Not very briefly about the Congress of Vienna!
Congress of Vienna and the "Holy Alliance" Congress of Vienna 1814 - 1815. After the victory over the Napoleonic empire in 1814, a congress of European states gathered in Vienna. The main role was played by Russia, England, Austria and Prussia. The authorized representative of France was also admitted to backstage meetings. All important issues were decided at these meetings. The main goals of the congress participants were to restore, if possible, the former dynasties and the power of the nobility, to redistribute Europe in the interests of the victors and to fight against the emerging new revolutionary movements. Regardless of the people, the winners shredded the map of Europe in their own interests, England retained the island of Malta and the former Dutch colonies - the island of Ceylon off the coast of India and the Cape in southern Africa. The main success of England was the weakening of her main enemy - France, the consolidation of British superiority at sea and in colonial conquests. Russia secured most Poland. The fragmentation of Germany has greatly decreased. Instead of more than two hundred small states, a German Confederation of 39 states was created. The largest of them were Austria and Prussia. The German Union had no government, no money, no army, no influence on international affairs. The rich and economically developed provinces - the Rhineland and Westphalia - moved to the possessions of Prussia. Some of the bourgeois orders introduced during Napoleon's time have been preserved there. The western Polish lands were also recognized as the possession of Prussia. The territory of Austria increased significantly - its former possessions in Italy and a number of other lands again departed to it. The former dynasty was restored in Piedmont, and the Austrian dukes reigned in the small states of Northern Italy. secular power popes over the Roman region, and in the Kingdom of Naples the former Bourbon dynasty was installed on the throne. The Pope and the Neapolitan king ruled relying on Swiss mercenaries. Absolute monarchy and the Inquisition were restored in Spain. The persecution and execution of patriots - participants in the revolution of 1808 - 1814 began. Belgium was annexed to the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Switzerland regained the mountain passes leading to Italy, and was declared an eternally neutral state. The territory of the Sardinian kingdom was increased, the main part of which was Piedmont with the city of Turin. Under a peace treaty with France, concluded in 1815, its territory was returned to its former borders. An indemnity of 700 million francs was imposed on her. Until its payment, the north-eastern part of France was to remain occupied by the troops of the allies. England, Russia, Austria and Prussia renewed the military alliance with the obligation to prevent the restoration of the Bonaparte dynasty in France and to convene congresses from time to time to protect the order established after Napoleonic Wars.

"Holy Alliance" In order to consolidate absolutism and noble reaction, European sovereigns, at the suggestion of Alexander I, in 1815 concluded the so-called "Holy Alliance" against revolutionary movements. Its participants pledged to help each other in the suppression of revolutions, to support the Christian religion. The Act of the "Holy Alliance" was signed by Austria, Prussia, and then almost all the monarchs of European states. England did not formally join the "Holy Alliance", but actually supported the policy of suppressing revolutions. In the early 20s. in Spain, the Kingdom of Naples and Piedmont flared up against absolutism bourgeois revolutions led by forward officers. By decision of the "Holy Alliance" they were suppressed - in Italy by the Austrian troops, and in Spain - by the French army. But it was impossible to perpetuate the absolutist feudal order. Revolutions and national liberation wars covered more and more new countries and continents.

Soon after the victory over Napoleon, representatives of all European states (with the exception of Turkey) gathered in the capital of Austria to resolve issues related to the restoration of feudal orders in Europe and some of the former dynasties overthrown during the Napoleonic wars. Uniting all participants in the congress and another common task - the fight against revolutionary and democratic movements. In addition, the congress was to provide stable guarantees that would not allow the restoration of the Bonapartist regime in France and attempts to conquer Europe, as well as to satisfy the territorial claims of the victorious powers.

However, in the last paragraph the unity of Russia, England, Austria and Prussia was broken, especially on the question of the fate of Poland and Saxony. Russia insisted on the inclusion of Poland in the Russian Empire in the form of the Kingdom of Poland, promising to grant her a constitution and preserve her local institutions. Prussia intended to annex Saxony to its lands. These plans were opposed by England, Austria and France. On January 3, 1815, they signed a secret treaty directed against Prussia and Russia. As a result, Prussia received only part of Saxony, Russia - part of Poland.

The Congress of Vienna did not have time to finish its work when the news came of Napoleon's return to the breach, especially on the question of the fate of Poland and Saxony. Russia insisted on incorporating Poland into the Russian Empire in the form of the Kingdom of Poland, promising to grant it a constitution and preserve its local institutions. Prussia intended to annex Saxony to its lands. These plans were opposed by England, Austria and France. On January 3, 1815, they signed a secret treaty directed against Prussia and Russia. As a result, Prussia received only part of Saxony, Russia - part of Poland.

The Vienna Congress did not have time to finish its work when the news came of Napoleon's return to France (the so-called "Hundred Days"). The war resumed and soon ended with the victory of the Allies. On June 8, 1815, the final act of the Congress of Vienna was signed. It provided for the return of France to the borders of 1792, the forcible union of Belgium with Holland into the Kingdom of the Netherlands; restoration of the Sardinian kingdom in Italy with the return of Savoy and Nice to it. In addition, Austria restored its power in Venice and Lombardy, Prussia received Westphalia, the Rhineland and Pomerania.

Norway was taken from Napoleon's ally Denmark and annexed to Sweden. England consolidated the colonies conquered during the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, the most important of which were the island of Malta, the Cape region in southern Africa and the island of Ceylon.

The Congress of Vienna consolidated the political fragmentation of Germany. The German Confederation was created, which included 34 independent states and 4 free cities. Three foreign monarchs - the kings of England, Denmark and the Netherlands - were admitted as full members of the union as sovereigns of Hanover, Holstein and Luxembourg. However, the congress did not dare to restore all the German dynasties and completely eradicate the results of the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars.

The decisions of the Congress of Vienna contributed to the strengthening of feudal reaction and consolidated the new balance of power that had developed as a result of the defeat of the Napoleonic empire. In a number of cases, peoples were again subjected to foreign oppression in the interests of the victorious countries. In September 1815, the decisions of the Congress of Vienna were supplemented by an act establishing the Holy Alliance consisting of Austria, Prussia and Russia.

CHAPTER X

Reaction and liberalism

I. International relationships in the era of the Congress of Vienna and the Holy Alliance

268. Principles of the Congress of Vienna

The congress that met in Vienna after the deposition of Napoleon in the history of the 19th century received the same meaning as in the 17th century. belonged to the Peace of Westphalia. The Congress of Vienna was the natural conclusion of the coalition, overthrown Napoleon, because, having destroyed the empire and all its creations, the allies had to establish some kind of order in Europe. In their decisions, sovereigns and diplomats in 1814-1815. guided by several principles, which, however, did not always coincide with each other. Immersed in general principle legitimism i.e., the restoration of legal rights violated by the revolution and Napoleon, they were not able, and did not want to return possessions to all legitimate dynasties (for example, petty princes in Germany) and did not at all extend this principle to the old republics (Venice, Genoa, Ragusa, Holland, German imperial cities), because they had to reckon with accomplished facts, and on the other hand, did not trust the republican form. However, it was considered fair reward sovereigns who most contributed to the overthrow of Napoleon, and punish those states that opposed the allies (Saxony and Denmark). Finally, diplomats considered it useful protect Europe from restless France stronger minor states, increasing the possessions of France's immediate neighbors. Remaking the Map of Europe, Congress of Vienna cared about the political balance, but completely ignored principle of nationality politically separating nations that felt their unity, and uniting peoples alien to each other into one whole.

Europe in last years before the Congress of Vienna

269. Creation of the Congress of Vienna

Main territorial changes produced at the Congress of Vienna were the following. Russia withdrew from the struggle by the increased annexation of Finland (1809). Bessarabia (1812) and most of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw called kingdom of Poland. Alexander I wanted to get the whole Grand Duchy, but had to concede Poznan Prussia, a Austria- part of her losses in 1809 in Galicia, except for Krakow, which, together with its district, was turned into a free city. Austria, in addition, received Tyrol, Salzburg, Lombardy with Venice ( Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom) and Dalmatia (Kingdom of Illyria), Prussia, except for Poznan and the German regions lost according to the Tilsit peace, half of Saxony and a large area on the Rhine. On the borders of France Kingdom of the Netherlands created from Holland and Belgium, with the transfer of it to the King and the Duchy of Luxembourg in Germany. There was also strengthened the former kingdom of Sardinia the accession to it of Savoy and the former Republic of Genoa. Denmark was punished taking over Norway given to the Swedish king. In Spain and Portugal the old governments were restored. England took possession of the islands Malta and Helgoland and acquired a protectorate over ionian islands, which was very beneficial for her naval power. She also retained the conquered colonies. Italy according to the Vienna treatises of 1815, it was organized as follows. Kingdoms in Northern Italy Sardinian and Lombardo-Venetian annexed to Austria, and small duchies Modena, Lucca and Parma, Central Italy was Grand Duchy of Tuscany, inherited by the brother of the Austrian emperor, and Papal States. In southern Italy, at the cost of betraying Napoleon, Murat at first held out; but during the "hundred days" he went over to the side of Napoleon, was defeated and subsequently shot for attempting an uprising. AT Naples the old dynasty reigned. became the dominant political force in Italy Austria(through the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom and Tuscany). Especially a lot of trouble brought the Congress of Vienna the device Germany. Return to the old feudal system and medieval empire was unthinkable, but the desire of the progressive people of the era (for example, Stein) for political unification also could not be realized, because the idea of ​​national unity had not yet had time to penetrate deeply into the people's consciousness, and the princes of the former Confederation of the Rhine did not want to lose their power. The middle path was chosen. Instead of the former three and a half hundred principalities and republics, it was now recognized in Germany thirty eight state: one empire (Austria), five kingdoms (Prussia, Saxony, Hanover, Bavaria and Württemberg), 28 principalities with different titles (between them Luxembourg and Holstein, which were in the hands of the kings of the Dutch and Danish) and four free cities (Hamburg. Lübeck, Bremen and Frankfurt am Main). All these states formed from themselves German Confederation with a special allied diet in Frankfurt am Main chaired by Austria . This last state took at all dominance in Central Europe, dominating at the same time over fragmented Germany and Italy. The whole policy of Austria now consisted in the preservation of this position. Her leading minister, the prince Metternich, most of all took care that no changes should occur in Germany and Italy, since they could affect the German and Italian subjects of Austria and deprive her of the benefits of her occupied position. The second political power in Germany was Prussia, consisting of two main parts in the east (old lands) and west (Rhenish Prussia), between which lay the rest of Northern Germany. Such geographical position created for Prussia a dominant position in this part of the German alliance.

Europe after the Congress of Vienna. Map

270. Significance of the Congress of Vienna

Despite all the shortcomings of the order created by the Congress of Vienna, he ensured international peace in Europe for a long time. In the following decades, Europe experienced three eras of revolutionary upheavals (,, 1848), but they did not violate the peace between European states, and this state of affairs continued until the early fifties, that is, about forty years. The entire international order during this long period of time was based on the consent of the five great powers: Austria, England, Prussia, Russia and France ( pentarchy), although their interests often clashed with each other. First of all, in the Pentarchy there was a political division into three Eastern powers (Russia, Austria and Prussia), the former absolute monarchies, and two Western powers (France and England), which had constitutional arrangement. There were disagreements between the Eastern powers themselves: Austria and Russia had different types regarding Turkey. Russia at one time even drew closer to the Western powers (the Battle of Navarino, in which the fleets of Russia, England and France defeated the Turks in 1827), and in addition, both great German powers competed with each other in Germany. Displeasure also arose between England and France due to influence on minor states. Western Europe, due to predominance in the East and because of colonial interests. More than once in the course of forty years a war threatened to break out that could become a pan-European one, but all international misunderstandings were settled peacefully. On the other hand, the secondary states lost at that time the opportunity to conduct an independent policy and even arrange their own internal affairs in their own way, because the great powers recognized the right to intervene in these matters to suppress revolutions. The only opponent of this direction of policy was England, but the main organ of the policy of intervention became "

Autumn 1814 - 216 representatives of all European states, excluding the Turkish Empire, gathered in Vienna for the congress. Main role - Russia, England and Austria.

The goal of the participants is to satisfy their own aggressive territorial claims by redistributing Europe and the colonies.

Interests:

Russia - joining to his empire most of the territory of the abolished "Duchy of Warsaw". Support for feudal reaction and the strengthening of Russia's influence in Europe. Strengthening Austria and Prussia as a counterbalance to each other.

England - strove to secure a commercial, industrial and colonial monopoly for it and supported the policy of feudal reactions. Weakening of France and Russia.

Austria - defended the principles of feudal-absolutist reaction and the strengthening of the Austrian national oppression over the Slavic peoples, Italians and Hungarians. The weakening of the influence of Russia and Prussia.

Prussia - wanted to capture Saxony and gain important new possessions on the Rhine. She fully supported the feudal reaction and demanded the most merciless policy towards France.

France - opposed the deprivation of the Saxon king of the throne and possessions in favor of Prussia.

January 3, 1815 - alliance of England, Austria and France against Russia and Prussia. Through joint pressure, they forced the tsar and the Prussian king to make concessions.

Prussia- northern part of Saxony(the southern part remained an independent kingdom). Attached Rhine Province and Westphalia. This made it possible for Prussia to subsequently subjugate Germany. Joined Swedish Pomerania.

Royal Russia - part of the Duchy of Warsaw. Poznan and Gdansk remained in the hands of Prussia, and Galicia was again transferred to Austria. Saved Finland and Bessarabia.

England- secured Fr. Malta and the colonies captured from Holland and France.

Austria- dominion over northeastern Italy, Lombardy and Venice.

June 9, 1815 - the General Act of the Congress of Vienna is signed. The act provided for the creation of strong barriers near the borders of France: Belgium and Holland were united into a single kingdom of the Netherlands independent of France. A strong barrier against France was the new Rhine provinces of Prussia.

Congress has kept Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden the additions made by them under Napoleon to strengthen the South German states against France. Of the 19 self-governing cantons, the Swiss Confederation. In the northwest of Italy it was restored and strengthened Sardinian kingdom. Legitimate monarchies have been restored in many states. Creation German Confederation. Norway united with Sweden.

"Holy Union"- the maintenance of the Christian faith, the unquestioning obedience of subjects to their sovereigns, the maintenance of international order.

2. Vienna system: problems of periodization and features of formation

The results of the wars of the Napoleonic era determined the configuration of the new Vienna model of the system of international relations. The lecture analyzes the features of its functioning, disputes regarding the effectiveness of this model and its periodization. The course of the Vienna Congress is considered, as well as the main ideas laid down in the foundation of a new model of the system of international relations. The victorious powers saw the meaning of their collective international activity in the creation of reliable barriers against the spread of revolutions. Hence the appeal to the ideas of legitimism. Evaluation of the principles of legitimism. It is shown that quite a few objective factors acted against the conservation of the status quo that developed after 1815. In their list, an important place is occupied by the process of expanding the scope of systemicity, which came into conflict with the ideas of legitimism, and this gave rise to a whole series of new explosive problems.

The role of the congresses in Aachen, Tropadu and Verona in the consolidation of the weighty system, in the development of legal principles in the field of international relations. Further complication of the concept of “state interests”. The Eastern question and the appearance of the first cracks in the relations of the former allies in the anti-French coalition. Disputes about the interpretation of the principles of legitimism in the 20s. 19th century Revolutionary events of 1830 and the Vienna system.

The Vienna system: from stability to crisis

Despite certain frictions that existed in the relations of the great powers until the middle of the 19th century. The Vienna system was distinguished by high stability. Its guarantors managed to avoid head-on collisions and find solutions to the main controversial issues. This is not surprising, because at that time there were no forces in the international arena capable of resisting the creators of the Vienna system. The Eastern question was considered the most explosive problem, but even here, up to Crimean War the great powers kept the conflict potential within a legitimate framework. The watershed separating the phase of the stable development of the Vienna system from its crisis was 1848, when, under the pressure of internal contradictions generated by the stormy, unregulated development of bourgeois relations, an explosion occurred and a powerful revolutionary wave swept across the entire European continent. It analyzes its impact on the situation in the leading powers, shows how these events influenced the nature of their state interests and the overall balance of power in the international arena. The shift in forces that had begun sharply narrowed the possibilities for finding compromises in interstate conflicts. As a result, without serious modernization, the Vienna system could no longer effectively perform its functions.

Lecture 11. An attempt to modernize the Vienna system

The Crimean War, the first open military clash of the great powers after the creation of the Vienna system in 1815, convincingly demonstrated that the entire systemic mechanism had suffered a serious failure, and this raised the question of its future prospects to its full potential. In our scheme, the 50-60s. 19th century - the time of the deepest crisis of the Vienna system. The following alternative was put on the agenda: either in the wake of the crisis, the formation of a fundamentally new model of international relations will begin, or a serious modernization of the old model of international relations will be carried out. The solution to this fateful problem depended on how events would unfold in two key issues of world politics in those years - the unification of Germany and Italy.

History has made a fairly convincing choice in favor of the second scenario. It is shown how, in the course of the most acute political collisions, which several times developed into local wars, on the European continent, not a scrapping, but a renewal of the previous model of international relations gradually took place. What allows you to put forward this thesis? First, no one, de facto or de jure, has canceled the basic decisions taken at the congress in Vienna. Secondly, the conservative-protective principles that formed the backbone of all its essential characteristics, although cracked, remained in force in the end. Thirdly, the balance of forces, which made it possible to keep the system in a state of equilibrium, was restored after a series of shocks, and at first there were no cardinal shifts in its configuration. Finally, all the great powers retained the traditional Vienna system commitment to finding a compromise.

3. The so-called Holy Alliance of European monarchs against the revolution was a kind of ideological and, at the same time, military-political superstructure on the “Vienna system” of diplomatic agreements.

The events of the “hundred days”, which produced an exceptional impact on contemporaries, and especially on the participants in the Congress of Vienna: the support by the army and a significant part of the population of the new seizure of power by Napoleon, the lightning collapse of the first restoration of the Bourbons, gave rise in European reactionary circles to the thesis about the existence of some kind of All-European secret "revolutionary committee", gave a new impetus to their desire to strangle the "revolutionary spirit" everywhere, to put up an obstacle to revolutionary democratic and national liberation movements. In September 1815, the monarchs of Russia, Austria and Prussia signed and solemnly proclaimed in Paris an act establishing the "Holy Union of Monarchs and Peoples." The religious and mystical ideas contained in this document were opposed to the ideas of the French Revolution, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen of 1789.

However, the Holy Alliance was created not only for an ideological manifestation, it was also an instrument of action. The act declared the status quo of 1815 inviolable and established that in any attempt to violate it, the monarchs "in any case and in every place will give each other benefits, reinforcements and assistance." In order to give the Holy Alliance a pan-European character, Austria, Prussia and especially Russia achieved in 1815-1817. accession to it of all European states, except for the Pope, England and Muslim Turkey. However, England actually participated in the first years of the Holy Alliance as a member of the Quadruple Alliance (Russia, Austria, Prussia and England), recreated during the negotiations on the second Parisian world. It was the British Foreign Minister Lord Castlereagh (with the support of Metternich) who gave the text of the Treaty on the Quadruple Alliance such a wording that allowed its participants to intervene by force of arms in the affairs of other states of the union under the flag of protecting "the peace and prosperity of the peoples and safeguarding the peace of all Europe."

In the implementation of the policy of legitimism and the fight against the threat of revolution, different tactics were used. Until the early 1920s, the policy of the Holy Alliance was characterized by an attempt to oppose revolutionary ideas with pacifist phraseology and broad propaganda of religious and mystical ideas. In 1816-1820. The British and Russian Bible Societies, with active government support, distributed Bibles, gospels and other religious texts published in thousands of copies. F. Engels emphasized that at first the defense of the principle of legitimism was carried out “... under the guise of such sentimental phrases as “Holy Alliance”, “eternal peace”, “public good”, “mutual trust between the sovereign and subjects”, etc. etc., and then without any cover, with the help of a bayonet and a prison”6.

In the first years after the creation of the "Viennese system", in the politics of the European monarchies, along with an openly reactionary line, a certain tendency was preserved to adapt to the dictates of the times, to compromise with the upper strata of the European bourgeoisie. In particular, the all-European agreement on the freedom and order of navigation along the Rhine and Vistula, adopted at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and meeting the interests of commercial and industrial circles, went in this direction, which became the prototype for subsequent agreements of this kind (on the Danube, etc.) .

Some monarchs (primarily Alexander I) continued to use constitutional principles for their own purposes. In 1816-1820. with the support of Alexander I (and despite the resistance of Austria), on the basis of the decisions of the Vienna Congress on the German Confederation, moderate constitutions were introduced in the South German states - Württemberg, Baden, Bavaria and Hesse-Darmstadt.

In Prussia, the commission on the preparation of the constitution continued a long debate: the king promised to introduce it at the height of the wars with Napoleon in 1813 and 1815. Finally, on the eve of the Aachen Congress in 1818, some figures of Russian diplomacy (primarily I. Kapodistrias) proposed to include the question of granting “reasonable constitutions” by monarchs to subjects in a document prepared for discussion at this important international meeting. In March 1818, in a sensational speech in the Polish Sejm, Alexander I spoke of the possibility of extending "lawfully free institutions" to "all countries entrusted by Providence to my care." However, nothing came of these projections. The conservative-protective, openly reactionary trend was increasingly gaining the upper hand in the domestic and foreign policy of the main European monarchies. The Aachen Congress of 1818, in which the members of the Quadruple Alliance and France took part, therefore did not begin to solve the constitutional problem, but concentrated its efforts on the struggle against the "hundred days" emigrants. The Congress decided to withdraw the occupying troops from France, which had paid most of the indemnity, ahead of schedule. France was admitted to the ranks of the great powers and could henceforth participate on an equal footing in the meetings of the members of the Quadruple Alliance (it was renewed at the congress). The union of these powers was called the Pentarchy.

In general, the Holy Union at the first stage of its activity remained mainly a political and ideological superstructure over the "Viennese system". However, starting from European revolutions 20s of the XIX century. it has turned into a close union of its three main participants - Russia, Austria and Prussia, who will see the main task of the union only in the armed suppression of revolutions and national liberation movements of the 20-40s of the XIX century. in Europe and America. The “Viennese system” as a system of treaty obligations on the preservation of state borders in Europe will last longer. Its final collapse will occur only after the Crimean War.

4. The efforts of Russian diplomacy were also aimed at resolving the Eastern question in the key needed for Russia. The need to protect the southern borders of the country, the creation of favorable conditions for the economic flourishing of the Russian Black Sea region, the patronage of the interests of the Black Sea and Mediterranean trade of the Russian merchants demanded the consolidation of the beneficial regime for Russia of the two straits - the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, connecting the Black and Aegean Sea. Turkey was supposed to guarantee unhindered passage through the straits of Russian merchant ships and their closure for the navies of other states. The crisis of the Ottoman Empire, the growing national liberation movement of the Balkans and other peoples conquered by the Turks pushed Nicholas I to resolve the Eastern question as soon as possible.

However, even here Russia had to face the resistance of other great powers. England and Austria themselves were not averse to rounding off their possessions at the expense of Turkey and feared not only the strengthening of Russia's positions in the Balkans, but also its military presence in the Mediterranean. A certain amount of wariness in Vienna, London and Paris was caused by the ideas of pan-Slavism spreading in the advanced social circles of Russia and, in particular, plans to create a single federation of Slavic peoples under the rule of the Russian tsar. And although pan-Slavism did not become the banner of the official foreign policy Nicholas I, Russia nevertheless stubbornly defended its right to patronize the Orthodox peoples of Muslim Turkey.

The annexation of Transcaucasia at the beginning of the century caused an aggravation of Russian-Iranian contradictions. Relations with Persia remained tense in the second quarter of the 19th century. Russia was interested in strengthening its position in the Caucasus and in creating favorable foreign policy conditions for pacifying the revolt of a number of mountain tribes in the North Caucasus.

5. In 1848-1949 a wave of revolutions swept across Europe. The reactionary governments tried as far as possible to restore and preserve the system of IR that existed in Europe before 1848. The correlation of class forces within individual states and the content of the IR changed. The Holy Alliance declared its right to interfere in the internal affairs of any country where

the revolutionary movement could threaten the monarchical foundations of other states. The wave of European revolutions was repulsed, the "Viennese system" with its legitimate foundations was preserved, the shaken power of a number of monarchs was again restored.

6. Crimean War - major event in the history of the Moscow Region and foreign policy of the 19th century. The war was the result of the exacerbation of political, ideological, economic contradictions in the Middle East and the Balkans, as well as in the European arena as a whole - mainly between England, France, Turkey and Russia. The war grew out of the eastern crisis of the 50s, which began with

disagreements between France and Russia regarding the rights of the Catholic and Orthodox clergy in Palestine, which is a province of the Ottoman Empire. The defeat in the Crimean War demonstrated the weakness of the social and political system of the Russian Empire.

Bourgeois Europe has triumphed over feudal Russia. Russia's international prestige was greatly shaken. The Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, was a difficult and humiliating treaty for her. The Black Sea was declared neutral: it was forbidden to keep

German Navy, build coastal fortifications and arsenals. The southern borders of Russia turned out to be unprotected. The deprivation of Russia's long-standing right of preferential patronage to the Christian peoples of the Balkans weakened its influence on the peninsula. England, Austria and France signed an agreement to guarantee the independence and preservation of the integrity of the Ottoman Empire, in case of violation of which they could use force. The union of three states was joined by the Swedish-Norwegian kingdom in the north, and the Ottoman Empire in the south. The emerging new alignment of forces

called the "Crimean system". Russia found itself in international isolation. The influence of France and England increased. The Crimean War and the Congress of Paris became the boundary of an entire era in the history of the Moscow Region. The "Viennese system" finally ceased to exist.

7. Japan pursued a policy of isolation from the outside world. Strengthening the expansion of European powers and the United States in the Far East region, the development of shipping in the northwestern part Pacific Ocean contributed to the "discovery" of Japan. In the 50s, a struggle broke out between the powers

for penetrating and dominating Japan. According to the treaty signed between Russia and Japan of April 25, 1875, all of Sakhalin was recognized as belonging to Russia, and Russia ceded to Japan 18 islands that made up the Kuril archipelago in its northern and

middle part. The aggressive aspirations of Japan were quite clearly manifested already in the 70s of the XIX century. Korea, which is formally dependent on China, turned out to be the closest object of Japanese expansion. The US and Western powers also launched a series of military expeditions to forcibly open Korean ports. Korea opened 3 ports for Japanese trade. For Russia, the most important thing was the preservation of an independent Korea. On July 25, 1894 Japan captured Seoul and on September 1 declared war on China. At this time, she was convinced. That Russia, like other powers, will remain neutral. Russia's position was explained not only by its weakness in the Far East. Petersburg feared the possible entry into the war of England on the side of China. At this time, the danger of Japanese aggression was still underestimated. On January 24, 1904, Japan breaks off diplomatic relations with Russia and at the same time begins military operations against the Russian troops located in China, with the strategic task of defeating the Russian troops as soon as possible before they are completely concentrated in the Far East. Japanese

command of the main military goals set: complete dominance at sea. And on land, the Japanese first of all sought to capture Port Arthur and then spread their military successes to Korea and Manchuria, ousting the Russians from these regions. There were many bloody battles known in history: the battle of Port Arthur, Laolian, Mukden,

Tsushima battle. Immediately after the Battle of Tsushima, Japan turned to the United States with a request for mediation for peace. The Russian autocracy, intimidated by the impending revolution and general dissatisfaction in the country with the results of the Far Eastern campaign, agreed to sit down at the negotiating table. The negotiations were held in the American city of Portsmouth. On September 5, 1905, the Treaty of Portsmouth was signed between Russia and Japan. Under this agreement, the Russian government ceded to Japan the southern part of Sakhalin Island and renounced the right to lease

Kwantung Peninsula with Port Arthur and South Manchuria railway. The Russian government also recognized Japan's "special" interests in Korea. The signing of such an agreement did not bring victorious laurels to the Russian state and did not raise its prestige in the world.

Congress of Vienna 1814 - 1815 gg. - a pan-European conference, during which a system of treaties was developed aimed at restoring the feudal-absolutist monarchies destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789 andNapoleonic wars, and the new borders of the states of Europe were determined. At the congress held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815 under the chairmanship of the Austrian diplomat Count Metternich , representatives of all European countries (exceptOttoman Empire). The negotiations were held in the conditions of covert and overt rivalry, intrigues and behind-the-scenes conspiracies.

background

March 30, 1814 the allies entered Paris . In a few days Napoleon abdicated and went into exile on the island of Elba. On the french throne the Bourbon dynasty, overthrown by the revolution, returned in the face of Louis XVIII , brother of the executed king Louis XVI . The period of almost continuous bloody European wars is over.

Restoration, if possible, of the old absolutist-noble regime: in some places - feudal, in others - semi-serfdom; such was the social fundamental principle of the policy of the powers united after the end of the war. In this regard, the achievements of the powers that defeated France in 1814 could not be called lasting. The complete restoration of the pre-revolutionary regime both in the economy and in politics after the crushing blows inflicted by the French Revolution and Napoleon turned out to be not only difficult, but also hopeless.

Members

1. Russia Alexander I was represented at the congress,K. V. Nesselrode and A. K. Razumovsky(Johann von Anstette took part in the work of special commissions);
2. Great Britain - R. S. Castlereagh and A. W. Wellington;
3. Austria - Franz I and K. Metternich,
4. Prussia - K. A. Hardenberg, W. Humboldt,
5. France - Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord
6. Portugal - Pedro de Sousa Holstein de Palmela
7. Solutions
8. Europe after the Congress of Vienna
9. All decisions of the Congress of Vienna were collected in the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna. Congress authorized the inclusion of the territory of the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium) into the new Kingdom of the Netherlands, but all other possessions of Austria returned to control Habsburg , including Lombardy, Venetian region, Tuscany , Parma and Tyrol. Prussia got part of Saxony, a significant territory Westphalia and the Rhineland. Denmark, a former ally of France, lost Norway, transferred to Sweden. In Italy, the power of the Pope was restored the Vatican and the Papal States, and Bourbons returned the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The German Confederation was also formed. Part of created Napoleon Duchy of Warsawbecame part of the Russian Empire under the nameKingdom of Poland, and the Russian Emperor Alexander I became the Polish king. Austria received the southern part of Lesser Poland and most of Chervonnaya Rus. The western lands of Greater Poland with the city of Poznan and the Polish Pomerania returned to Prussia. This division of Poland between the powers in historical science sometimes distinguished as"The Fourth Partition of Poland".

Meaning

The Congress determined the new alignment of forces in Europe that had developed by the end of the Napoleonic Wars, designating for a long time the leading role of the victorious countries - Russia, Austria and Great Britain - in international relations.

As a result of the congress,Vienna System of International Relations and was created Holy Alliance of European States, which had the goal of ensuring the inviolability of European monarchies.