VIENNA CONGRESS of 1814-15, an international congress that ended the wars of the coalitions of European powers with Napoleonic France. He met in Vienna in September 1814 - June 1815. 216 representatives of all European states (except Turkey) took part in its work, headed by the winners of Napoleon I Bonaparte - Russia (Alexander I, K. V. Nesselrode, A. K. Razumovsky, G. O. Stackelberg), Great Britain (R. S. Castlereagh, later A. Wellington, C. Stewart and W. Cathcart), Prussia (Friedrich Wilhelm III, C. A. von Hardenberg, C. W. von Humboldt) and Austria [Franz I (Franz II), K. Metternich, F. Genz, K. F. Schwarzenberg]. The highest European nobility gathered in Vienna - 2 emperors, 4 kings, 2 crown princes, 3 grand duchesses and 250 sovereign princes. One of the last to arrive in Vienna was a French delegation headed by Ch. M. Talleyrand.
The congress participants set themselves the following main tasks: 1) the restoration of pre-revolutionary orders in Europe, primarily the restoration of overthrown dynasties; 2) territorial redistribution in the interests of the victorious powers; 3) the creation of guarantees against the return to power of Napoleon and the resumption of French wars of conquest; 4) the creation of a system to combat the revolutionary danger, guaranteeing the European monarchy from shocks in the future.
Congress of Vienna took place in the form of bilateral consultations and negotiations between representatives of individual states, concluding treaties and agreements among themselves. The delegates came together only once - to sign the final document. Numerous balls and other secular entertainments were organized for the participants of the Congress of Vienna, which gave grounds to the Austrian diplomat Prince de Ligne to call it a "dancing congress."
The four victorious powers that signed the Chaumont Treaty of 1814 attempted to reach an agreement in advance on all the most important issues in order to impose their will on France and the rest of the congress participants. However, the disagreements that emerged between them regarding the fate of Poland and Saxony allowed Ch. M. Talleyrand not only to join the leading “four”, turning it into the “five”, and then into the “eight” (due to the inclusion of Spain, Portugal and Sweden in the commission ), but also successfully influence the decisions made.
The congress revealed three different approaches to the solution of the question of the post-war structure of Europe. On the initial stage the idea of legitimism dominated, any political changes that had taken place on the continent since 1789 were rejected, and a demand was put forward to fully restore the "legal order" in Europe, guaranteeing against a new revolutionary explosion. The most active supporter of this approach was Sh. M. Talleyrand. Without rejecting the idea of restoration in principle, Alexander I considered it necessary to take into account the irreversibility of many changes in Europe. Ultimately, the policy of petty intrigues and combinations of various interests, imposed by K. Metternich, prevailed at the congress. Ideologically, this policy proceeded from the principles of legitimism, but in its practical implementation it expressed the selfish interests of the main participants in the congress. Metternich sought to ensure Austrian hegemony in a divided Germany, strengthen Austria's position in Italy and the Balkans, and also prevent the inclusion of all of Poland into Russia.
Alexander I, who provided big influence on the course of the congress, advocated the establishment of a political balance, which was supposed to contribute to the strengthening of Russia's influence on the continent. He was interested in continuing the rivalry between Austria and Prussia and in creating a counterbalance to them in the person of France, whose excessive weakening seemed to him unacceptable. Prussia, insisting on taking the most severe measures against defeated France, sought to annex Saxony and part of the Rhine principalities. Great Britain, interested in maintaining European balance and in consolidating its dominant position on the seas and in the colonies, acted in concert with Prussia against France, Austria and Russia, not wanting to allow any of them to strengthen to the detriment of British interests. France, striving to ensure the adoption of the most acceptable decisions by the Congress of Vienna, saw greatest danger on the part of Prussia and with all her might resisted the satisfaction of Prussian claims to Saxony and the Rhine regions. Sh. M. Talleyrand was in solidarity with K. Metternich on the issue of the absorption of Poland by Russia. On January 3, 1815, France signed a secret treaty with Great Britain and Austria on joint actions at the Congress and mutual assistance in case of danger from other powers. The treaty was directed against Prussia and Russia and forced Friedrich Wilhelm III and Alexander I to make concessions on the Saxon and Polish issues.
The aggravated contradictions between the participants in the Congress of Vienna threatened to disrupt it, when in the first days of March 1815 it became known about the flight of Napoleon I from the island of Elba and his campaign against Paris (see "The Hundred Days"). All disputes were immediately abandoned. The member states of the Congress of Vienna formed the 7th Anti-French Coalition against Napoleon and renewed the Chaumont Treaty. On June 9, 1815, a few days before the battle of Waterloo, representatives of Russia, France, Prussia, Austria, Great Britain and Switzerland signed the final general act of the Congress of Vienna, which consisted of 121 articles and 17 annexes (until 1820, 35 states joined it).
This document introduced significant changes in the territorial and political structure of Europe and formulated the results of the redistribution of Europe and the colonies between the winners of Napoleon. It provided for the deprivation of France of conquests, the creation of “barriers” along its borders, which were to be the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Switzerland, strengthened by expanding its borders and including strategically important mountain passes, as well as Prussia, which expanded its territory by annexing the Rhine provinces. . At the same time, France managed to keep itself within the borders of 1792, determined by the Peace of Paris in 1814, losing the Saarland and several border fortresses in the east. It was charged an indemnity of 700 million francs, and its territory was subject to foreign occupation for a period of 3 to 5 years. Russia received a significant part of Poland with Warsaw (the Kingdom of Poland), but was forced to abandon its claims to the Tarnopol district, ceding it to Austria. She also secured for herself Finland and Bessarabia, conquered by her in 1809 and 1812. Krakow was declared a free city under the auspices of Russia, Austria and Prussia (see Republic of Krakow). Austria was restored within the borders of 1792, but without the Austrian Netherlands and the lands in the southwestern part of Germany. In addition to Tarnopol, Venice, Lombardy, Tyrol and Dalmatia were transferred under her authority. Representatives of the House of Habsburg were seated on the thrones of Parma and Tuscany. She managed to gain a predominant influence in Germany - K. Metternich achieved the hegemony of Austria in the German Union of 1815-66, created by an act of 8/6/1815, most of the articles of which were included in the final act of the Congress of Vienna.
Prussia received the northern part of Saxony (South Saxony retained its independence). In compensation, Poznan, most of Westphalia, the Rhine Province, the island of Rügen and Swedish Pomerania went to Prussia. Sweden received Norway, which was separated from Denmark, a former ally of Napoleon I. In Italy, the Sardinian kingdom was restored, to which Savoy and Nice were returned. The UK secured most conquered territories, including the island of Malta, the Cape Colony in South Africa and the island of Ceylon. The Ionian Islands were also under the British protectorate, which provided Great Britain with a dominant position in the Mediterranean. In Spain and Portugal, the power of the dynasties overthrown by Napoleon I was restored.
The Vienna Declaration, concluded on March 20, 1815, concerning the fate of Switzerland, was included in the General Act of the Congress of Vienna in the form of Appendix XI and repeated in Articles 74-84 of the Act. She proclaimed the “eternal neutrality” of Switzerland, recognized the integrity and inviolability of the 19 cantons of the Helvetic Union, attached 3 more cantons to them and created the Swiss Confederation on the basis of this association. At the Congress of Vienna, regulations were adopted for international navigation and the collection of tolls on rivers serving as the border of states or passing through the territory of several states (Rhine, Moselle, Meuse, Scheldt, etc.).
One of the appendices to the final act of the Congress of Vienna contained a formal ban on the slave trade. The Vienna Congress for the first time established a unified division into "classes" of diplomatic agents and determined the order of their seniority when taking places at negotiations and when signing treaties (in alphabetical order of the French spelling of a particular state). The system of international relations created at the Congress of Vienna was supplemented by the conclusion Holy Union(September 1815), the terms of the Peace of Paris in 1815 and the renewal of the alliance between Russia, Great Britain, Austria and Prussia (November 1815). The Congress of Vienna consolidated the new balance of power in Europe after the collapse of the Napoleonic empire. This system lasted until the middle of the 19th century and finally collapsed with the completion of the unification of Italy and Germany.
Publication: Martens F. F. Collection of treatises and conventions concluded by Russia with foreign powers. SPb., 1876. T. 3. S.207-533.
Lit .: Zak L. A. Monarchs against the peoples. M., 1966; Foreign policy Russia XIX and the beginning of the twentieth century. M., 1972. Ser. 1. T. 8; Alsop S.M. The Congress dances. N.Y., 1984; Kuznetsova G. A. Congress of Vienna // History foreign policy Russia. 1st half of the XIX century M., 1995.
Formation of the Holy Alliance. On June 9, 1815, the final act of the Congress of Vienna was signed, where its main decisions were formulated. France returned to the borders of 1792 without losing its own territories and paid the winners 700 million francs indemnity. In France, Spain and the Kingdom of Naples, the power of the Bourbons was restored. Great Britain secured a part of the former French and Dutch colonies - the islands of Malta and Ceylon, the Cape colony in southern Africa, received the right to control the Ionian Islands in the Mediterranean Sea. At the insistence of Great Britain, the entire French navy was transferred to the Allies. Russia received the former Duchy of Warsaw and retained the previously annexed Finland and Bessarabia. She returned Ternopil to Austria, which had been presented to her by Napoleon in 1809, and received others from the Austrian emperor. Ukrainian lands- Kholmshchyna and Podlyashye. kept political fragmentation Italy. Austria regained its power over Lombardy and received Venice. The Sardinian kingdom was strengthened, to which Savoy, Nice and the territory of the Republic of Genoa were included. The Papal States and the Kingdom of Naples were restored. Instead of 350 German secular and spiritual state formations that were part of the former Holy Roman Empire before Napoleonic Wars, by increasing they created 39, which together constituted the German Confederation, headed by a common diet. A Swiss confederation of 19 cantons was created, which received important alpine passes and proclaimed eternal neutrality. Belgium and Luxembourg joined Holland, Norway joined Sweden, and Schleswig and Holstein joined Denmark. Prussia received North Saxony, the left bank of the Rhine, most of Westphalia, Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rügen.
To maintain the system of territorial changes being carried out in Vienna and to combat revolutionary movements in Europe, at the suggestion Russian emperor Alexander I September 25, 1815 in Paris, the monarchs of Austria, Prussia and Russia signed an act establishing the Holy Alliance. Later, France and most European states joined it. The nature of the activities of the Holy Alliance changed significantly after the congress in the city of Troppau in 1820, where the right of military intervention in the internal affairs of other states was proclaimed in the event of the outbreak of national liberation uprisings, revolutions, etc.
Long wars, processes in the countries conquered by Napoleon and the failure of his Russian campaign were the main factors that led to the collapse of the First Empire in France.
The defeat of Napoleon was the reason for the supporters of the "old order" to try to restore it and destroy all the changes that had taken place during the revolution.
The Vienna Congress for the first time developed a system of treaties that regulated international relations and fixed new borders throughout Europe. but territorial changes, caused by the decisions of the congress, corresponded exclusively to the interests of the monarchs of the countries - the winners of Napoleon.
Autumn 1814 - 216 representatives of all European states, excluding the Turkish Empire, gathered in Vienna for the congress. Main role - Russia, England and Austria.
The goal of the participants is to satisfy their own aggressive territorial claims by redistributing Europe and the colonies.
Interests:
Russia - joining to his empire most of the territory of the abolished "Duchy of Warsaw". Support for feudal reaction and the strengthening of Russia's influence in Europe. Strengthening Austria and Prussia as a counterbalance to each other.
England - strove to secure a commercial, industrial and colonial monopoly for it and supported the policy of feudal reactions. Weakening of France and Russia.
Austria - defended the principles of feudal-absolutist reaction and the strengthening of the Austrian national oppression over the Slavic peoples, Italians and Hungarians. The weakening of the influence of Russia and Prussia.
Prussia - wanted to capture Saxony and gain important new possessions on the Rhine. She fully supported the feudal reaction and demanded the most merciless policy towards France.
France - opposed the deprivation of the Saxon king of the throne and possessions in favor of Prussia.
January 3, 1815 - alliance of England, Austria and France against Russia and Prussia. Through joint pressure, they forced the tsar and the Prussian king to make concessions.
Prussia- northern part of Saxony(the southern part remained an independent kingdom). Attached Rhine Province and Westphalia. This made it possible for Prussia to subsequently subjugate Germany. Joined Swedish Pomerania.
Royal Russia - part of the Duchy of Warsaw. Poznan and Gdansk remained in the hands of Prussia, and Galicia was again transferred to Austria. Saved Finland and Bessarabia.
England- secured Fr. Malta and the colonies captured from Holland and France.
Austria- dominion over northeastern Italy, Lombardy and Venice.
June 9, 1815 - the General Act of the Congress of Vienna is signed. The act provided for the creation of strong barriers near the borders of France: Belgium and Holland were united into a single kingdom of the Netherlands independent of France. A strong barrier against France was the new Rhine provinces of Prussia.
Congress has kept Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden the additions made by them under Napoleon to strengthen the South German states against France. Of the 19 self-governing cantons, the Swiss Confederation. In the northwest of Italy it was restored and strengthened Sardinian kingdom. Legitimate monarchies have been restored in many states. Creation German Confederation. Norway united with Sweden.
"Holy Union"- the maintenance of the Christian faith, the unquestioning obedience of subjects to their sovereigns, the maintenance of international order.
2. Vienna system: problems of periodization and features of formation
The results of the wars of the Napoleonic era determined the configuration of the new Vienna model of the system of international relations. The lecture analyzes the features of its functioning, disputes regarding the effectiveness of this model and its periodization. The course of the Vienna Congress is considered, as well as the main ideas laid down in the foundation of a new model of the system of international relations. The victorious powers saw the meaning of their collective international activity in the creation of reliable barriers against the spread of revolutions. Hence the appeal to the ideas of legitimism. Evaluation of the principles of legitimism. It is shown that quite a few objective factors acted against the conservation of the status quo that developed after 1815. In their list, an important place is occupied by the process of expanding the scope of systemicity, which came into conflict with the ideas of legitimism, and this gave rise to a whole series of new explosive problems.
The role of the congresses in Aachen, Tropadu and Verona in the consolidation of the weighty system, in the development of legal principles in the field of international relations. Further complication of the concept of “state interests”. The Eastern question and the appearance of the first cracks in the relations of the former allies in the anti-French coalition. Disputes about the interpretation of the principles of legitimism in the 20s. 19th century Revolutionary events of 1830 and the Vienna system.
The Vienna system: from stability to crisis
Despite certain frictions that existed in the relations of the great powers until the middle of the 19th century. The Vienna system was distinguished by high stability. Its guarantors managed to avoid head-on collisions and find solutions to the main controversial issues. This is not surprising, because at that time there were no forces in the international arena capable of resisting the creators of the Vienna system. The Eastern question was considered the most explosive problem, but here, right up to the Crimean War, the great powers kept the conflict potential within a legitimate framework. The watershed separating the phase of the stable development of the Vienna system from its crisis was 1848, when, under the pressure of internal contradictions generated by the stormy, unregulated development of bourgeois relations, an explosion occurred and a powerful revolutionary wave swept across the entire European continent. It analyzes its impact on the situation in the leading powers, shows how these events influenced the nature of their state interests and the overall balance of power in the international arena. The shift in forces that had begun sharply narrowed the possibilities for finding compromises in interstate conflicts. As a result, without serious modernization, the Vienna system could no longer effectively perform its functions.
Lecture 11. An attempt to modernize the Vienna system
The Crimean War, the first open military clash of the great powers after the creation of the Vienna system in 1815, convincingly demonstrated that the entire systemic mechanism had suffered a serious failure, and this raised the question of its future prospects to its full potential. In our scheme, the 50-60s. 19th century - the time of the deepest crisis of the Vienna system. The following alternative was put on the agenda: either in the wake of the crisis, the formation of a fundamentally new model of international relations will begin, or a serious modernization of the old model of international relations will be carried out. The solution to this fateful problem depended on how events would unfold in two key issues of world politics in those years - the unification of Germany and Italy.
History has made a fairly convincing choice in favor of the second scenario. It is shown how, in the course of the most acute political collisions, which several times developed into local wars, on the European continent, not a scrapping, but a renewal of the previous model of international relations gradually took place. What allows you to put forward this thesis? First, no one, de facto or de jure, has canceled the basic decisions taken at the congress in Vienna. Secondly, the conservative-protective principles that formed the backbone of all its essential characteristics, although cracked, remained in force in the end. Thirdly, the balance of forces, which made it possible to keep the system in a state of equilibrium, was restored after a series of shocks, and at first there were no cardinal shifts in its configuration. Finally, all the great powers retained the traditional Vienna system commitment to finding a compromise.
3. The so-called Holy Alliance of European monarchs against the revolution was a kind of ideological and, at the same time, military-political superstructure on the “Vienna system” of diplomatic agreements.
The events of the “hundred days”, which produced an exceptional impact on contemporaries, and especially on the participants in the Congress of Vienna: the support by the army and a significant part of the population of the new seizure of power by Napoleon, the lightning collapse of the first restoration of the Bourbons, gave rise in European reactionary circles to the thesis about the existence of some kind of All-European secret "revolutionary committee", gave a new impetus to their desire to strangle the "revolutionary spirit" everywhere, to put up an obstacle to revolutionary democratic and national liberation movements. In September 1815, the monarchs of Russia, Austria and Prussia signed and solemnly proclaimed in Paris an act establishing the "Holy Union of Monarchs and Peoples." The religious and mystical ideas contained in this document were opposed to the ideas of the French Revolution, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen of 1789.
However, the Holy Alliance was created not only for an ideological manifestation, it was also an instrument of action. The act declared the status quo of 1815 unshakable and established that in any attempt to violate it, the monarchs "in any case and in every place will give each other benefits, reinforcements and assistance." In order to give the Holy Alliance a pan-European character, Austria, Prussia and especially Russia achieved in 1815-1817. accession to it of all European states, except for the Pope, England and Muslim Turkey. However, England actually participated in the first years of the activities of the Holy Alliance as a member of the Quadruple Alliance (Russia, Austria, Prussia and England), recreated during the negotiations on the second peace of Paris. It was the British Foreign Minister Lord Castlereagh (with the support of Metternich) who gave the text of the Treaty on the Quadruple Alliance such a wording that allowed its participants to intervene by force of arms in the affairs of other states of the union under the flag of protecting "the peace and prosperity of the peoples and safeguarding the peace of all Europe."
In the implementation of the policy of legitimism and the fight against the threat of revolution, different tactics were used. Until the early 1920s, the policy of the Holy Alliance was characterized by an attempt to oppose revolutionary ideas with pacifist phraseology and broad propaganda of religious and mystical ideas. In 1816-1820. The British and Russian Bible Societies, with active government support, distributed Bibles, gospels and other religious texts published in thousands of copies. F. Engels emphasized that at first the defense of the principle of legitimism was carried out “... under the guise of such sentimental phrases as “Holy Alliance”, “eternal peace”, “public good”, “mutual trust between the sovereign and subjects”, etc. etc., and then without any cover, with the help of a bayonet and a prison”6.
In the first years after the creation of the "Viennese system", in the politics of the European monarchies, along with an openly reactionary line, a certain tendency was preserved to adapt to the dictates of the times, to compromise with the upper strata of the European bourgeoisie. In particular, the all-European agreement on the freedom and order of navigation along the Rhine and Vistula, adopted at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and meeting the interests of commercial and industrial circles, went in this direction, which became the prototype for subsequent agreements of this kind (on the Danube, etc.) .
Some monarchs (primarily Alexander I) continued to use constitutional principles for their own purposes. In 1816-1820. with the support of Alexander I (and despite the resistance of Austria), on the basis of the decisions of the Vienna Congress on the German Confederation, moderate constitutions were introduced in the South German states - Württemberg, Baden, Bavaria and Hesse-Darmstadt.
In Prussia, the commission on the preparation of the constitution continued a long debate: the king promised to introduce it at the height of the wars with Napoleon in 1813 and 1815. Finally, on the eve of the Aachen Congress in 1818, some figures of Russian diplomacy (primarily I. Kapodistrias) proposed to include the question of granting “reasonable constitutions” by monarchs to subjects in a document prepared for discussion at this important international meeting. In March 1818, in a sensational speech in the Polish Sejm, Alexander I spoke of the possibility of extending "lawfully free institutions" to "all countries entrusted by providence to my care." However, nothing came of these projections. The conservative-protective, openly reactionary trend was increasingly gaining the upper hand in the domestic and foreign policy of the main European monarchies. The Aachen Congress of 1818, which was attended by members of the Quadruple Alliance and France, therefore did not begin to solve the constitutional problem, but concentrated its efforts on the struggle against the emigrants of the "hundred days". The Congress decided to withdraw the occupying troops from France, which had paid most of the indemnity, ahead of schedule. France was admitted to the ranks of the great powers and could henceforth participate on an equal footing in the meetings of the members of the Quadruple Alliance (it was renewed at the congress). The union of these powers was called the Pentarchy.
In general, the Holy Union at the first stage of its activity remained mainly a political and ideological superstructure over the "Viennese system". However, starting from European revolutions 20s of the XIX century. it has turned into a close union of its three main participants - Russia, Austria and Prussia, who will see the main task of the union only in the armed suppression of revolutions and national liberation movements of the 20-40s of the XIX century. in Europe and America. The “Viennese system” as a system of treaty obligations on the preservation of state borders in Europe will last longer. Its final collapse will occur only after the Crimean War.
4. The efforts of Russian diplomacy were also aimed at resolving the Eastern question in the key needed for Russia. The need to protect the southern borders of the country, the creation of favorable conditions for the economic flourishing of the Russian Black Sea region, the patronage of the interests of the Black Sea and Mediterranean trade of the Russian merchants demanded the consolidation of the beneficial regime for Russia of the two straits - the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, connecting the Black and Aegean Sea. Turkey was supposed to guarantee unhindered passage through the straits of Russian merchant ships and their closure for the navies of other states. The crisis of the Ottoman Empire, the growing national liberation movement of the Balkans and other peoples conquered by the Turks pushed Nicholas I to a speedy solution to the Eastern question.
However, even here Russia had to face the resistance of other great powers. England and Austria themselves were not averse to rounding off their possessions at the expense of Turkey and feared not only the strengthening of Russia's positions in the Balkans, but also its military presence in the Mediterranean. A certain amount of wariness in Vienna, London and Paris was caused by the ideas of pan-Slavism spreading in the advanced social circles of Russia and, in particular, plans to create a single federation of Slavic peoples under the rule of the Russian tsar. And although pan-Slavism did not become the banner of the official foreign policy of Nicholas I, Russia nevertheless stubbornly defended its right to patronize the Orthodox peoples of Muslim Turkey.
The annexation of Transcaucasia at the beginning of the century caused an aggravation of Russian-Iranian contradictions. Relations with Persia remained tense in the second quarter of the 19th century. Russia was interested in strengthening its position in the Caucasus and in creating favorable foreign policy conditions for pacifying the rebellion of a number of mountain tribes in the North Caucasus.
5. In 1848-1949 a wave of revolutions swept across Europe. The reactionary governments tried as far as possible to restore and preserve the system of IR that existed in Europe before 1848. The correlation of class forces within individual states and the content of IR changed. The Holy Alliance declared its right to interfere in the internal affairs of any country where
the revolutionary movement could threaten the monarchical foundations of other states. The wave of European revolutions was repulsed, the "Viennese system" with its legitimate foundations was preserved, the shaken power of a number of monarchs was again restored.
6. Crimean War - major event in the history of the Moscow Region and foreign policy of the 19th century. The war was the result of the exacerbation of political, ideological, economic contradictions in the Middle East and the Balkans, as well as in the European arena as a whole - mainly between England, France, Turkey and Russia. The war grew out of the eastern crisis of the 50s, which began with
disagreements between France and Russia regarding the rights of the Catholic and Orthodox clergy in Palestine, which is a province of the Ottoman Empire. The defeat in the Crimean War demonstrated the weakness of the social and political system of the Russian Empire.
Bourgeois Europe has triumphed over feudal Russia. Russia's international prestige was greatly shaken. The Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, was a difficult and humiliating treaty for her. The Black Sea was declared neutral: it was forbidden to keep
German Navy, build coastal fortifications and arsenals. The southern borders of Russia turned out to be unprotected. The deprivation of Russia's long-standing right of preferential patronage to the Christian peoples of the Balkans weakened its influence on the peninsula. England, Austria and France signed an agreement to guarantee the independence and preservation of the integrity of the Ottoman Empire, in case of violation of which they could use force. The union of three states was joined by the Swedish-Norwegian kingdom in the north, and the Ottoman Empire in the south. The emerging new alignment of forces
called the "Crimean system". Russia found itself in international isolation. The influence of France and England increased. The Crimean War and the Congress of Paris became the boundary of an entire era in the history of the Moscow Region. The "Viennese system" finally ceased to exist.
7. Japan pursued a policy of isolation from the outside world. Strengthening the expansion of European powers and the United States in the Far East region, the development of shipping in the northwestern part Pacific Ocean contributed to the "discovery" of Japan. In the 50s, a struggle broke out between the powers
for penetrating and dominating Japan. According to the treaty signed between Russia and Japan of April 25, 1875, all of Sakhalin was recognized as belonging to Russia, and Russia ceded to Japan 18 islands that made up the Kuril archipelago in its northern and
middle part. The aggressive aspirations of Japan were quite clearly manifested already in the 70s of the XIX century. Korea, which is formally dependent on China, turned out to be the closest object of Japanese expansion. The US and Western powers also launched a series of military expeditions to forcibly open Korean ports. Korea opened 3 ports for Japanese trade. For Russia, the most important thing was the preservation of an independent Korea. On July 25, 1894 Japan captured Seoul and on September 1 declared war on China. At this time, she was convinced. That Russia, like other powers, will remain neutral. Russia's position was explained not only by its weakness in the Far East. Petersburg feared the possible entry into the war of England on the side of China. At this time, the danger of Japanese aggression was still underestimated. On January 24, 1904, Japan breaks off diplomatic relations with Russia and at the same time begins military operations against the Russian troops located in China, with the strategic task of defeating the Russian troops as soon as possible before they are completely concentrated in the Far East. Japanese
command of the main military goals set: complete dominance at sea. And on land, the Japanese first of all sought to capture Port Arthur and then spread their military successes to Korea and Manchuria, ousting the Russians from these regions. There were many bloody battles known in history: the battle of Port Arthur, Laolian, Mukden,
Tsushima battle. Immediately after the Battle of Tsushima, Japan turned to the United States with a request for mediation for peace. The Russian autocracy, intimidated by the impending revolution and general dissatisfaction in the country with the results of the Far Eastern campaign, agreed to sit down at the negotiating table. The negotiations were held in the American city of Portsmouth. On September 5, 1905, the Treaty of Portsmouth was signed between Russia and Japan. Under this agreement, the Russian government ceded to Japan the southern part of Sakhalin Island and renounced the right to lease
Kwantung Peninsula with Port Arthur and South Manchuria railway. The Russian government also recognized Japan's "special" interests in Korea. The signing of such an agreement did not bring victorious laurels to the Russian state and did not raise its prestige in the world.
Congress of Vienna - international congress that ended the Napoleonic wars; took place in Vienna in September 1814 - June 1815. It was attended by representatives of all European states, except Turkey. The former dynasties were restored, the borders were revised and fixed, a number of treaties were concluded, resolutions and declarations were adopted, which were included in the General Act and annexes. The system of relations between the leading European states, worked out at the Congress of Vienna, lasted until the second half of the 19th century. Already after the end of the congress, on September 26, 1815, Russia, Austria and Prussia signed in Paris an act on the formation of the Holy Alliance.
the Vienna Congress of 1814-1815, the international congress that ended the wars of the coalitions of European powers against Napoleonic France; was convened on the initiative of the victorious powers - Russia, England, Austria and Prussia, to-rye carried out the actual. guidance to them.
Held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815. Representatives of all European countries took part in V. to. powers other than Turkey. The goals of V. to. were: the restoration of the feuds, the orders liquidated during the Great French. revolution and Napoleonic wars; restoration of a number of overthrown dynasties; fight against revolution. and nat.-liberate, by movement; the creation of stable guarantees preventing the resumption in France of the Bonapartist regime and attempts to conquer Europe; satisfaction ter. the claims of the victors of Napoleon by redistributing Europe and the colonies. On a number of issues, the goals of the participants in the V. to. did not coincide. England sought to trade and economic. domination in Europe, to the strengthening of Prussia in opposition to both France and Russia, the creation of a barrier from neighboring states near the borders of France and the preservation of the invaders. her during the French wars. and goal. colonies. Austria did everything possible to prevent the strengthening of Russia and Prussia and to ensure its hegemony in Germany. The Prussian policy was based on the desire to get Saxony and strategically important lands on the Rhine, which did not meet the interests of Austria and France, who preferred to see Saxony as an independent buffer near the borders of Prussia. Russia intended to create a Kingdom of Poland under its own auspices, which caused discontent in England, Austria and France and brought these powers closer in positions of opposition to Russia. The contradictions between the allies skillfully took advantage of the head of the French. the delegation of Talleyrand, who achieved the promotion of France to the number of leading states. Jan 3 1815 England, Austria and France signed a secret treaty against Prussia and Russia. These two countries had no choice but to make concessions on the Polish-Saxon issue. When solving the Italian question, Austria sought to establish its dominance in Italy and suppress any tendencies towards its unification. Austria was actively supported by England. When the work of V. to. was nearing the end, the news came of the landing of Napoleon in France on March 1, 1815 (see "One Hundred Days"). The members of the congress stopped the disputes and created a new coalition against Napoleon. The Great Revolution, which culminated in the signing of the final (general) act on June 9, 1815, redrawn the map of Europe, disregarding the national interests of the peoples of Europe. It provided for the deprivation of France of conquests and the creation of barrier states near its borders. The strongest barrier against France was the Rhine provinces of Prussia. Switzerland was strengthened by expanding its borders and incorporating strategically important mountain passes into its composition. The Kingdom of Sardinia was restored in northwestern Italy, and Austrian Lombardy and Venice played the role of bridgeheads against France east of it. The former Grand Duchy of Warsaw (received the name of the Kingdom of Poland) went to Russia, except for Thorn, Poznan, Vost. Galicia and Krakow with the district, to-rum was. given the status of a "free city". Austria again established its dominance in the North-East. Italy, received Vost. Galicia and secured the dominant influence in the newly formed German Confederation, created primarily to repel a possible French attack. Prussia acquired the sowing. part of Saxony, Poznan, as well as extensive ter. on the left bank of the Rhine and most of Westphalia - important in the economy. and strategist, regarding the area of Germany. As a result of acquisitions in the west, Prussia began to border on France and the Kingdom of the Netherlands, formed by the union of Belgium and Holland. But ter. Prussia turned out to be consisting of two divided parts. In the future, this gave her additional arguments to justify her expansionist policy. Prussia also received Fr. Rügen and Swede. Pomerania (see the Kiel peace treaties of 1814), Norway was given to Sweden. Italy was fragmented. on a number of individual state-in. V. to. legitimized the colony, the seizures of England, which secured part of the colonies of Holland and France (the island of Malta, the Cape Colony in southern Africa, the island of Ceylon). In conclusion, the general act of V. to. as appendices included: Declaration on the cessation of the slave trade; Decree on free navigation on rivers; position regarding diplomacy. agencies (Vienna Regulation); Act on the constitution of the German Union and other documents. The system of relations created by the V. to., was supplemented by the formation of the "Holy Alliance" (1815), concluded by the reactionary. pr-you European. state-in to strengthen the fight against the revolution. and national-liberate. movements. Nov. 1815 the second was signed Parisian world. Engels wrote that “after 1815, in all countries, the anti-revolutionary party held the reins of government in its hands. Feudal aristocrats ruled in all cabinets from London to Naples, from Lisbon to St. Petersburg ”(Marx K., Engels F. Soch. Ed. 2nd. Vol. 2, pp. 573-574). The first feels. blows to the system of the Vienna treaties of 1815 were inflicted by revolutions in France, Spain, Portugal and southern Italy in the beginning. 30s 19th century The Crimean War (1853-1856), the reunification of Italy (1860-61) and the unification of Germany (1866-71) led to its final collapse.
S. I. Povalnikov.
Used materials of the Soviet military encyclopedia in 8 volumes, volume 2.
Literature:
Marx K. The question of the Ionian Islands.-Marx K., Engels F. Soch. Ed. 2nd. T. 12, p. 682;
Engels F. The role of violence in history. - Right there. T. 21, p. 421;
History of diplomacy. Ed. 2nd. T. 1. M., 1959;
Narochnitsky A. L. International relationships European states from 1794 to 1830, M-, 1946;
3ak L. A. Monarchs against the peoples. Diplomat fighting on the ruins Napoleonic army. M., 1966.
The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) was a peace conference of European states in Vienna in September 1814-June 1815. to resolve the political situation in Europe in the face of the defeat of Napoleonic France. It was convened under the terms of the Treaty of Paris of May 30, 1814 between France and the Sixth Coalition (Russia, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia), which was later joined by Spain, Portugal and Sweden.
In September 1814, preliminary negotiations were held in Vienna between the victorious countries, who made an attempt to work out a common position before the start of the Congress; Russia was represented by Emperor Alexander I and diplomats Prince A.K. Razumovsky and Count K.V. Nesselrode, Austria - Emperor Franz I and Foreign Minister Prince K.L.V. Metternich, Great Britain - Foreign Minister Lord R.S. Castlereagh, Prussia - Chancellor K.A. Hardenberg and Minister of Education and Cult K.V. Humboldt. The negotiations, however, ended in failure due to serious contradictions between the participants. Russia claimed the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, formed by Napoleon in 1807-1809. from the Polish lands that belonged to Austria and Prussia, but such a strengthening of Russia did not meet the interests of its allies. Prussia intended to annex Saxony, allied to Napoleon, but this was strongly opposed by Austria, who intended to turn Germany into a federation of monarchies under her rule; the Austrian Habsburgs also planned to establish their hegemony in Italy. The allies were united in only one thing - to deprive France of a leading role in Europe and reduce its territory to the borders of 1792. On September 22, they agreed to remove France, along with Spain, Portugal and Sweden, from real participation in the work of the Congress. But the French delegation, which arrived in Vienna on September 23, headed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Prince Ch.-M. Talleyrand managed to achieve full participation in the negotiations.
The Congress opened in early November 1814; it was attended by 450 diplomats from 126 European states, with the exception of Turkey. Decisions were made at meetings of representatives of the five powers (Russia, Great Britain, Prussia, Austria, France) or in special bodies - the Committee on German Affairs (established on October 14), the Committee on Swiss Affairs (November 14), the Statistical Commission (December 24), etc. .d.
The main and most acute issue was the Polish-Saxon one. Even at the stage of preliminary negotiations (September 28), Russia and Prussia entered into a secret agreement, according to which Russia pledged to support Prussia's claims to Saxony in exchange for supporting its claims to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. But these plans ran into opposition from France, who did not want the expansion of Prussian influence in Northern Germany. Appealing to the principle of legitimism (restoration of legal rights), Sh.-M. Talleyrand attracted Austria and the small German states to his side. Under pressure from the French, the British government also changed its position in favor of the Saxon king Frederick-August I. In response, Russia withdrew its occupying troops from Saxony and handed it over to Prussia (November 10). There was a threat of a split in the Sixth Coalition and a military conflict between Russia and Prussia with Great Britain, Austria and France. On December 7, the German states made a collective protest against the Prussian occupation of Saxony. Then Russia and Prussia proposed to create a state on the left bank of the Rhine.
under the rule of Frederick-August I as compensation for his abandonment of Saxony, but this project was strongly rejected by the rest of the Congress. January 3, 1815 R.S. Castlereagh, K.L. Metternich and Sh.-M. Talleyrand concluded a secret treaty providing for concerted action in the Polish-Saxon issue. Russia and Prussia had to make concessions, and by February 10, the parties reached a compromise solution.
The subject of discussion at the Congress were other important issues - the political structure of Germany and the borders of the German states, the status of Switzerland, the political situation in Italy, shipping on international rivers (Rhine, Meuse, Moselle, etc.), the trade of blacks.
Russia's attempt to raise the issue of the position of the Christian population in the Ottoman Empire and to grant it the right to intervene in its defense did not meet with the understanding of other powers.
One of the most difficult was the question of the Kingdom of Naples. France demanded to deprive the Napoleonic marshal I. Murat of the Neapolitan throne and restore the local branch of the Bourbon dynasty; she managed to win Great Britain over to her side. However, the plans to overthrow Murat were opposed by Austria, which in January 1814 guaranteed the inviolability of his possessions as a price for betraying Napoleon and for going over to the side of the Sixth Coalition.
On March 1, 1815, Napoleon, having left his place of exile on the island of Elba, landed in France. On March 13, the participating powers of the Peace of Paris outlawed it and promised assistance to the legitimate King Louis XVIII. However, already on March 20, the Bourbon regime fell; Murat, breaking off relations with the allies, invaded the Papal States. On March 25, Russia, Great Britain, Austria and Prussia formed the Seventh Anti-French Coalition. Napoleon's attempt to split it and negotiate with Alexander I failed. On April 12, Austria declared war on Murat and quickly defeated his army; On May 19, the power of the Bourbons was restored in Naples. On June 9, representatives of the eight powers signed the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna.
Under its terms, Russia received most of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. Prussia abandoned the Polish lands, retaining only Poznan, but acquired Northern Saxony, a number of regions on the Rhine (Rhine Province), Swedish Pomerania and about. Rügen. Southern Saxony remained under the rule of Friedrich-August I. In Germany, instead of the Holy Roman Empire, abolished by Napoleon in 1806, which consisted of almost two thousand states, the German Union arose, which included 35 monarchies and 4 free cities, under the leadership of Austria. Austria regained Eastern Galicia, Salzburg, Lombardy, Venice, Tyrol, Trieste, Dalmatia and Illyria; the thrones of Parma and Tuscany were occupied by representatives of the House of Habsburg; the Kingdom of Sardinia was restored, to which Genoa was transferred and Savoy and Nice were returned. Switzerland received the status of an eternally neutral state, and its territory expanded at the expense of Wallis, Geneva and Neufchatel. Denmark lost Norway, which passed to Sweden, but received Lauenburg and two million thalers for this. Belgium and Holland formed the kingdom of the Netherlands under the rule of the Orange dynasty; Luxembourg entered its composition on the basis of a personal union. England secured the Ionian Islands and about. Malta, in the West Indies Saint Lucia and Tobago, in Indian Ocean Seychelles and Ceylon, in Africa the Cape Colony; she achieved a complete ban on the slave trade.
The borders of France were established already after the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo (June 18) and the restoration of the Bourbons (July 8): The Second Peace of Paris on November 20, 1815 returned it to the borders of 1790.
The Congress of Vienna was the first attempt to establish a lasting peace in Europe on the basis of a collective agreement of all European states; concluded treaties
ry could not be terminated unilaterally, but they could be changed with the consent of all participants. To guarantee European borders, in September 1815 Russia, Austria and Prussia created the Holy Alliance, which France joined in November. The Vienna system ensured a long period of peace and relative stability in Europe. However, she was vulnerable because more proceeded from the political-dynastic, and not national principle and ignored the essential interests of many European peoples (Belgians, Poles, Germans, Italians); it consolidated the fragmentation of Germany and Italy under the hegemony of the Austrian Habsburgs; Prussia was divided into two parts (western and eastern), which were in a hostile environment.
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