Slavic) and nomadic (mainly Asian) peoples. Kievan Rus blocked the way to the west for the hordes of nomads. There is a myth about Russia as a "shield of Europe".
Period of feudal fragmentation
After the collapse of Kievan Rus, a system of separate, actually independent principalities was formed. They developed around the large cities of Kievan Rus. The most significant: Novgorod, Vladimir-Suzdal, Smolensk, Chernigov, later Tverskoe.
Novgorod land
Novgorod was the most developed, the largest trading center. He had his own money, laws, army, management system ("boyar republic"). The most valuable architectural monuments arose here.
The famous prince was from Novgorod Alexander Nevskiy, who twice defended the land from enemies - from the Swedes (battle on the Neva River, 1240) and the Teutonic Knights (Battle on the Ice on Lake Peipsi, 1242).
Mongol-Tatar yoke
At the beginning of the 13th c. a large army of new nomads led by Genghis Khan approached the southeastern borders of Russia.
In 1237, in the lower reaches of the Volga River, an alliance of Mongol tribes was founded Golden Horde. From here the Mongols invaded Russian lands, took Ryazan, Vladimir, Moscow, and ravaged Kyiv. From Russia, the Mongol troops began a campaign in Central Europe.
For 240 years, the Russian lands were practically a protectorate of the Mongol Empire and paid an annual tribute to it.
In 1380 the Moscow prince Dmitry Donskoy defeated the Tatars battle on the Kulikovo field and marked the beginning of liberation.
Consequences of the invasion
Many cities were destroyed, crafts were forgotten, construction was stopped. The invasion caused a deep decline in culture, a long lag of Russia from Western Europe.
An uninvited guest is worse than a Tatar. (Russian folk proverb)
Moscow state
The Moscow princes took advantage of Moscow's advantageous position in the center of the Russian principalities and, with the help of the Golden Horde, eliminated their rivals (the princes of the cities of Vladimir, Ryazan and Tver). Moscow began to claim the role of the center in the process of "gathering Russian lands."
In the middle of the 15th century The Horde broke up into the Crimean, Astrakhan, Kazan and Siberian khanates.
Ivan III
In 1462, Ivan III came to the throne, " Grand Duke Moscow and all Russia". The era of his reign is associated with the centralization of the country and calm on its eastern borders. Ivan III annexed specific principalities: suppressed separatism in Novgorod, conquered Yaroslavl, Tver, Pskov, Ryazan. During the reign of the heirs of Ivan III, the borders of the Moscow State continued to expand further.
The ideological platform of the Moscow State
- the ancient origin of the power of the rulers from the Rurik dynasty
- the power of the sovereign is from God himself, the ruler is a fighter for the true faith
- Moscow is the "third Rome" (Moscow is the spiritual center of world Christianity)
After overcoming the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, a huge rise of culture. Stone Kremlin cathedrals grew up, the most valuable monuments of painting (icons and frescoes by Andrei Rublev) and literature (chronicles, hagiographies) arose.
Under Ivan III, the first central authorities(“orders” and institutions that decide matters of state affairs - for example, the Posolsky order, the predecessor of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs).
Was written Sudebnik
, a new set of laws.
A merchant class is being formed (for example, the famous old Stroganov family), crafts and construction are developing. However, in the economic field, the life of people (the population numbered about 6.5 million) in the Moscow state developed unevenly - ups and downs were replaced by stagnation, crop failures and plague epidemics were frequent.
Ivan IV the Terrible
In 1533, the three-year-old Ivan IV (later nicknamed the Terrible) came to the Moscow throne. All his childhood and youth, when he could not actually rule, there was a struggle of boyar groups at the court.
In 1547, 16-year-old Ivan, as the first Russian Grand Duke, was officially crowned king.
Personality of Ivan the Terrible
Ivan IV grew up in an atmosphere of conspiracies and murders, without a mother, which greatly influenced his psyche. After the death of his beloved wife, he lost the last signs of humanity. The king, in a fit of anger, even killed his son.
Public Administration Reforms
The young tsar, with his boyar assistants, carried out a series of reforms.
Created the first Russian parliament - Zemsky Sobor
. There was a system of orders of the central bodies governing different areas of the state.
The population paid taxes in cash and in kind.
Development of trade
In the Russia of Ivan the Terrible, industry and trade relations with other countries, mainly with Persia and England. English and Dutch merchants and entrepreneurs often arrived in Russia at that time.
Foreign policy and wars
A semi-regular army arises, and the tsar fights the enemies of Russia by military means. He manages to conquer the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates (their lands turn into almost deserted spaces); was later defeated and Siberian Khanate. Lands along the entire course of the Volga were annexed to Russia, and the occupied territories were colonized. Russia for the first time turned into a multinational state (non-Slavic and non-Orthodox peoples lived in the newly annexed territories).
At the end of the 50s. 16th century started Livonian Wars(Livonia - today's Latvia and Estonia), which ended in the actual defeat of Russia.
Repression
Gradually, the sole power of the monarch was strengthened, his suspicion deepened; the policy of repression affected all segments of the population.
The king divided the state in two: into the so-called. "oprichnina", to which those whom he trusted were ranked (the territory of the "oprichnina" occupied a third of the country). Here the boyars, who became the executors of the policy of tsarist terror, managed in their own way, not constraining themselves with any laws. It was forbidden to talk about the "oprichnina" in the presence of foreigners. The rest of Russia was called "zemshchina".
During the terror killed many thousands of people. The most terrible evil was the defeat and depopulation of Novgorod.
Consequences of the reign of Ivan IV
Muscovite Russia, headed by the first tsar, expanded significantly, turned into a multinational state and began to be called Russia. A rigidly centralized monarchy was created.
Time of Troubles
(vague = strange, obscure; turmoil - excitement, rebellion)
The Time of Troubles or Troubles is the name of the stage in the history of Russia, when dynasties changed in difficult and unclear conditions.
After the death of Ivan IV the Terrible in 1584, his weak-minded son became the heir to the throne. Fedor I who entrusted the conduct of public affairs to his brother-in-law, guardsman Boris Godunov. The second son of Ivan the Terrible, Dmitry died unexpectedly at the age of eight; Godunov was unofficially accused of his murder. After the death of Tsar Fyodor, the Zemsky Sobor elected Godunov as Tsar. The Rurik dynasty was cut short.
Reign of Boris Godunov
The reign of Boris Godunov was plagued by failures - a terrible crop failure and famine, epidemics, invasions, uprisings, in which the people saw signs of God's wrath.
At the end of the 16th century measures were taken to establish serfdom in Russia.
Impostors
In an atmosphere of general discontent and chaos, impostors appear who act under the guise of the heirs of Ivan IV.
In Poland (at that time the Commonwealth), a young man declared himself miraculously saved Tsarevich Dmitry. Boris Godunov was killed as a result of a conspiracy, and after the capture of Moscow by the Poles in 1605, an impostor was elevated to the throne in Russia. He entered the history of Russia under the name False Dmitry I. The Russians learned that this was not a real Russian Tsar, as various legends convey, for example, by the fact that he did not sleep after dinner, as was customary in Russia, and did not go to the bathhouse. The conspirators soon got rid of the new king.
Then the royal throne passed from hand to hand, for some time it was again at the disposal of the Poles.
Only in 1613, with the help of the people's patriotic movement (led by Novgorodians Minin and Pozharsky), the Russian throne was liberated from the power of foreigners. Zemsky Sobor elected to reign Mikhail Romanov. The reign begins royal dynasty Romanovs.
The reign of Mikhail Romanov
The tightening of serfdom is connected with the first decades of the Romanovs' power. Peasant resistance culminated in Revolt of the Don Cossack Stepan Razin (1667–1671).
Cossacks are former serfs who ran away from their owners, free people living on the outskirts of Russia.
Modern times, in short, is the period of development of human history, from 1918 to the present day.
The term itself was coined by Hegel. In Soviet historical science, it was customary to consider the beginning recent history 1917 when it happened October Revolution because it was the most significant event for the country.
In the period of modern times, in short, changes in all spheres of life are becoming more and more rapid. This became especially noticeable in the 1940s. One of major discoveries those years was the creation of nuclear weapons. This forever changed the balance of power on the planet. In mid-July 1945, the United States tested the first nuclear weapons in the world, and in August, two Japanese cities - Hiroshima and Nagasaki were dropped atomic bombs. Now, not a single city on Earth was immune from such a fate.
Many discoveries have been made in the field of technology - computers, the Internet, satellite and cellular communications, genetic engineering, nanotechnology.
With the increase in the population of the planet, global threats have appeared. This is a problem of the environment, disarmament, hunger, lack of drinking water and many others.
Recent time, in short, has its own periodization and is divided into the following stages:
1. before the start of World War II - 1918 - 1939;
2. years of World War II - 1939-1945;
3. post-war period - 1945-1991;
4. 1991 - present
First period of modern times
The most significant events in it were the formation of the USSR and the Great American Depression.
After civil war the process of unification in the USSR of several Soviet republics that arose after the disappearance of the Russian Empire. The first to join the new union were the Byelorussian Republic, the Ukrainian, Transcaucasian Republics and the RSFSR. This happened in 1922.
Around the same time, in 1929, the United States began a long economic recession, known as the Great Depression. It became part of the global crisis that affected other countries as well.
This difficult period in the history of America lasted until 1940, but in fact the United States came out of it after the end of World War II. The causes of depression are the overproduction of goods and the lack of the necessary money supply to buy them. The US stock market crashed in one day. About 25 million people suffered from this.
The Second World War
It has become the largest global military conflict in the history of mankind. The scale of hostilities and the number of victims is appalling. About 80% of the world's population took part in the war. To date, this is the only military clash in which it was decided to use nuclear weapons.
The war involved the anti-Hitler coalition, the main participants of which were Great Britain, France, the USSR, the USA and more than 40 countries, and the Nazi bloc. Its composition: Germany, Italy, Japan, Hungary.
A characteristic feature of the Second World War was that the countries participated in it with different intensity. Someone was an active participant in the hostilities, someone was simply listed in the ranks of the allies, some helped with the supply of weapons and food.
The reasons for the war were the contradictions that arose between Germany and the victorious countries of the First World War, as well as the desire of the losing side to achieve revenge.
On September 1, 1939, German troops occupied Poland and the world entered the war.
For the USSR, it began on June 22, 1941, when Germany crossed the border Soviet Union.
From 50 to 70 million dead - this is the result of the most brutal war of modern times.
cold war
Very quickly, the former allies in the anti-Hitler coalition again became ideological and political enemies. A new confrontation, but without the use of weapons, began in 1946 and ended only with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.
The Cold War is an ideological conflict between two superpowers and their allies - the USSR and the USA. The famous English writer George Orwell came up with this expression and used it in one of his articles in 1945. Countries that have nuclear weapons in their arsenal and understand the full danger of their use will be forced to be in a state of constant confrontation with each other, or "cold war".
Caribbean crisis
It was the result of the Cold War and the arms race between the USSR and the USA. This confrontation between the two superpowers took place in October 1962 and almost led to the Third World War. The reason for the crisis was that the United States deployed medium-range missiles in Turkey, within the radius of destruction of which were Soviet cities, including Moscow. In response, the USSR deployed its military units on the island of Cuba. The world was literally on the verge of another war. The leaders of the two countries managed to reach a compromise and the Soviet missiles in Cuba were dismantled.
The Cuban Missile Crisis marked the beginning of the disarmament process.
The collapse of the USSR
On December 26, 1991, the Declaration on the collapse of the USSR and the creation of the CIS was adopted. 15 former Soviet republics became independent states.
Modern historians have not yet developed a common point of view on the reasons for the collapse of the superpower. There are a lot of them, and they are all extremely important. These include: the incompetence of the country's top leadership, the degradation of the union leadership, the adoption of key decisions exclusively by Moscow, and much more.
Environmental problems
In the 21st century, the problem of the environment has taken the first place among global problems. Mankind for many centuries thoughtlessly spent resources and changed the world. In the 19th century, the process of influencing the biosphere increased many times over due to the coming era of the scientific and technological revolution. This led to threatening consequences, which people began to think about only at the beginning of the 21st century.
In recent times, in short, there are prerequisites for the disappearance of human civilization due to the conflict with environment. Now the biggest danger, according to environmental scientists, is the problem global warming. Due to human production activities, the concentration of greenhouse gases in the air is gradually increasing, which leads to an average increase in temperature. The consequences of global warming will be terrible and will affect every inhabitant of the planet. Melting ice will lead to sea level rise and flooding of many places of human habitation. extreme high temperatures will not tolerate many species of animals and plants. Fertile soils will turn into deserts. The climate will change dramatically.
Global problems are so called because they concern everyone, and it is also possible to solve them only together.
Philosophy of modern times
The latest philosophy of the XIX-XX centuries. called non-classical and sometimes combined into one period, and sometimes divided into the philosophy of the XIX century and XX century. The history of modern philosophy begins with a critique of its classical forms.
In the 19th century, the following areas of modern philosophy developed, briefly outlined:
1. Positivism, for which philosophy has become a tool for the analysis of knowledge.
2. Marxism, which used philosophy to revolutionize the world.
3. Irrationalism, or "philosophy of life."
Classical forms of philosophy, for example, rationalism, are also preserved and continue to develop.
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