Declaration of Independence
June
1947
was
achieved
final
agreement,
allowing
British
parliament
pass the Indian Independence Act,
which came into force on August 15, 1947.
this document set out the principles
section, according to a number of areas
was provided
opportunity
decide - to join the Indian Union
or Pakistan and the right of each of these dominions to self-government was declared
with the right to withdraw from the Commonwealth.
stopped
Also
suzerainty
English monarchy over Indian
principalities,
A
Also
action
contracts concluded with them. Population
East Bengal and West Punjab
made a choice in favor of Pakistan, and
residents of West Bengal and East
Punjab supported joining
composition of the Indian Union.
Proclamation
independence
India after independence
Consequences of partition
Immediately after gaining independence inIndia
was
formed
government headed by Prime Minister J. Nehru. happened in the country
unprecedented clashes between
Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs.
What happened
massive
resettlement
Muslims to Pakistan, and Hindus to
India. To intercommunal hostility and
economic collisions have been added
And
political
difficulties,
caused by
section.
Iron
And
highways and systems
irrigation canals were cut
state
borders,
industrial enterprises are torn off
from
sources
raw materials
disunited
civil services, police and army,
necessary
For
provision
normal governance of the country and
security of citizens January 30, 1948
when public order is violated
let's go downhill, I was a Hindu fanatic
Gandhi was killed.
Consequences
section
Jawaharlal Nehru
Consequences of partition
The rulers of the 555 principalities were supposed todecide whether to join India
or Pakistan. Peaceful integration
the vast majority of small
principalities did not cause any complications. But
Muslim deputy, who stood at the head
the richest and most populous
the principality of Hyderabad, where numerically
dominated by the Hindus, declared his
desire to rule an independent sovereign country. In September 1948
Hyderabad were introduced Indian
troops, and under pressure from the central
Indian government nizam
signed an agreement to join
composition of the Indian Union.
Principality of Hyderabad
Consequences of partition
A serious situation arose in the north,where is the ruler of Jammu and Kashmir,
territories
With
mainly
Muslim
population,
was
Hindu Maharajah.
Pakistan
provided
economic pressure on the principality,
to achieve its accession. IN
October 1947 about 5,000 armed
Muslims entered Kashmir.
The Maharajah, who was in dire need of help,
signed a document on the inclusion of the principality in India. India accused
the Pakistani side in aggression and
referred the issue of Kashmir for discussion to
UN Security Council. At the UN there was
decided
admit
V
quality
actual demarcation line
ceasefire line according to its condition
on January 1, 1949. November 17, 1956
The Constituent Assembly of Kashmir was
The Constitution was adopted in accordance with
which the state of Jammu and Kashmir was declared integral part India.
Consequences of partition
Disputed territory of Kashmir
Consequences of partition
Relations with Pakistan have become centralquestion foreign policy India.
The protracted dispute over Kashmir has prevented
India to take a leadership role in the Movement
non-alignment. When the Prime Minister
India J. Nehru refused to cooperate with
USA in the fight against Soviet expansion,
Americans entered into a military alliance with
Pakistan. This made the Indian
management to expand contacts with
China and the USSR. India-Soviet relations
noticeably
got stronger
after
conclusions
major trade agreement of 1953 and
exchange of visits by the leaders of the two
states
USSR
welcomed
Indian policy of non-alignment,
which coincided with his strategic
line to limit US influence in
African-Asian region.
Consequences of partition
1954 Meeting with J. Nehru.
On the left is I.M. Kharchenko.
Development and reforms
On January 26, 1950, India was proclaimedrepublic. The constitution of 1950 reflected
careful
position
manuals
And
achievements achieved over time are consolidated
independent
development
countries.
Relatively
simple
procedure
amending the constitution based on
majority decisions in parliament
expanded
possibilities
further
implementation of reforms. Under J. Nehru,
who was also the head of the planning commission, three five-year plans were implemented. Industrial policy
focused on creating a mixed
economy and opened up prospects for
cooperation with private capital,
although in the leading
industries were allowed
only state property.
This rule affected enterprises in the defense industry, ferrous metallurgy, heavy engineering,
mining, etc.
Development and
reforms
Flag of India
India emblem
Development and reforms
Wellon
stimulation
development
industry combined with politics
careful reforms in the agricultural sector.
Planned
commission
us-really
recommended to states legislatively
guarantee
for-shield
rights
land users,
V
in particular
limit rental rates,
install
"ceiling"
For
area
individual
land holdings
And
reorganize on a cooperative basis
credit and sales system, and more
remote
in the future,
Maybe,
And
agricultural production.
WITH
1953
started
implementation of the community development program,
which set, in particular, the task of organizing
network of distribution institutions in
village of advanced agricultural
experience, as well as the creation in rural areas
cooperative associations and panchayats.
Development and
reforms
Peasants
10. Boundaries of a moderate course
The government delayed the achievementcompromise on the issue of reorganization
territorial-administrative
divisions on a linguistic basis, and
when in 1956 based on dominant languages
14 states were formed, it became evident
dissatisfaction with other ethnic communities. IN
1960 serious riots in Bombay State
forced the central authorities to go
towards demands for its division
into two new states - Gujarat and
Maharashtra. The Sikhs managed to achieve
success when Punjab was divided in 1965
to the state of Punjab, in which the Sikhs
formed the majority, and the state of Haryana with
predominantly Hindu population.
The ethnic problem arose even more sharply in
north-eastern border strip, where
some local tribes demanded
independence and raised for this purpose
armed uprisings.
Temperate limits
course
New administrative-territorial divisions
11. Boundaries of a moderate course
Compromise with the leading castes is seriouslimited the government's ability to
carrying out social transformations in
village. Laws on agrarian reform,
received approval in the states, contained
significant gaps that allowed, with one
hand, drive tenants off the land, and from
the other is to bypass the position of the upper
the limit of the area of land holdings. Slow
the unfolding of transformations led to
chronic shortage of agricultural products,
increasing food prices and reducing government subsidies. At first
In the 1960s, the financial crisis deepened.
Economic stagnation, in turn,
limited maneuverability for
INC.
Classic caste model
hierarchy
12. Boundaries of a moderate course
Nehru's authority in October 1962 wassignificantly undermined after the invasion
Chinese troops into the territory of the Northeast Border Agency and into
limits of the Ladakh mountains in Kashmir. Striving
ensure connections between Xinjiang-Uyghur
And
Tibetan
autonomous
areas, China tried to force
India
refuse
from
rights
on
strategically important Aksai Chin plain
in the east of Ladakh in Kashmir.
The PRC armed forces inflicted several
strikes by the Indian army and occupied
territory area 37.5 thousand square meters. km.
By the time China announced
withdrawal of troops from all occupied areas,
except for Aksai Chin, Nehru was forced
seek military assistance from the United States.
Temperate limits
course
Ladakh
Ladakh on the map of India
13. Nehru's successors
He replaced Nehru asPrime Minister Shastri was ousted
for this post by a group of party leaders
called "cindy-kat", which
supported by large landowners and
entrepreneurs.
IN
1965
experts
World
jar
determined
provision
financial
help
carrying out
complex
economic
reforms. During one and a half years of stay at
Shastri assumed the post of Prime Minister
decisions to reorient the main flow
public investment with heavy
industry on Agriculture; accent
for intensive farming and land reclamation;
stimulation through a price system and
discharge
sub-sidium
rustic
farms capable of modernizing
production; increasing the role of private and
foreign investment in industry. The economy has become especially
dependent on financial receipts from abroad, when the country was under pressure
additional burden of military expenditures during
during the second war with Pakistan in 1965.
Nehru's successors
Lal Bahadur Shastri
14. Nehru's successors
Losses suffered by the INC at parliamentaryelections in 1967, did not deprive him of victory since
a slight advantage in the national
level, but led to defeat in 8
states. In the states of Kerala and Western
Bengal INC was removed from power
coalition led by the Communist
party of India. Leftists in both states
governments have limited activities
police, and demonstrations took place there
tenants
And
agricultural
the proletariat against the landowners and
factory workers - against management
enterprises. Revolutionary-minded
communists supported armed
peasant riots in several states,
where the KPI operated. Late 1960s
they organized performances by small
peoples in the state of Andhra Pradesh and members
scheduled tribes and castes in
Western
Bengal,
which
were
suppressed by the army.
Nehru's successors
Parliament building in India
15. Indira Gandhi
The country's next Prime Minister IndiraGandhi could no longer rely on the old
party leaders and teamed up with
small in number
youth
group
socialists and former communists.
Decisive
actions
premiere
By
nationalization of the largest commercial
banks associated her name with the new policy,
focused on helping the poor
population. Popularity of the Prime Minister
reached its climax in 1971 as a result of the victory
in the third Indo-Pakistani war. WITH
the emergence of Bangladesh, India turned out to be
in dominant positions in the South Asian region. Moreover, in May 1974
she
spent
nuclear
tests,
demonstrating increased military
the power of the country.
Indira Gandhi
Indira Gandhi
16. Political crisis
In 1971 the government restored the rightparliament
bring in
changes
V
Constitution,
canceled
V
1967
resolution
Supreme
court.
IN
The 26th Amendment stated that
any law must comply
fundamental articles of the Constitution,
based on the principles of social and
economic justice. When in
April 1973 amendment was rejected
Supreme Court, the government removed
the three oldest judges who voted
against her, and appointed chairman
the court of one of its members, who
spoke in favor of adopting the amendment. Leaders
all opposition forces, except the CPI, were seen
in this act the threat of establishing
authoritarian
modes
Leader
opposition became J. Nara-yan, the oldest
follower of Mahatma Gandhi. Narayan
launched a propaganda campaign in
Gujarat, which led in January 1974
to the resignation of ministers and dissolution
state legislature. So
the same energetic campaign was carried out in
Bi-hare.
Political
a crisis
Mahatma Gandhi
17. Political crisis
The accusation against Gandhi made on June 2, 1975"corrupt
practice"
gave
her
opponents the opportunity to organize
movement to remove the prime minister.
In response, Gandhi declared a state of emergency in India.
a situation that resulted in mass arrests
political opponents and wider
censorship. In the parliamentary elections in
March 1977 new Janata Party,
which was a bloc of opposition groups, won a landslide victory
and repealed the emergency law
position However, soon the government
Janata became a victim of internal
intrigue. Its head M. De-sai filed a
resignation in June 1979, and held in
January 1980 parliamentary elections Gandhi
came to power again.
Political
a crisis
Morarji Desai
18. Political crisis
Electoral participation in the 1980 electionsdecreased to approximately 55% with an increase in the number of conflicts during
electoral
campaigns.
IN
Western
Bengal, Kerala and Tripura won
KPI.
Central
government
encountered
With
revival
separatist movements in the northeast,
with a number of religious and communal unrest in
Uttar Pradesh. In all cases for
to restore order had to resort to
military force. In June 1984, after the outbreak
Sikh terrorism in Punjab, army
units stormed the Sikh shrine -
Golden Temple in Amritsar, which led to
death of Sikh leader Bhindranwale and hundreds
his followers, who took refuge in the temple.
Gandhi's decisive action was greeted with approval in other parts of India, but
turned the Sikhs against the prime minister. 31
October 1984 I. Gandhi was assassinated by two
by their Sikh guards. At the post
head of government and as a leader
INC was succeeded by her son, Rajiv Gandhi, who
scheduled parliamentary elections for the end
1984 and won a convincing victory there.
Political
a crisis
Rajiv Gandhi
19. Political crisis
In the 1989 elections, the parties that stoodagainst INC (I), united around
former Finance Minister V.P. Singh,
who then headed the government
minorities. Singh Government
relied on the party created in 1988
Janata Dal and supported by Hindu
nationalist Bharatiya Janata
party (BJP) and two communist
in batches. The coalition collapsed in November
1990 when the BJP left. Following
Chandra Sekhara's government went into
resignation four months later,
since INC (I) did not approve the project
state budget.
Political
a crisis
BDP coat of arms
20. Political crisis
Rajiv Gandhi died from a bomb thrownSri Lankan Tamil terrorist in May
1991. It was an act of revenge for the input
Indian troops to the north of Sri Lanka in
1987 for anti-Tamil
separatis there. New Prime Minister
Nara-simha
Rao
spent
V
1992
decisive economic reforms,
called up
modernize
production and scientific-technical
base of the country. Was less successful
activities of the Rao government on
prevention
intercommunal
collisions,
arose
after
destruction by orthodox Hindus
mosque in Uttar Prada in December 1992.
Political
a crisis
Narasimha Rao
21. Political crisis
Elections in April-May 1996 led todistribution of seats in parliament
between three main factions: INC
(136 parliamentary seats), BDP (160) and
coalition
left
orientation,
dubbed the United
front (111 mandates). After
BJP refused to join the government
majority, new prime minister
H.D. Deve Gowda was recruited to participate in it
INC. The basis of the government was
representatives of regional and left
parties.
Sonia Gandhi, leader of the INC
22. Political crisis
In April 1997, the INC refused to support the coalition led by Govda, andthe Prime Minister was forced to file a
resignation. His place was taken by the appointed
president
And
approved
Parliament Inder Kumar Gujral,
which
continued
well
his
predecessor
on
liberalization
economy
And
height
economic
indicators, but refused further
cutting social spending.
Intensified
foreign policy
India's dialogue with Pakistan and China. Care
resignation of the Gujral government
led to early parliamentary
elections in March 1998. Came to power
a coalition consisting of 18 parties, in which the BJP occupied a leading position.
Political
a crisis
Trilateral meeting of foreign ministers
China, India and Russia
23. Political crisis
The main task of the new prime ministerAtal Bihari Vajpayee was saving
coalition government led by
BDP.
IN
April
1999
happened
government
a crisis,
And
the government was forced to withdraw
resignation. The lower house was dissolved
parliament. New parliamentary elections
took place in October 1999. Despite
active participation in the election campaign
Indian
national
congress,
majority
V
parliament
received
National Democratic Alliance,
led by the BJP. Prime Minister
became Vajpayee again. Conducted by India
nuclear
tests
os-false
her
relations with most states
peace.
IN
modern
unstable
situation
factor
stability
remains the figure of the president, who in
1997 was elected for the first time in the country's history
representative of the former “untouchable” caste Kocheril Raman Narayanan, formerly
served as vice-president under
S.D. Sharma, who belonged to the caste
Brahmins.
Political
a crisis
Atal Bihari Vajpayee
24. Conclusion
Post-independence before IndiaMany paths of national development emerged. Effective development of the state
row interfered internal problems: strong social
differentiation, presence of castes and dogmas, problem
national minorities, the struggle of Hindus and
Muslims But despite the difficulties and obstacles in
development, India has managed to reform and strengthen
social, economic and other spheres
society. Now India is modern,
dynamically developing state, actively
involved in solving international problems.
After the end of World War II, India experienced the rise of a national liberation movement. The British authorities, trying to stay in India, maneuvered, combining methods of brutal suppression with concessions and actions aimed at splitting the Indians.
Under the pretext of protecting the interests of Muslims and other minorities, the authorities established a system of elections to the Central Legislative Assembly in 1946 by religious curiae, which exacerbated the conflict between the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Muslim League. The INC program included demands for the independence of the country and the equality of all its citizens and the unity of Hindus, Muslims and adherents of other religions:
The main demand of the Muslim League was the division of India into two states along religious lines and the creation of the Muslim state of Pakistan, “the land of the pure.”
The INC and the Muslim League received a majority in their curiae, but in a number of provinces a considerable part of Muslims supported the Inc. program. The overwhelming majority of the population spoke out against English rule.
The INC included representatives of various social strata and was very authoritative due to many years of opposition to the colonialists. The most popular leaders of the INC were M. Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru.
In August 1946, a provisional government headed by Nehru was created. The Muslim League refused to join the government and declared the beginning of a direct struggle for Pakistan. Already in August, pogroms began in Calcutta in Hindu neighborhoods, and in response, the Muslim quarters of the city went up in flames. Clashes between Hindus and Muslims, escalating into massacres, spread to other parts of the country.
In February 1947, the British government announced its intention to grant India dominion rights subject to its division along religious lines into the Indian Union and Pakistan. The principalities themselves decided which of the dominions they would join. The INC and the Muslim League accepted this plan.
A huge number of refugees moved from Pakistani units to Indian areas and vice versa. The death toll numbered in the hundreds of thousands. M. Gandhi spoke out against inciting religious hatred. He demanded the creation of acceptable conditions for the Muslims remaining in India. This caused attacks and accusations of betraying the interests of Hindus. In January 1948, M. Gandhi was assassinated by a member of one of the religious organizations.
On August 14, 1947, the establishment of the Dominion of Pakistan was proclaimed. The leader of the Muslim League became the head of the government of Pakistan Liqiat Ali Khan. On August 15, the Indian Union declared its independence. Of the 600 princely states, the vast majority acceded to India. The first Indian government was headed by J. Nehru.
When dividing the territories, neither economic ties between regions, neither geographical boundaries, nor national composition. 90% of all mineral reserves, textiles and sugar industries remain in Indian territory. Most of areas for the production of bread and industrial crops went to Pakistan.
A difficult situation has developed in the principality of Kashmir. It was to become part of the Indian Union, although the majority of the population was Muslim. In the fall of 1947, Pakistani troops invaded Kashmir. The Maharaja announced his accession to India, and Indian troops entered Kashmir. But West Side The principality was occupied by Pakistani troops. The Kashmir issue became a bone of contention between India and Pakistan and one of the main reasons for the Indo-Pakistani wars of 1965 and 1971. The result of the 1971 war was the formation of the state of Bangladesh on the site of East Pakistan.
In 1949, India adopted a constitution declaring it a republic. Election victories until the end of the 70s. XX century INC won. Its leaders advocated the development of a mixed economy with a strong position of the state in it. Agrarian reform and various social transformations were carried out. The Indian economy, despite all the difficulties, developed quite successfully. Evidence of this was the creation and testing by India at the turn of the 21st century. nuclear weapons.
In foreign policy, India has taken a course of non-participation in blocs and the struggle for peace. Friendly relations were maintained with the USSR. After Nehru's death, the post of Prime Minister passed to his daughter Indira Gandhi. After the assassination of I. Gandhi in 1984, her son became prime minister Rajiv Gandhi, killed in 1991. These murders are associated with the intensification of nationalist and separatist movements in the country
movements (Sikhs, Tamils). At the end of the twentieth century. INC lost its monopoly on power. Representatives of Hindu parties came to rule the country (Prime Minister A. Vajpayee). However, the main directions of domestic and foreign policy, as well as the generally successful development of the country, continue.
The end of the Second World War and the first post-war years constituted a whole historical era. The August Revolution in Vietnam won, the liberation of Indonesia began, Burma, Laos, and Cambodia became independent. Revolutionary China celebrated the success of many years of struggle.
The national liberation revolution in India occurred during the same period. No longer relying on the hypocritical promises of England, the Indian working class and the Indian peasantry demanded independence and achieved it through revolutionary means. In February 1946, an uprising of Indian sailors began (almost 20 ships raised red flags).
The British Labor government had to make a statement granting India political independence within the framework of the British Commonwealth of Nations.
A special mission sent to India from London proposed the following plan: India would be transformed into a union of autonomous provinces and principalities, and after that would receive the right to be considered a dominion; The provinces, in turn, are divided into Hindu and Muslim - based on religion.
This plan involved the dismemberment of the country: it was assumed that in this way it would be easier to keep it in its former dependence.
After various maneuvers aimed at dividing the two main political parties of national liberation - the Indian national congress and the Muslim League - England succeeded in carrying out a plan to dismember India. The Act of August 15, 1947 created two dominions: India and Pakistan.
Pakistan (111 million people) was made up of two parts, spaced 1.5 thousand kilometers from each other. The princely state of Kashmir was claimed by both India and Pakistan. Already in October 1947, Pakistani armed forces occupied part of Kashmir. At the request of the Maharaja of Kashmir, the princely state was included in India (1947).
The dismemberment of the country entailed innumerable disasters. Hundreds of thousands of people were forcibly relocated from one dominion to another. Economic ties that had been established for centuries were artificially severed. Religious strife became even more bitter.
When the Punjab province began to be divided into two parts, the struggle between Hindus (and Sikhs) on the one hand, and Muslims on the other, resulted in massacres. About 500 thousand people died and at least 12 million were left homeless. Pogroms and massacres swept across the vast country and, as for Punjab, have not stopped to this day.
The dismemberment was followed by the creation of the governments of India and Pakistan. The Government of India was formed by the Indian National Congress - a party of the national bourgeoisie, landowners, and intelligentsia. D. Nehru became the head of the government.
The state independence of India received its final confirmation in the act of January 26, 1950, by which India was declared a “sovereign and democratic republic”. On the same day, the Constitution of the Indian Republic was put into effect.
The Constitution proclaimed the federal structure of the new state: at the beginning the states differed in the form of government, but in 1956 a reform was carried out that introduced a new Administrative division. Currently, states have a uniform system of government.
The principalities of India (Hyderabad, Mysore, etc.) were to become part of the republic: the attempts of their feudal rulers to remain on the sidelines were thwarted by the popular masses.
The equality of citizens is recognized regardless of the caste and religion to which they belong.
The castes that we talked about when characterizing ancient India have not disappeared to this day. This division is especially noticeable in the village, where the custom holds stronger and longer.
The predominance of Brahmins (Brahmins) is undoubtedly in political life: they constitute the main cadre of senior government officials, leaders of political parties and organizations.
At least 70 million people of the Indian population are “untouchables”: rickshaw pullers, sweepers, messengers, sanitation workers, etc. And although the laws are on their side, the old customs have not yet disappeared.
The Constitution contains special mention of providing the people with a means of subsistence as a management task, and of labor protection for workers and minors.
In this regard, the agrarian reform (the task of which should be the destruction of feudal land ownership and feudal remnants in general), as well as the policy of industrialization of the country, deserve mention.
The first agrarian reform began to be implemented in 1948, but it was of a limited nature, carried out by state governments, and amounted to some alienation (for a fee) of surplus lands of landowners. Redemption payments were very high (10-15 year annual annuity), and therefore only the kulaks benefited from the fruits of the reform.
In subsequent years, new measures were taken to redistribute land. However, even after that the situation changed little: 80Uo peasants owned the same amount of land (27%) as 2% of large landowners.
The industrialization of the country is carried out on the basis of state plans. Particular attention is paid to the creation of the public sector National economy. India has created some important industrial complexes.
In November 1949, the Indian Constitution came into force. The head of the Indian Republic is the President, elected for a 5-year term. He appoints the prime minister of the government (Council of Ministers). The latter is responsible to parliament. The parliament is bicameral. One of its chambers is elected by state electors, the other by popular vote. Suffrage is universal and is granted to citizens from the age of 21.
Bearing in mind the secessionist aspirations of some states, and even more the inevitability of acute social clashes, the Indian Constitution provides for the power of the President to declare a state of emergency and take emergency measures to suppress anti-government actions.
India, Pakistan, China after World War II
India's gaining of independence.
Development of India and Pakistan. After the end of World War II, India experienced the rise of a national liberation movement. The British authorities, trying to stay in India, maneuvered, combining the methods of his brutal suppression of speeches with concessions and actions aimed at splitting the Indians.
Under the pretext of protecting the interests of Muslims and other minorities, in 1946 the authorities established a system of elections to the Central Legislative Assembly by religious curiae, which exacerbated the conflict between the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Muslim League. The INC program included demands for the independence of the country and equality of all its citizens, the unity of Hindus, Muslims and adherents of other religions. The main demands of the Muslim League were the division of India into two states along religious lines and the creation of the Muslim state of Pakistan (“the land of the pure”).
The INC and the Muslim League received a majority in their curiae, but in a number of provinces a considerable part of Muslims supported the INC program. The overwhelming majority of the population spoke out against English rule.
The INC included representatives of various social strata and was very authoritative due to many years of opposition to the colonialists. The most popular leaders of the INC were M. Gandhi and J. Nehru.
In August 1946, a provisional government headed by Nehru was created. The Muslim League refused to join the government and declared the beginning of a direct struggle for Pakistan. In Calcutta, pogroms broke out in Hindu neighborhoods, and in response, Muslim neighborhoods went up in flames. Clashes between Hindus and Muslims, which escalated into massacres, spread to other parts of the country.
In February 1947, the British government announced its intention to grant India dominion rights subject to its division on religious grounds into the Indian Union and Pakistan. The principalities themselves decided which of the dominions they would join. The INC and the Muslim League accepted this plan.
In a short period, a huge number of refugees moved from Pakistani units to Indian areas and vice versa. The death toll numbered in the hundreds of thousands. M. Gandhi spoke out against inciting religious hatred. He demanded that acceptable conditions be created for the Muslims remaining in India. This led to accusations of betrayal of Hindu interests. In January 1948, M. Gandhi was assassinated by a member of one of the Hindu religious organizations.
On August 14, 1947, the establishment of the Dominion of Pakistan was proclaimed. The leader of the Muslim League, Liquiat Ali Khan, became the head of the government of Pakistan. The next day, the Indian Union declared its independence. Of the 601 princely states, the vast majority acceded to India. The first government of the country was headed by J. Nehru.
When dividing the territory, neither geographical boundaries, nor economic ties between regions, nor national composition were taken into account. 90% of all mineral reserves, textile and sugar industries are concentrated on Indian territory. Most of the areas producing bread and industrial crops went to Pakistan.
The most tense situation has developed in the principality of Kashmir. It was to become part of the Indian Union, although the majority of the population was Muslim. In the fall of 1947, Pakistani troops invaded western Kashmir. The Maharaja announced his accession to India, and Indian troops entered Kashmir. The Kashmir issue became a bone of contention between India and Pakistan and one of the main reasons for the Indo-Pak wars of 1965 and 1971. As a result of the 1971 war, the state of Bangladesh was formed on the site of East Pakistan.
In 1949, India adopted a Constitution proclaiming it a federal republic (union of states). Victory in all elections until the end of the 70s. INC won. Its leaders advocated the development of a mixed economy with a strong position of the state in it. Agrarian reform and various social transformations were carried out. The Indian economy, despite all the difficulties, developed quite successfully. Since the end of the 20th century. The country began to experience rapid growth in advanced technologies. A nuclear weapon test was carried out.
In foreign policy, India has taken a course of non-participation in blocs and of fighting for peace. Friendly relations were maintained with the USSR. After Nehru's death, the post of prime minister passed to his daughter Indira Gandhi. After the assassination of I. Gandhi in 1984, her son Rajiv Gandhi, who was killed in 1991, became Prime Minister. These murders were associated with the intensification of the nationalist and separatist movement in the country (Sikhs, Tamils). At the end of the 20th century. The INC experienced splits and lost its monopoly on power. Representatives of Hindu parties (Prime Minister A. Vajpayee) came to rule the country. At the beginning of the 21st century. The INC again won the majority in the parliamentary elections (M. Singh became Prime Minister).
Pakistan's political development is characterized by instability. The army played a major role in the country, often carrying out military coups. In foreign policy, Pakistan followed a pro-American course. The country's economy has developed relatively successfully (Pakistan has also developed atomic weapons), although, as in India, a significant part of the population continues to live in poverty. At the beginning of the 21st century. speeches demanding a strengthening of the role of Islam in the life of society have become more frequent.
Development of China in the 50s - 70s.XXV.
As a result of the communist victory in Civil War in 1949, the remnants of the Kuomintang, under the cover of the US air force and navy, fled to the island of Taiwan. On October 1, 1949, the creation of the People's Republic of China (PRC) was proclaimed. The People's Government of the People's Republic of China was headed by Mao Zedong.
The new Chinese leadership has set a course for building socialism. Industrial enterprises were nationalized, and cooperatives were created in rural areas. In the 50s China cooperated closely with the USSR, which provided it with enormous assistance in the development of industry, agriculture, and culture. During this period, the country successfully industrialized.
At the end of the 50s. Mao Zedong set a course for ultra-fast rates of development. The “Great Leap Forward” began, which was an attempt to “enter communism” under the slogan “A few years of hard work - and ten thousand years of happiness.” As a result, chaos reigned in the economy, and the country was gripped by a terrible famine. The “Great Leap Forward” policy caused discontent among a number of party leaders. To suppress their resistance from 1965 - 1966. On the initiative of Mao Zedong, the so-called “cultural revolution” was organized. The forces of youth (“Hungweipings” - red guards) launched an offensive against officials under the slogan “Fire at the headquarters!” Hundreds of thousands of party and government workers were executed or deported to distant areas for “re-education.” During this period, relations between China and the USSR worsened, and armed clashes occurred in 1969 (Damansky Island on the Ussuri River). In 1972, the PRC entered into an agreement with the United States.
The death of Mao Zedong on September 9, 1976 led to an intensification of the internal political struggle. Fanatical adherents of Mao's policies (the "Gang of Four") were arrested. The party and state were headed by Deng Xiaoping, a former associate of Mao who suffered during the Cultural Revolution. The policy of “four modernizations” proclaimed in 1978 provided for transformations in the fields of industry, agriculture, culture and the rearmament of the army.
Modern China.
During the 80s - 90s. In China, under the leadership of the Communist Party, serious reforms were carried out that dramatically transformed the appearance of the country. Reforms began with agriculture. Most of the cooperatives were dissolved, each peasant household received a plot of land on a long-term lease. The food problem was gradually solved. Industrial enterprises were given independence, and market relations developed. Private enterprises appeared. Foreign capital was increasingly penetrating into China. By the end of the 20th century. the volume of industrial production increased 5 times, Chinese goods began a victorious expansion abroad, including in the United States. The standard of living of a significant part of the population has increased.
Successful economic development country (production growth from 7 to 15% per year), which began to be called the “workshop of the 21st century,” continues to this day. Economic achievements were evidenced by the launch of China's first spacecraft with an astronaut on board in 2003 and the development of plans for a mission to the Moon. In terms of economic potential, China has taken second place in the world, and has overtaken the United States in a number of indicators. The Chinese clearly demonstrated their enormous successes during the Olympic Games in Beijing in 2008.
Political power in China remained unchanged. An attempt by some students and intellectuals to launch a liberalization campaign during the Tiananmen Square protests in Beijing in 1989 was brutally suppressed. The country's leading force is still the CPC, which claims to "build socialism with Chinese characteristics."
In foreign policy, the PRC has achieved considerable success: Hong Kong (Hong Kong) and Mokao (Aomen) were annexed to China. Since the mid-80s. Relations with the USSR normalized. China has established friendly relations with Russia and other post-Soviet states.
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
How were the states of India and Pakistan formed? Tell us about their development.
How was the People's Republic of China created? What were the features of China's development in the 50-70s?
What are the directions and results of the reforms carried out in China at the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st centuries?
Compare the development of China and India in the second half of the 20th and early 21st centuries. What were similar in their development and what were the differences?
Second World War led to fundamental changes in the international situation and in the internal situation of India. The economy, especially agriculture, was in crisis. Long-term colonial oppression led to poverty and ruin among the broad masses. The contradiction between the tendency to independent development India and the colonial rule of England, which caused the rise of a powerful anti-imperialist movement from the summer of 1945. It united the main sections of the population, and due to historical circumstances, it was led by the national bourgeoisie, whose interests were represented by the Indian National Congress (INC). Despite his desire to limit his speeches to the framework of “nonviolent struggle,” a protest movement developed in the country against the sending of Indian troops to Indochina and Indonesia, and a campaign to protect the Indian National Army. At the beginning of 1946, this movement captured the army and navy, and the state apparatus. It revealed the unity of religious communities, nationalities and political movements. Elections to the Central and Provincial Legislative Assemblies (late 1945-early 1946) turned out to be a failed political maneuver for the British to spark a Hindu-Muslim conflict. However, as a result of the policy of opposing religious communities and the reluctance to grant India full independence, 1946 became a time of bloody clashes, and the Muslim League declared the beginning of a “direct struggle” for Pakistan.
From February to June 1947, the British proposed a new declaration on India and a “plan for the transfer of power to India.” After the plan became legal as the Indian Independence Act (August 15, 1947), the former colony was replaced by two dominions - the Union of India and Pakistan. Divided along religious lines, they proved bitterly hostile from the very beginning. Their very disengagement took place in an atmosphere of escalating hostility, brutal persecution and bloody massacre, costing almost millions human lives(in Punjab alone, massacres and pogroms claimed about 500 thousand people). The situation was aggravated by the fact that the princely states (562) were given the right of freedom of choice, as a result of which a number of princes in India (most of them were Muslims) expressed a desire - against the will of the population of the principality, predominantly Hindu - to join Pakistan. This required the armed intervention of the Indian Union government. The partition caused a multimillion-dollar flow of refugees and an explosion of nationalist and chauvinistic sentiments. Their victim was M.K. Gandhi, who tried to extinguish passions, and was killed in 1948 by a member of the religious-nationalist group Hindu Mahasabha. It was not an easy task to reconstruct the economy of each part of the previously unified organism: rich agricultural areas that provided cotton and jute for Indian textile enterprises were transferred to Pakistan. The country did not have enough of its own bread. The industry became dependent on foreign equipment and capital.
1949 passed under the banner of preparing constitutional reforms. They were formalized by the Constituent Assembly as the constitution of the new India, which came into force in January 1950. The Republic of India was proclaimed, which at the same time turned out to be a member of the British Commonwealth of Nations, i.e. retained its usual ties with the former metropolis. In the first elections to the central parliament and state legislative assemblies (1951-1952), almost three-quarters of the seats were won by the INC - since then the almost permanent ruling party. The government was headed by J. Nehru (1947–1964).
India developed along the capitalist path. The civilizational foundation here turned out to be fundamentally unfavorable for experiments in the Marxist-socialist spirit, despite the fact that in India there are two influential communist parties, one of which spent many years at the helm of government in the state of Bengal. But the democratic traditions brought to India by the British have grown well into the local structure. In India, the concept of a “socialist society”, born of J. Nehru, began to be realized. It included a mixed economy with the priority of the public sector, the democratic unity of a strong center and regions endowed with broad rights, a planned national economy (five-year plans since 1951), and pluralism of social thought.
The general assessment of the transformations of the 50s - early 90s is the path to compromise, social reformist transformations. Everything in the concept turned out to be vital and gave sustainable dynamism to the development of India.
The first serious reform was the agrarian one. Its essence was to eliminate the layer of intermediaries - zamindars and to transfer the land to those who cultivate it. The result of the reform was a reduction in the share of tenants and the transformation of the bulk of peasants into landowners. With the support of the state, cooperation was developed to reduce the influence of moneylenders in the country. In the 60s and 70s, agricultural reforms were complemented by a series of advanced agrotechnical methods and techniques associated with the “green revolution” and aimed at dramatically improving the agricultural process. Since 1978, India stopped importing food and achieved complete self-sufficiency. These days, the country is largely coping with the food problem, although a significant proportion of its population eats extremely poorly.
The economic policy was based on two important principles: the development of the public sector in industry and the planned management of the national economy. Since the 70s, direct cooperation with private capital has been developing, and the two sectors are merging. The main directions of the economic policy of all INC governments were: a) strengthening public investment in basic industries; b) weakening government regulation private sector; c) strengthening the national currency system and finances, strengthening the national market. In general, by the mid-60s, the volume of industrial production increased 2.5 times. From 1980 to 1991 economic growth was 5.4% annually. India has joined the ranks of industrial-agrarian countries. At the same time, negative phenomena also emerged in this process: the growth of bureaucracy, the insufficient efficiency of a number of enterprises, the failure to fulfill five-year plans, and the lack of funds to solve pressing social problems.
The orientation towards capitalist development was harmoniously combined in republican India with general guidelines in the sphere of political and legal, rooted in the classic Westminster parliamentary-democratic system of government. According to the Constitution, the Republic of India is a union that includes 25 states and 6 union territories. Legislative power belongs to the bicameral all-Indian parliament, and in the states - to legislative assemblies; executive power is in the hands of the All-India Council of Ministers in Delhi and state governments headed by chief ministers. Formally, the president is considered the supreme head of the country's executive branch; in fact, power is in the hands of the prime minister.
The political process in the country is based on the competition of parties with complete freedom for party coalitions. English is still considered the common Indian language. The attempt to make Hindi such in 1965 could not be carried out, because this was vigorously opposed by a number of southern states, for which Hindi is foreign. Since most people are illiterate, important role Symbols play a role in the fight for voters. For the INC this is an image of a sacred cow. It is difficult for parties to unite people around an ideological issue, because... Society is still split along many lines.
Election campaigns testified to the stability of the sympathies of the bulk of voters: in the presence of a communist left (since 1964 - two communist parties with approximately equal forces) and the religious-communalist right wing, the bulk of the vote went to the center. It was represented, first of all, by the INC, and later by a coalition of opposition groups such as the Janata Party, which was in power in 1977–1979. Apart from this short interval, all other years the INC government was at the head of India, which after the death Nehru (1964) was led by his daughter Indira Gandhi (1966–1977, 1980–1984) and, after her assassination, by her son Rajiv Gandhi (1984–1991). There were frequent aggravations of intra-state political contradictions on a national, religious or other basis, to resolve or extinguish which Delhi usually introduced presidential rule (more than 116 times during independence).
In the mid-60s, internal instability in the country was growing. INC's position on social issues, the peasant movement is strengthening, right-wing groups in the INC are becoming more active. In an effort to restore the popularity of the Congress, I. Gandhi advocated new reforms: encouraging small-scale production, expanding the public sector, nationalizing large banks and wholesale trade, limiting monopolies, lowering the land maximum, etc. In the 70s, progressive reforms were continued, however, it soon became evident the influence of bureaucracy and the decline in efficiency of the public sector. Political development was a consequence of acute economic depression, the polarization of class forces, the half-heartedness of the progressive economic program, the inability of the government to solve the main problems of the country: reducing unemployment, allocating land to peasants, reconciling the interests of the state and the strengthened monopoly bourgeoisie. All this shook the authority of the INC and for the first time led to the defeat of conservative parties in 1977. In 1980, he regained his position and returned to leadership on an all-India scale.
In the 80s, India's economic development slowed down; the negative consequences of protectionism, monopolization of the domestic market by industrial clans, inflation, uncompetitiveness of Indian goods, bureaucratization of the administrative apparatus, and ineffective work of public sector enterprises were revealed. In 1990, external debt amounted to $70 billion, and the influx of foreign capital decreased by 59%. Notable successes of the 90s are associated with the implementation since 1991. radical economic program. Its main provisions are the liberalization of policies regarding foreign and national capital, public sector reform. The peak of positive trends occurred in 1995–1996 – the growth rate of industrial production increased by 12.4%. In the second half of the 90s, economic growth slowed down, capital stagnation continued, and the problem of low labor productivity and public sector reform had not been resolved. Correct economic decisions did not produce results at the micro level, so at the beginning of the 21st century. The main goal is declared to be “economic growth and justice” (investment in the social sphere and infrastructure).
Modern India owns high technologies and is a major manufacturer and exporter of software - 140 of the 500 leading companies in the world satisfy their needs for this through exports from India. The country ranks third in the world in terms of the number of scientific and technical personnel, fifth in terms of agricultural production and GDP. In the mid-90s, it took second place in the world in wheat exports and achieved self-sufficiency in basic food products. In 1998 it became a nuclear power. The Indian economy is now one of the 10 fastest growing in the world.
In the 80s, the previous structure of power no longer corresponded to the new alignment of social class forces, flaws in political life (corruption, violations of democracy) were becoming more and more noticeable, the influence of radicalism and populism was growing, and new political parties received mass support. In 1989, the INC ceded power to coalition governments. This indicates the emergence in the last 10-15 years of a trend (not yet completed) of creating a truly multi-party power structure instead of the dominance of one party. In the 90s, India finally switched to coalitions - in the fall of 1999, in the parliamentary elections, the center-right National Democratic Alliance (24 parties) received a majority. The transition of parties from confrontational to competitive politics began. The problem of consolidation of society has become urgent. The preservation of regional communalism and regionalism hinder the strengthening of patriotism. Last years showed the rapid growth of influence of Hindu parties.
The development of modern India is significantly influenced by persistent challenges. The most important internal one is religious strife. Despite the 1947 partition, 106 million (11.4% of the population) Muslims live in the republic. The largest and most influential communities are Sikhs (2%) and Buddhists (0.7%). Ethno-regional conflicts are superimposed on long-standing territorial disputes, developing into a fierce separatist and terrorist struggle. Hindu-Muslim clashes and the struggle of the Sikh minority, first for political autonomy, and then for their own independent state of Khalistan (the separation of Punjab from India) are practically insoluble problems. The transition to armed struggle by extremist Sikh organizations in the 80s led to their assassination of I. Gandhi (October 31, 1984), which caused a new wave of violence and casualties. Acts of terror continued into the 1990s, despite the authorities' attempts to find a political solution to the Punjab crisis. The source of political instability for all of India remains in the 21st century. Jammu and Kashmir problem. Separatist groups are seeking the creation of an independent state here. The problem is complicated by claims to this state from Pakistan, which contains 1/3 of its territory. Mutual intransigence and tough positions of the two countries make the dispute one of the most dangerous border conflicts in the world and have brought neighbors to the brink of war more than once (1947, 1965, 1971, 2001). Added to these conflicts are the tensions that emerged in the 1980s in India's far north-west, Assam and other areas where migrant refugees from Bangladesh are creating serious instability. Separatist sentiments among the Tamils in the south and some tribal groups in the Himalayan region also create problems. No one knows the exact number of separatist groups (179 languages and 544 dialects are “spoken” in India). The intensification of religious fanaticism and inter-party strife since the late 1980s has been facilitated by the evolution of the ideology of nationalism. After India won independence, hypertrophied national ambitions and separatism began to manifest themselves in the nationalism of individual nations.
Another group of problems, seemingly less acute, but fraught with far-reaching consequences, is demographic. Rapid population growth (almost doubling since decolonization) threatens the country with disaster. Its most severe consequences, primarily famine, were mitigated by the success of the “green revolution” and farming (Punjab). Attempts to solve it at an accelerated pace, with administrative pressure, did not produce results; moreover, they led to I. Gandhi’s defeat in 1977. Despite the implementation of the birth control program, demographic growth is increasing - in the 21st century. India became a country of billions.
Among the internal ones is the problem of castes. The state has done a lot to eradicate caste inequality: criminal prosecution was introduced for discrimination on the basis of caste; quotas in universities and government institutions were reserved for representatives of lower castes (according to the 1950 constitution - 27% of places). At the same time, an attempt to extend such a manifestation of social justice to the intermediate castes (52% of the population) caused mass discontent and the political crisis of 1989-1990. Castes play the same role as in the past - the role of a stabilizing factor. However, the preservative function of caste and community, which is clearly opposed to the tasks of the country's development, is more significant. Over time, this function will weaken, and development will take its toll. However, questions remain: will communal-caste India, in the event of a demographic explosion, be able to feed a country that clearly had not managed to turn into a farming country by that time?
The most difficult problems are extreme population density, depletion natural resources, unemployment, glaring social contrasts, unresolved agrarian issue (50–55% of farms are degrading), growing water shortage (80% of the population does not have access to
drinking water), the narrowness of the “middle class” (20–25%) with mass poverty, illiteracy of the population (48%), etc.
An essential element of India's foreign policy in the 50s and 60s was non-alignment with military blocs and the desire to consolidate young independent states. The country's foreign policy position is largely explained by the geopolitical confrontation of forces in Asia, in particular, the confrontation with the PRC and its ally, Pakistan. This at one time led the country, which declared independence, neutrality and non-alignment as the fundamental principles of its political course, to a close alliance with the USSR. Their cooperation contributed to the strengthening of the Indian state economy and the conclusion of important treaties of peace, friendship and cooperation, including the Delhi Declaration of 1986. With the collapse of the USSR, Russia took its place. Since 1995, attention to cooperation with the Republic of Belarus has been increasing.
Foreign policy in the 70–90s pursued four main goals: strengthening the country’s security, realizing expansionist ambitions in South Asia (which led to sustained confrontation in the system of regional relations), increasing influence among the states of the world community (becoming an emerging center of world politics, but without becoming a superpower) and establishing optimal external relations to create favorable conditions for economic modernization.
Since the mid-90s, a new foreign policy has been implemented - the normalization of relations with large and small countries. In 1995, with the creation of the Indian Ocean Rim Association, India strives to become one of the regional leaders. After the collapse of the military blocs, the position of non-alignment with them lost its meaning. Therefore, “freedom to make independent decisions” (J. Nehru) acquired special significance. Despite its status as the dominant power in the region with military-political functions, India has repeatedly confirmed its role as a guarantor of political stability. India's peacefulness and internal stability, enviable for the entire developing world, are well known. India is not familiar with political upheavals, nor with attempts by the army to play a political role, nor with overly sharp social conflicts. No one has ever fought or is fighting for India. This is explained by the fact that there has never been a power vacuum here, and a state with a stable political course is stable and reliable, has always relied on the usual norms of existence and responded to these norms in its policies.
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