Why the British Empire. The largest empire in the world in history

Great Britain was the most powerful colonial empire, occupying vast territories from Australia to North America. The sun never set on Britain. How did the British manage to conquer half the world?

Economic power

England was one of the first European countries embarked on the path of industrialization. A system of protectionism that protects the domestic market from foreign competition mid-18th century century provided the country with rapid economic growth.
At the end of the 19th century, when the world was actually divided between large metropolises, England had already become the main industrial monopolist: in the “workshop of the world,” as Britain was called, a third of the world's industrial output was produced. Such sectors of the British economy as metallurgy, mechanical engineering and shipbuilding led in production volume.
With high rates of economic growth, the domestic market was oversaturated and was looking for profitable applications outside not only the Kingdom, but also Europe. Products and capital from the British Isles actively flowed into the colonies.
He played an important role in the successes of England as a colonial empire. high level technology, which the English economy has always tried to follow. Various innovations - from the invention of spinning machines (1769) to the establishment of transatlantic telegraph communication (1858) - allowed Britain to stay one step ahead of its competitors.

Invincible fleet

England was constantly in anticipation of an invasion from the continent, which forced it to develop shipbuilding and create a combat-ready fleet. By defeating the “Invincible Armada” in 1588, Francis Drake seriously shook the Spanish-Portuguese dominance in the oceans. Since then, England, albeit with varying success, has strengthened its status as a maritime power.
In addition to Spain and Portugal, Holland was a serious competitor to England at sea. The rivalry between the two countries resulted in three Anglo-Dutch wars (1651-1674), which, revealing the relative equality of forces, led to a truce.
By the end of the 18th century, Britain had only one serious competitor at sea - France. The struggle for naval hegemony began during the period of revolutionary wars - from 1792. Then Admiral Nelson won a series of brilliant victories over the French fleet, effectively ensuring England control of the Mediterranean Sea.

In October 1805, Great Britain had the opportunity to assert the right to be called “mistress of the seas.” During the legendary Battle of Trafalgar, the British fleet won a crushing victory over the combined French-Spanish squadron, convincingly demonstrating its tactical and strategic superiority. Britain became the absolute maritime hegemon.

Combat-ready army

To maintain order and maintain stability in the colonies, the British were forced to maintain a combat-ready army there. Using its military superiority, Great Britain by the end of the 1840s conquered almost all of India, whose population was almost 200 million people.
Moreover, the British military constantly had to sort things out with competitors - Germany, France, Holland. Indicative in this regard was the Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902), during which British troops, inferior in number to the forces of the Orange Republic, were able to turn the tide of the confrontation in their favor. However, this war is remembered for the unheard-of cruelty of British soldiers who used “scorched earth tactics.”
The colonial wars between England and France were especially fierce. During the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), England conquered almost all of its possessions in the East Indies and Canada from France. The French could only console themselves with the fact that Great Britain was soon forced to capitulate to the United States during the War of Independence.

The Art of Diplomacy

The British have always been skilled diplomats. Masters political intrigues and behind-the-scenes games on the international stage, they often got their way. Thus, having failed to defeat Holland in naval battles, they waited until the war between France and Holland reached its climax, and then made peace with the latter on terms favorable to themselves.
Using diplomatic methods, the British prevented France and Russia from reconquering India. At the very beginning of the Russian-French campaign, the British officer John Malcolm concluded two strategic alliances - with the Afghans and with the Persian Shah, which confused all the cards for Napoleon and Paul I. The first consul then abandoned the campaign, and the Russian army never reached India.
Often English diplomacy acted not only cunningly, but also threateningly persistently. During Russian-Turkish War(1877-1878) she failed to acquire a “soldier on the continent” in the person of the Turks, and then she imposed an agreement on Turkey under which Great Britain acquired Cyprus. The island was occupied immediately and Britain began to establish a naval base in the Eastern Mediterranean.

Management talents

The area of ​​Great Britain's overseas possessions by the end of the 19th century was 33 million square meters. km. To manage such a huge empire, a very competent and efficient administrative apparatus was needed. The British created it.
A well-thought-out system of colonial administration included three structures - the Foreign Office, the Ministry of Colonies and the Office of Dominion Affairs. The key link here was the Ministry of Colonies, which managed finances and recruited personnel for the colonial administration.
The effectiveness of the British management system demonstrated itself during the construction of the Suez Canal. Vitally interested in a sea canal that shortened the route to India and East Africa by 10,000 kilometers, the British spared no expense in investing in the Egyptian economy. However, the huge interest that investors received soon turned Egypt into a debtor. Ultimately, the Egyptian authorities were forced to sell their shares in the Suez Canal Company to Britain.
Often British methods of governance in the colonies brought great troubles. So, in 1769 - 1770. The colonial authorities created a famine in India by purchasing all the rice and then selling it at exorbitant prices. The famine claimed the lives of about 10 million people. The British also practically destroyed Indian industry by importing cotton fabrics of their own production to Hindustan.
Great Britain's colonial hegemony ended only after World War II, when a new leader, the United States of America, entered the political arena.

Historically, capitalist relations in England arose earlier than in other countries. Industry was expanding and needed sources of raw materials, funds and sales. The English bourgeoisie began an active struggle to seize spheres of influence and to seize colonies.

English colonial policy in the 17th and 18th centuries. has not yet had such a scale as it acquired in the next century. Its goal was to ensure the profit of the relatively few layers of the trading bourgeoisie and the aristocratic elite of English society. Profit was achieved through an unequal exchange of goods between European businessmen and local residents of the colonies, the export of spices and valuable wood from Asia and Africa and selling them in Europe at high prices, as well as through direct robbery.

In England, special associations of the largest traders and industrialists were created. Their activities paved the way for the military-political establishment of England in various parts of the globe.

With the help of such monopoly private enterprises, the British state penetrated into Asia, America, and Africa.

England took possession of numerous islands in the Atlantic and Indian oceans and secured important strongholds on the seashores.

This created a huge chain of military and naval bases and strongholds, with which the British Empire subsequently encircled almost the entire world. In this way, bridgeheads were prepared for broad economic and military-political penetration into the depths of Afro-Asian and American countries and the enslavement of the inhabiting peoples. The Industrial Revolution and the associated sharp expansion in the production of factory products caused a change in the views of the English ruling circles on the goals of colonial policy. The countries of the East began to become increasingly important not only as sources of cash in the form of war booty and taxes, but mainly as profitable markets for British goods. “Colonies began to serve as a source of cheap raw materials...”

In the second quarter of the 19th century, colonial expansion began to acquire special significance for England.

The military and political activity of the British Empire in the south of the continent manifested itself in parallel with the expansionist activities of the British in its other regions.

As a result of the aggressive actions of the colonialists, mainly English, already in the first half of the 19th century, the preconditions were laid for the division of African lands between capitalist powers and the enslavement of almost all the peoples living here.

By the end of the 19th century, England had become the largest colonial power. “From 1884-1900. England acquired 3,700 thousand square miles of new colonial territories." Her possessions were located on all continents. The British ruling circles subjugated a number of countries and peoples of Asia and Africa, primarily India, imposed enslaving treaties and agreements on China, Iran and other states, created a system of military-strategic bases and communication lines on the islands and coasts of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, and Mediterranean Sea.

In the last third of the 19th century, in the advanced countries of Europe and the USA, capitalism entered its last stage, the imperialist stage. During this period, the colonial policy of the English bourgeoisie became especially active. Colonial possessions on at this stage The development of capitalism was of interest to the metropolises not only as sources of raw materials and markets for goods, but also as areas for the application of capital and the exploitation of cheap labor. "The era of industrial capital has given way to the era of finance capital".

Along with the increasingly increasing importance of economic exploitation of colonial and semi-colonial possessions, dependent territories scattered in different parts of the globe continued to play the role of important military-political springboards, as well as a source of replenishment of the so-called colored troops.

At the end of the 19th century, the English bourgeoisie developed vigorous activity to expand its colonial empire, to spread and strengthen its influence in the East.

In the 70-80s of the 19th century, the colonial expansion of England acquired a particularly large scale in Africa and the Middle East.

Colonial policy of England during the period of imperialism

First world war The British Empire entered in full force. This war also marked the beginning of the crisis of the British Empire. The previously growing centrifugal forces burst out. During the First World War, there were uprisings in the Union of South Africa and Ireland, contradictions in Canada and Australia, and the national liberation movement developed widely in India. England's position in the capitalist world weakened, and at the same time the balance of power between England and the dominions changed in favor of the latter. Thus, the foundations of a unified foreign and military policy were undermined.

The new balance of power within the British Empire, which emerged after the First World War, was reflected in the new statute of the dominions. The question of developing such a statute arose already at the first post-war conferences. The Balfour report confirmed the right of each dominion, established in 1923, to independent foreign relations, to participate in international conferences, and stipulated that dominions, concluding agreements with foreign countries, must consider the possible consequences for other parts of the empire.

The term "British Commonwealth of Nations" was first used in 1926 to refer to England and the self-governing dominions. The term “empire” itself was abolished and replaced with the word “commonwealth”. The use of the term "commonwealth" made the political situation less difficult."

Before the Second World War, the British Empire meant the unification of England with the dominions and colonies, and the Commonwealth meant England with the dominions. According to the Statute of Westminster, the dominions became almost full-fledged subjects of international relations with the rights of independent diplomatic representation, concluding treaties with foreign states, with their own armed forces, with the right to declare or not declare war. The colonies still remained powerless objects of English policy. The Dominions took part in the redistribution of the German colonies after the First World War. Thus, “the First World War of 1914-1918 led to the acquisition of another one and a half million square miles”

At the same time, the contradictions between England and the dominions were increasingly felt due to the development of independent local imperialist aspirations of the dominions, due to the general crisis of the policy of imperialism in the period between the two wars. England took measures to strengthen the unity of the empire.

Economically, this goal was served by the system of imperial preferences established at the Ottawa Conference of 1932 and the creation of the sterling zone in the 1930s, which contributed to the development of intra-imperial relations and the growth of trade and investment.

At the first stage of the general crisis of capitalism in the empire, centrifugal forces were already making themselves felt. Ireland was freed from British rule and abandoned the military obligations imposed on it. The Indian subcontinent shook under the powerful blows of the national liberation movement. “Mass political uprisings of industrial workers and the peasant population were noted in many regions of India in 1918-22. The Anglo-Indian government responded to these protests with brutal repression." The “British Middle Eastern Empire” created as a result of the First World War began to show cracks. “In 1919, as a result of the Anglo-Afghan War, Afghanistan achieved the elimination of unequal treaties imposed by England, becoming a sovereign state. Turkey's political independence was secured by the abolition of all legal and economic privileges granted by the foreign Turkish Sultan. England had to withdraw its troops from Afghanistan, Turkey, Iran.”

These revolutionary processes, destructive of the British Empire, received full development during and as a result of the Second World War, at a new stage in the general crisis of capitalism. At the first stage of the general crisis of capitalism, the British Empire greatly expanded due to the German colonies and parts of the collapsed Ottoman Empire. “By the end of the First World War the British Empire was at the height of its power. A dangerous enemy - Germany - was defeated, and its colonial possessions were divided between the Entente powers. Under this section, England received direct possession under the guise of the League of Nations mandate of South-West Africa, part of Cameroon and Togo, Tanganyika and a number of islands of Oceania.” Thus, “on the eve of the Second World War, the British Empire, with its protectorates and dependencies, occupied an area equal to a quarter of the entire surface of the globe, with a population amounting to ¼ of the world population.”



History knows many state formations that cover a vast territory and have a serious influence on the entire system of international relations, but among them the British Empire clearly stands out both in terms of its area and the level of this influence. Having joined the process of colonization of new lands later than the main players in this field - Spain and Portugal - Great Britain was able to tie the overseas lands to itself so firmly that they still recognize power Queen of England and are members of the British Commonwealth of Nations.

Prerequisites for the formation of the empire

Most of The history of medieval England was spent in the struggle to unite the entire island of Britain under its rule. Since 1169, there has been a gradual penetration into neighboring Ireland, in 1282 Wales became part of England, and after the Stuart dynasty came to power, dominance over Scotland was established.

At the beginning of the 16th century, Spain and Portugal began colonizing lands in the newly open America. England's interest in expanding its sphere of influence, on the one hand, and the contradictions associated with the Reformation, on the other, lead to a war with Spain. This country was especially dissatisfied with the seizure of the island of Newfoundland in 1583, which became a strategic springboard for penetration into American territory. But after the defeat of the Spanish "Invincible Armada" in 1588, which ended Spain's dominance at sea, nothing limited England in acquiring colonies.

Colonial expansion

At the beginning of the 17th century, English settlers appeared in North America. At the same time, special companies are being organized to trade with Asian countries, in particular with India. However, at first the British were unlucky. The first colonies, the purpose of which was to search for deposits of precious metals, could not survive for a long time. The founding of a settlement on the island of St. Kitts in 1624 can be considered the first serious success. Unlike the early period, England borrowed the Portuguese experience in cultivating sugar cane: it turned out that sugar could generate income no worse than gold.

To limit the influence of other European states in the occupied territories, the English Parliament passed a law according to which only the metropolis could conduct trade in the colonies. This caused an angry reaction from Holland. As a result of several wars, England consolidated its position and even made good money at the expense of the Dutch and Spanish colonies. One of the largest acquisitions was Jamaica.

Continental possessions (the colonies of Plymouth, Maryland, Rhode Island, Carolina, Pennsylvania and others) brought in much less income than the island ones, but the British appreciated their potential. All these settlements were located on fertile lands. To process them and increase profitability, slaves from Africa were brought in, and the Royal African Company, founded in 1672, received a monopoly on their trade.

Things were going well in Asia. In an alliance with Holland, England managed to violate Portugal's monopoly on trade with Asian states. The East India Company became the vehicle of English influence in this region. The coming to power in England of the Dutch Stadtholder Wilhelm made it possible to resolve the contradictions that arose between the two countries. In the first half of the 18th century, England's position in India became undeniable.

Considering that England’s imperial ambitions were fully manifested, and the territory of its overseas possessions turned out to be comparable to that of Europe, historians call the period from the capture of Newfoundland to the war of the 13 American colonies for independence the “First British Empire.”

War of the Spanish Succession

In 1700, Charles II, the last representative of the Habsburg dynasty on the Spanish throne, died. Since he had no children, he chose Philip of Anjou, the grandson of the French king, as his heir. Since the threat of the merging of Spain, France and their colonies into a single power was unacceptable for almost all European states, a major war broke out. It lasted 14 years and ended with the signing of the Peace of Utrecht, according to which Philip of Anjou renounced his claims to the French throne. In addition, according to the agreement, the British Empire included a number of Spanish and French colonies, as well as Gibraltar on the territory of the Iberian Peninsula, which made it possible to control the exit of ships from the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean.

The French colonies in North America and Asia were finally ended after the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). As a result of these events, the British Empire became the world's leading colonial power.

American Revolutionary War

In addition to successes, Great Britain also had to face major troubles. The British Empire's continental colonies in North America, long clamoring for parliamentary representation, declared their independence. The war, which began in 1775, ended in the defeat of Great Britain. France and Spain, who did not have any warm feelings towards England, provided significant support to the rebels.

The success turned the Americans' heads, and they tried to invade Canada. The French population living there refused to support them, and the idea failed.

The loss of such vast territories was a milestone in the history of the British Empire. Among other things, the 13 colonies were a strategically important springboard for further penetration into the depths of the American continent. Now Great Britain was forced to make territorial annexations in Asia and Africa, although it had no intention of leaving America. A number of trade agreements were signed with the United States, which brought tangible benefits to the British. Such changes in policy allow us to talk about a new stage in the history of Great Britain: the Second British Empire.

Establishment of power over India

For a long time, Britain's presence in Asia was traced only in the form of trade agreements with the countries of this region concluded by the East India Company. But by the middle of the 18th century, the Mughal Empire fell into decline, and during the Seven Years' War the British managed to defeat the French and gain a foothold in Bengal. The East India Company turns from a trading company into an instrument for expanding the colonial possessions of Great Britain. The method used by the British was simple: independent Indian principalities were forced to turn to the British for “help.” For this they had to pay certain sums, which went towards the maintenance of the English mercenary army in India, and also coordinate their foreign policy with the English resident.

In fact, most of India's territory came under British control peacefully. It was only in the 19th century that the British Empire had to face resistance from the local population, united into the Sikh state. Only in 1839 did the British manage to inflict a heavy defeat on the Sikhs, from which they could no longer recover.

Australia

This continent, discovered by James Cook in 1770, occupied a special place in the system of the British colonial empire. Together with New Zealand and Tasmania, the open territories were declared by the captain to be the property of Great Britain.

At first, the smallest continent on the planet did not cause much delight among the British authorities. Its central regions were occupied by desert, and the land along the coast was not particularly fertile. The British government decided to take advantage of Australia's remoteness from the main sea routes and organize something like a giant prison on its territory. In 1778, the first ship carrying exiled prisoners entered the territorial waters of the mainland. This practice continued until 1840. The population of the colony, numbering 56 thousand people, mainly consisted of prisoners and their descendants.

The cessation of the importation of prisoners into Australia is due to the discovery of gold deposits on the mainland. From this moment on, Australia becomes one of the main exporters of this precious metal. Another source of income for this colony of the British Empire was the export of wool.

Victorian era

The empire experienced its greatest period from 1815 to 1914. Much of this time was spent under the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901), which gave its name to a special era in British history.

During this period, Great Britain, taking into account its overseas possessions, was the largest state in the world. The territory of the British Empire was just under 26 million km2, and the population was almost 400 million people. Victorious war XVIII centuries, combined with a skillful foreign policy, made Great Britain a powerful player in the political arena. After the defeat of Napoleon, British colonial empire became one of the authors of the balance of power policy in Europe, according to which not a single state could accumulate sufficient strength to successfully confront a united coalition of European countries.

The main reason for such success of Great Britain was the presence of a strong navy in the absence of serious expenses for the maintenance of a land army. The British Empire was rightly called the mistress of the seas. Only towards the end of the period did a united Germany risk challenging English supremacy at sea.

Empire at the turn of the century

The beginning of the 20th century became a test of strength for Great Britain. Firstly, Germany became increasingly stronger and, together with allies Austria-Hungary and Italy, increasingly declared the need to redivide the world. In this regard, the British Empire completely changed its foreign policy course, signing alliance agreements with Russia and France, relations with which had never been particularly warm.

Secondly, when moving deeper into Africa, the British unexpectedly encountered resistance from the Transvaal and Orange republics founded by immigrants from Holland. Because the local inhabitants were called Boers, the clash between England and the two South African republics was called the Anglo-Boer War. Although with difficulty, England managed to gain the upper hand in this conflict.

Thirdly, problems arose with European possessions. Increasingly, the Irish came out with demands for independence (“Home Rule”). Some English politicians believed that granting independence could solve the problem, but the corresponding bill failed several times.

Dominions

Despite its adherence to tradition, English politics was flexible enough to understand the need to change seemingly immutable principles. The nationalist ideas spreading in Europe had a great influence on the consciousness of the inhabitants of the colonies. Even in the middle of the 19th century, thoughts arose that the colonies could be granted self-government in order to prevent the emergence of various unrest.

This principle was first implemented in Canada in 1867. All of the British Empire's continental possessions in North America were united into a dominion. This change in status meant that the decision of all internal affairs was transferred to local authorities. International relationships and the right to wage wars remained with the English administration.

Granting dominion status to the colonies essentially saved the British Empire from collapse. Before the outbreak of the First World War, almost all colonies with a white population received the right to self-government, in particular Australia and New Zealand(1900), as well as the Boer colonies united in the Union of South Africa (1910).

England in the world wars

Open entry into a major conflict, which in one way or another affected all the states of the planet, contradicted the traditional policy of self-elimination from European problems. However, the First World War showed that England was not as strong as before. By 1918, world leadership had been lost and passed to the growing United States. However, as a result of negotiations at Versailles and Washington, Great Britain, along with the other victorious powers, divided the former German colonies. This gave 4 million km2 of new territories.

During the interwar period, the British Empire, like other European states, was experiencing a serious crisis. The economy has not fully recovered from the stress suffered. The situation became even more complicated during the years of the World Economic Crisis.

In view of this, Great Britain supported the policy of appeasement of Hitler's Germany, which was showing revanchist sentiments. But this did not help prevent a new world war. In terms of its scale, it was even more destructive than the previous one: German aircraft bombed London several times. At the end of the war, Great Britain had to coordinate its policies with American ones.

Collapse of the British Empire

The weakening of the metropolis and the rise of national consciousness led to a movement for independence in the colonies that did not become dominions. In 1947, England was forced to grant independence to India. The following year, Burma and Ceylon became independent states. In addition, Great Britain had to give up its mandate to govern Palestine, where a Jewish state was created. Great Britain held on to Malaya for the longest time, but after 13 years of war it was forced to give in on this issue as well.

The year 1960 has gone down in history as the year of Africa. Large-scale national protests showed Great Britain that it was no longer possible to maintain power on the Dark Continent. By 1968, of the vast possessions in Africa, only Southern Rhodesia remained under British rule, gaining independence a few years later. In general, by the 1980s, the process of decolonization was completed, although Britain's imperial ambitions were manifested in the war with Argentina over the Falkland Islands. But victory in this war could not revive the empire: its collapse was a fait accompli. As a memory of it, the Commonwealth of Nations remained, which was formed under the auspices of Great Britain with the participation of independent states located in the territories that were part of the British Empire before.

The British colonial empire began to take shape in the 17th-18th centuries. In the fight against Spain, Holland, and France, England sought trade and maritime hegemony. As a result of the seizure and robbery of colonies, huge capital ended up in the hands of the English bourgeoisie, which contributed to rapid development English industrial production. The Whigs, who defended the interests of financiers, merchants and industrialists, insisted especially energetically on pursuing an aggressive foreign policy. The Tories took a more moderate position on the issue of colonial conquests in England.

In the 18th century England conquered vast territories in Canada, Australia, South Africa, and India. By the middle of the 19th century. England became the largest colonial and commercial and industrial power.

Ireland occupies a special place in the British colonial empire. This is the first English colony, which the English feudal lords tried to conquer back in the 12th century, and then in the 16th-17th centuries. In 1800, Ireland was united with Great Britain in a union that destroyed the remnants of Irish autonomy. Ireland had its own representation in the English Parliament. However, the people of Ireland fought for complete independence, and its deputies in parliament defended the idea of ​​home rule (autonomy). This idea in the 80s of the XIX century. was also accepted by the liberals, who needed the support of the Irish in the fight against the conservatives. In 1886, the Liberal government introduced a bill to Parliament to grant limited self-government to Ireland. However, this law was rejected by the House of Commons. New law, which gave autonomy to Ireland, passed the House of Commons in 1893, but was rejected by the House of Lords. It was only in 1914 that Parliament was forced to pass the Home Rule Act, according to which Ireland's autonomy acquired the usual status of a dominion. The introduction of this act was delayed until after the war.

All other British colonies were governed according to their legal status. Back in the 18th century. The division of colonies into conquered and resettled colonies was established. The conquered colonies, in which the native population predominated, did not have political autonomy and were governed by a governor-general appointed by the mother country. Representative bodies of local residents played the role of an advisory body under the governor.

In those colonies where white settlers predominated, the British government made concessions. The ruling classes of England feared a repetition of the events that led to late XVIII V. to the loss of a significant part of their North American possessions. Meeting the demands of white settlers, mostly immigrants from England, they were forced to provide self-government to some settler colonies.

Relations with Canada have especially changed. In the 50-60s of the XIX century. economic ties between England and this North American colony were already so strong that the British government satisfied the demands of its inhabitants for expanded self-government. In 1867, the administration of Canada was rebuilt on new principles. The four provinces of Canada formed a confederation called the Dominion of Canada. From now on, governors appointed by the English king ruled Canada only through the federal council of ministers responsible to the legislative bodies - the Senate and the House of Representatives of the dominion.

Not only in Canada, but also in other colonies populated by immigrants from the metropolis in the 50-60s of the 19th century. representative institutions were formed. Of the South African possessions, the Cape Land received self-government in 1854, and Natal in 1856.

In Australia, the first representative institutions were introduced back in the 40s of the 19th century. In 1855, constitutions of individual colonies were developed and then approved, which provided for the introduction of a bicameral parliament and the limitation of gubernatorial power. In 1900, the individual self-governing colonies of Great Britain on the Australian continent were united into the Commonwealth of Australia. The 1900 Constitution declared Australia a federal state. Legislative power was exercised by parliament, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Executive power belonged to the governor general.

New Zealand received a constitution in 1852.

The largest English colony was India. Conquered in the 18th century. By the East India Trading Company, this country was mercilessly plundered. In 1813, the English Parliament abolished the East India Company's monopoly on trade with India, and many English companies gained access to its markets. The colonization of India was accompanied by high taxation and the seizure of communal lands and natural resources of the country by English landowners and capitalists. Indian industry and Agriculture fell into disrepair.

In 1857-1859 A powerful liberation uprising took place in India. It began among Indian soldiers (sepoys) recruited into the troops of the East India Company. Home driving force The uprising was carried out by peasants and artisans, but at the head were princes, dissatisfied with the loss of their possessions. The uprising was brutally suppressed.

The national industry of India, although slowly, developed, and with it the national bourgeoisie became stronger. In 1885, the political bourgeois party Indian national congress. The main demand of the Congress program was the admission of Indians to govern the country. In 1892, by the Indian Councils Act, representatives of the Indian bourgeoisie were admitted to the legislative councils under the Governor-General of India and provincial governors. Access to executive bodies was opened to Indians in 1906. Two Indians were appointed to the Indian Affairs Council (in London), one Indian was appointed to the executive council under the governor-general, and Indians were given access to provincial executive councils. In 1909, the Indian Legislative Councils Act was passed, according to which the number of members of the legislative council under the Governor-General and councils under the provincial governors was significantly increased, thus, wider circles of the Indian bourgeoisie could take part in them. So, by the end of the 19th century. whole line English colonies turned into dominions, self-governing colonies. As they developed, the dominions increasingly claimed the role of an equal partner in relations with the metropolis. To resolve these relations, “colonial conferences” began to be held regularly in 1887, which in 1907 became known as imperial conferences.

Chapter 16. UNITED STATES OF NORTH AMERICA

England. Once conquered by the Romans, this tiny country and nation became one of the most extensive and powerful empires in history. Her influence extended to all corners of the globe. Technologies, innovations, ambitions - these tools were used to create great empire.

They gave birth outstanding british navy, who held the entire world's oceans in his hands. The Royal Navy of the 18th and 19th centuries was everywhere.

The British Empire created massive symbols of dominance that still inspire awe to this day. But this empire was based on vanity, bloodshed and an irresistible thirst for conquest.

Wilgelm the conqueror

410 The most powerful empire known to the world is under attack. In the distant British Isles, once indestructible Roman legions retreat to the shore. They leave behind a military and political void. For the first time in more than 400 years, the vulnerable island nation of Britain found itself on its own. It was the end of one empire and the beginning of another.

“The sun never sets on the British Empire,” many have heard these words, although the empire is long gone. At its height, the British Empire occupied a quarter of the landmass - 36 million square kilometers.

But how could an island in the middle of the North Atlantic become a huge empire? In the early 400s, when the Romans fled under pressure, some of these marauding peoples decided to stay. Perhaps I liked the mild climate. After several centuries they organized themselves, and the English people were born.

But with the death of the last true Saxon king, the way was opened for another people - who were descendants of the Vikings who inhabited Northern France.

. He will become the most cruel and insatiable ruler in the history of England. His name was .

About Henry's appetite legends were made: he craved food, women, power and a son to whom he would one day hand over the reins of power.

The best way to fulfill your royal duty is to produce an heir. And if you look at the portraits of Tudor men, they stand with their legs wide apart, their hands on their hips, and this is not an accident: they seem to be saying, “I am a man, I can produce an heir.” The son was proof of manhood.

He has no memory falls in love with Anne Boleyn, he wants her because Anna was a very attractive woman and she knew it. The only problem is how to get rid of your wife? Without killing, of course. And the answer: get a divorce.

When the Pope refused to give Henry divorce resolution, the king became angry: if he cannot control this religion, he will simply replace it. He's cocky broke all ties with Rome and proclaimed himself the head.

Henry now had absolute power over his country. He divorced Catherine and made Anne queen. But when she did not bear him a son, she suddenly found herself accused of treason.

Everything was presented in such a way that you couldn’t imagine anything worse: she supposedly had more than one affair, but several at once. Some kind of orgies were held in the palace, and Henry readily believed in it. Henry ordered the arrest of Anna and send it to the sprawling London .

The entire complex occupied an area of ​​7 hectares and was surrounded by an impregnable wall. Wooden elements were replaced by stone blocks, the wall was reinforced with several towers, and a second wall for greater reliability. They dug deep ditches outside and filled them with water. With these additional fortifications the complex became practically impregnable.

During the reign of Henry the fortress became personification of vice and cruelty, a notorious prison, dungeon, and execution site for many of his enemies.

Here Anna awaited her fate - execution by beheading. Beheading with an ax was a terrible procedure because usually the terrible weapon did not reach its target on the first blow.

Henry said to Anne Boleyn: “For you, my dear, only the best.” Instead of cutting off her head with an axe, he will order it to be done quickly and carefully sword.

On May 19, 1536, Anna was taken to a small courtyard on the grounds of the Tower. One quick blow and Henry's problem was solved.

But the desire to produce an heir was only one of the king’s ambitious plans: from the very beginning of his reign, he wanted to become famous, turn England into a powerful empire.

The idea of ​​creating an empire that would cover all of Europe and extend beyond its borders never left Henry VIII. Reality in his imagination bordered on the dream of.

But Henry’s path to creating an empire also stood in the way of two European superpowers. His plan is to send floating weapons of mass destruction to distant seas.

Summer 1510. An army of workers combs the forests of England in search of material to build what will help England create an empire. Before conquering land, Henry VIII had conquer the sea. He decided to radically change the strategy of warfare, turning his ships into deadly weapons.

He was the first to start install heavy weapons on ships: Those guns that were previously used only during siege, some of them weighed almost a ton and were capable of crippling an enemy ship and convincing it to surrender.

Massive guns required large ships. Henry ordered his engineers to build a new fleet. Its crown jewel was its flagship, one of the first warships in the world. They named him.

The ship became the personification of the engineering thought of that era. Install as many guns as possible on board, aimed in different directions - this is what the “Mary Rose” became, platform for guns.

Something fundamentally new appeared on the Mary Rose - loopholes for guns. Holes were cut into the sides of the ship and covered with hatches. It allowed cannons to be fired from the sides. Shipbuilders dedicated entire decks to cannons. Additional guns turned the Mary Rose into death machine. Started revolution in shipbuilding, and “Mary Rose” became her first sign.

By the middle of the 16th century, England had become the path to conquer the seas. But Henry soon encountered a problem: the expensive bronze cannons with which the ships were equipped quickly drained the royal treasury. He had to come up with another way to produce heavy artillery that would make his army and navy invincible at less cost. The ideal solution was cast iron cannon: it was 50 times cheaper than bronze.

A workable cast iron cannon had not yet been created, but Heinrich knew how to speed up the process: he remembered a large iron-bearing region of the country Wilde, and gave orders to the engineers.

The difficulty of casting such an element as a cannon was that the iron first had to be melted at very high temperatures. high temperature. There was only one way to get the required temperature - an engineering miracle of the time forced draft furnace.

First, workers placed wood and iron ore on top of a 6-meter-long stone furnace. Water wheel set in motion huge bellows, which fanned the fire until the temperature reached 2200 degrees, sufficient to melt iron. Then the workers opened the tap at the base of the furnace. A stream of hot iron poured into a mold buried deep in the ground.

This was a serious business, it required various resources: furnaces were needed to produce coal, people who harvested timber, workers who extracted iron ore from the ground, crews who brought and loaded ore and coal into the furnace.

Over the next few centuries, cast iron cannons from the Weald became the envy of all European rulers.

This completely changed the balance of power: the guns were given to England power and technological advantage, which no other country had.

In just 30 years, Henry built new fleet. But he was not destined to fulfill his long-time dream of conquering: an exorbitant appetite did this obese man a disservice. He died January 1547, leaving descendants with the memory of cruelty and inventions that were ahead of the era. He sowed the seeds from which a mighty empire would grow.

Henry laid the foundation, by building a fleet, make it clear that Britain will become an empire, declaring itself to the world.

George III - the mad king of the British Empire

Over the next 150 years, Britain would expand through colonies and conquests, using the growing power of its fleet. By the mid-18th century, Britain controlled part of India, Africa, and North America.

But two serious threats loom on the horizon, and the king who must fight them will also fight his own demons.

Everyone was talking about him madness, the physical illness affected his brain. George had his first attack of madness in 1788, 7 years after a serious blow. A small territory in another part of the world defeated the mighty British. This country was called.

When the British troops left the city of York, when they surrendered, the world seemed to turn upside down. And so it was: a world in which rebels are victorious is a mad world.

Over the next decades, George's world slowly but surely changed. In 1804, a new disaster would threaten the king and his empire: the French Emperor.

At the beginning of the 19th century, a tyrant conqueror quickly took control of Europe. England was the only obstacle to continental dominance. He was as much of a threat as the Nazis were in World War II, and he was preparing troops to invade the British Isles.

The British Royal Navy became the main naval power and in 1805 it met the aggressor Napoleon in the famous. Using fearless tactics and the most technically advanced ships of the era, England defeated the combined forces of the French and Spanish fleets.

The Battle of Trafalgar strengthened England's position, making it a major naval power. The British became unsurpassed masters of shipbuilding.

But by the time of Napoleon's final defeat in 1815, King George III completely overwhelmed by madness: He completely lost his mind and almost lost his sight. The king wandered through the corridors, could not eat on his own, grew a long beard, and did not know what day it was.

Great Western Railway

By this time England had become superpower, whose superiority was based on shipbuilding. But another technology will emerge that will bring the British Empire closer to world domination. The 19th century was about to bring an invention comparable in significance to the achievements of the Romans.

By the 19th century, Britain had become the world's richest industrial giant. She owed her colossal successes to stunning inventions in the field of technology, which first swept the empire and then the whole world.

It is difficult to remember another period of history associated with such rise in technology, with such a desire to experiment with machines, introduce new construction methods, bring something new to architecture.

In the past, empires were built with hands, and the British conquered their territories with the help of machines. Innovations such as metal casting and the transformation of a warship into a single controllable machine with guns transformed the English fleet, and this the fleet turned England into an empire. And this military-economic empire stretched from Europe to Asia, from America to Africa, dominating the. But what about sushi?

Britain experienced a surge in productivity in the early 19th century, but there were not enough means of ground transportation. In 1782, someone improved steam driven engine, but only 40 years later and his sons took this engine and, with the help of a firebox, a boiler, a piston and an amazing invention called a pipe, put it on rails, developing an unimaginable speed of 47 km/h.

The Rocket was not the first steam locomotive, but its unique features indicated that the steam engine was the power of the future. The key to speed lies in the engine..

Several copper tubes transferred hot gas from the coal firebox to a tank of water, bringing it to a boil. Steam appeared and rose through the valve into the cylinder. The intense steam pressure moved the piston rod connected to the wheels of the locomotive, pushing it forward. By releasing steam through a pipe rather than a cylinder, fresh air was allowed into the firebox to maintain the fire. With this innovation, the Rocket could fly at tremendous speed.

Of all the locomotives that could be imagined at that time, this one is most similar to the one we are used to seeing. Of course, it will continue to be improved, but this the basis of the locomotive for the next 100 years.

Now it was necessary to encircle Britain with a network of railways, and in 1833 a daring, brilliant engineer entered this race and became famous. His name was .

Brunel was a real showman: he dressed well, had a beautiful wife, he was a celebrity and knew how to use it. He was also a workaholic, he constantly lacked time.

Brunel had grandiose plans: his railway would be the most ambitious project in history, this network would connect all corners of England. Brunel named it and intended to make it the fastest in the world.

He wanted the road to have a minimal angle of inclination so that trains could travel along it much faster. The need for speed demanded passing through the mountains, and not according to them, and in connection with this his greatest technical achievement – railway tunnel.

It was obvious that it was necessary dig a tunnel in the stone the entire length of the mountain, and it was 1 km 200 m. At that time it was simply unthinkable! Even by today's standards, this is a serious tunnel.

Brunel collected hundreds of Irish navvies to dig this tunnel. They started by making several shafts from the surface of the mountain to the base. Used to remove hard rocks powder. Workers then descended into the shafts in baskets and pulled out the debris with almost bare hands. Horses and a winch lifted these fragments to the surface.

It was a long, complex and sometimes quite dangerous process, and of course, during the construction of the tunnel there were casualties: a lot of dust, soot, and during explosions the workers risked being covered with stones.

After 4 years, the tunnel, which took a hundred lives, was completed. The Great Western Railway finally opened in 1841. Trains still pass through this tunnel.

Railway mania, which Brunel helped spark, eventually spread throughout the empire, further increasing England's influence throughout the world. Railways, which appeared since the beginning of the 19th century in England and then throughout the world, were the subject of admiration: they are long, loud, dirty, they represent power and speed, the conquest of space and time - an incredible achievement!

The advantage that England gained from the construction of railways allowed it to be several decades ahead of other countries. The Empire reached its peak.

But a powerful blow struck at its center will make the empire shake to its very foundation.

October 1834. On a dark night in London in the heart of the British Empire in the Palace of Westminster began severe fire. For several centuries, this complex was the command center of Britain and a symbol of its power and invincibility. Now the flames turned the palace into a fiery Gehenna, and thousands of people thought with horror about what would now become of their powerful government.

The fire of 1834 caused severe blow to political center British Empire. The Palace of Westminster had stood in one form or another since the late 11th century, and now only ruins remained, and the British wondered: would Parliament ever meet in this place? Will its members be able to vote within the walls where the modern political system was born?

This had to be decided by a special royal commission, and the answer was “yes”: the Houses of Parliament would be reconstructed. But a more difficult question arose: what would this building look like? Build it in French or English style? And if so, then in style Elizabeth Tudor or English?

For two years this question did not let anyone sleep peacefully, until in 1836 a royal commission selected a plan from 97 projects, a fan Italian Renaissance. He combined its features with neo-Gothic ones, and the result was a modern parliament building, a hodgepodge of styles, but impressive.

From the ruins of the old parliament, British architects will erect a truly gigantic building: it is twice the size of the American one. Built from yellowish sandstone, the palace covers an area of ​​32 thousand square meters. Its towers rise 98 meters.

Big Ben, or Elizabeth Tower

It was decided that one of them would be installed huge watch. This tower, which for a long time was called Big Ben, was renamed Elizabeth Tower in 2012 in honor of ElizabethII.

In the 19th century, time could be measured quite accurately, and it was a very valuable resource: time is money. And in the 19th century a real revolution took place in this regard. If such a grandiose construction was planned, it was impossible to do without a clock.

When the Royal Astronomer announced the requirements for the watch, everyone was amazed: it would be the biggest and accurate watch in the world.

Airy's requirements were very strict. For example, one of them stated that the clock must be accurate with maximum error 1 second per day, and reports on their accuracy were to be sent to twice daily. This was not the 21st century of information, for watchmakers of the 19th century, setting up a giant mechanism, and even in a tower, taking into account the weight of the mechanism and hands, with such precision that they show the correct time second by second, hour by hour, week by week, year by year , despite the fact that they will be exposed to rain, snow, wind - all this was a real miracle, as unheard of as going to the moon.

And Parliament asked Airy if he could propose a more realistic and less expensive plan? But Airy was adamant, so the Elizabeth Tower, called the Bells, became the personification of precision for the whole world.

It's surprising, but the famous project belonged to an amateur watchmaker named Edmund Beckett Denison. He managed to achieve the required accuracy, while the experts failed to cope with the task.

Like all clocks of this type, it will be driven by weights, gears and a pendulum. But Big Ben will appear fundamentally new element, which will protect the pendulum from influence external forces. Two metal levers control a three-spoke wheel. With each swing of the pendulum, one of the arms moves, allowing the wheel to rotate one unit. This regulates the movement of the clock. When snow or rain presses on the clock hands, the arms isolate the pendulum and it continues to swing unchanged.

To set the clock, time keepers only had to reach into their pockets. Coins were used to set the clock: by reporting or removing old-style pennies from the pendulum, one could add or subtract 2/5 of a second per day. Thanks to this ingenious but simple method The watch has become the world standard for precision.

The clock tower above the Houses of Parliament at the center of the empire has a symbolic meaning, as if the British were in control of time itself.

In addition to clocks, bells were needed to mark the passage of time. Called every hour giant central bell. bell caster, George Meas, created this giant according to Denison's instructions. Thus was born Running Ben, weighing 13 tons.

In 1858, thousands of people took to the streets to watch Beg Ben being installed on the clock tower. Since then, its ringing has regularly echoed over London.

London has grown significantly. It was the world's first city with a suburb, and it was to have symbols, the main one of which was "father of all parliaments"– Parliament building with Big Ben, symbol of the strength and power of the British Empire.

Victoria - a teenage girl at the head of the British Empire

By the mid-19th century, Great Britain had established high standards in the field of new technologies. But during the reign of the young and naive queen, London will amaze a crisis, which will almost cause a real disaster.

In 1837, the reins of the most powerful empire on earth passed to a teenage girl. Her ascension to the throne gave rise to wave of discontent: both her subjects and the government looked at her as a spoiled child, unready to rule the country. Her name was Queen.

She was only 18 when she ascended the throne, and the first two years were extremely difficult for her: she was poorly received. Then it was difficult to imagine that this girl would turn into a symbol of the power of the empire, revered by everyone.

She began to change when she married her cousin in 1840. Victoria fell in love almost at first sight. All her life she wanted to have someone to lean on, including literally. And Albert fulfilled this role: he came and helped her grow up.

By this time the empire extended throughout the world from North America to Australia. Albert and Victoria supported technology development and construction, they knew how important it was to their growing empire. And one of the priority areas was the creation.

The empire stretched over almost the entire globe. There was talk about overcoming space and time with the help of an electric telegraph. At the suggestion of the British such an innovation as the telegraph took over the whole world. In the mid-19th century, over 155 thousand kilometers of steel telegraph wires were laid. It was possible to send a message from England and receive it in India in just a few hours.

It was the first in the world information superhighway. With its help, the empire could manage its territories much more efficiently than before.

Without a doubt, this is the greatest achievement, no one had dared to think about it before.

London's grand sewer system

Advances in technology not only united the empire, they provoked unprecedented production boom. People left villages and converged on cities in search of better work. Labor productivity grew rapidly, as did population of the capital- London.

If at the beginning of the 19th century the population was one million, then by 1850 there were 2 million, and London was not intended for so many people: it was overcrowded, people lived as if in a huge chicken coop.

Thames. The situation foreshadowed nothing but disaster.

Do you think that the Thames, a huge river, is a great way to get rid of London's waste? But unfortunately, London was supplied with water from it. Just imagine: the waste of two million inhabitants was dumped into the Thames, and then Londoners drank this water.

1848 London was struck by a catastrophe: a storm swept through the overpopulated city. cholera epidemic, 14 thousand people died. Three years later the epidemic recurred, claiming the lives of another 10 thousand victims. The cemeteries were overflowing. One of the most advanced cities in the world found itself in conditions not seen since the medieval epidemic.

In 30 years, 30 thousand Londoners died. The reason for this was the cholera epidemic, which spread through contaminated water.

Something had to be done. England addressed the engineer by name. His project will accomplish revolution in urban planning. With the help of thousands of workers, he would build the most advanced sewer system of the era.

Bazalgette's innovative approach involved the installation of collectors with pipes, which were supposed to become a parallel channel of the Thames within London. These pipes will be connected to two thousand kilometers of old city sewer pipes, collecting waste and preventing it from entering the river.

The genius of the system is that it used, whenever possible, to remove wastewater from London. gravity: the pipes were located at a slope.

Where gravity was not enough, Bazalgette built large pumping stations. There, huge steam engines raised the waste to the point where gravity began to operate again.

The waste was transported through tubes from giant tanks, where it was kept until high tide, when nature could carefully dispose of it.

This sewer system was one of the wonders of the 19th century. It took 300 million bricks. A grandiose project! They managed to accomplish something colossal. Brilliant and simple!

The implementation of such a large-scale project turned London into the first sparkling clean capital. European cities studied city systems with awe.

Tower Bridge

However, the crises of Victoria's reign were not limited to epidemics. If you read “Hard times,” so much so that the city began to choke on its own success.

A second crossing was needed, but a traditional bridge would block the passage of large merchant ships. London needed drawbridge.

This drawbridge will be the largest and most complex of its kind. He will be called . The frame is made of steel and covered with stone, so as not to contrast with the Tower of London.

When the bridge was built, the 1200 ton wings, or farms, climbed with the help steam engines. The steam turned huge gears along the steel beam. The hard metal pin rotated as the gear lifted part of the bridge. The wings stopped at an angle of 83 degrees, allowing ships to pass. The bridge opened in just a minute, an incredible achievement in construction.

Tower Bridge was built by 400 workers over 8 years. Today it is one of the most famous and recognizable bridges in the world.

She spent almost 10 years in solitude. But when I finally returned to public life, she was stronger and more powerful than ever. The stupid girl turned into a modern ruler and took her rightful place as queen.

All over the world, monuments were erected in honor of Victoria, noisy celebrations took place and colonized peoples often took part in them. She was everyone's favorite.

Queen Victoria became a symbol of the greatness and power of the empire. Victoria's reign will become the culminating point in its development. The British Empire now had dominions on every continent and had a population of 400 million. No other country could challenge its power, it was the largest empire in history.

Queen Victoria died in 1901, at the dawn of the 20th century. She led a huge state, guiding it with a confident hand along the path of progress.

The British Empire dragged humanity into a new era: the age of mass production, speed and information. The world will never be the same again. British ideas and achievements were used by everyone.

The Sun may have set on the British Empire after all, but considering the miracles that marked its entry into new Age, it has never shone brighter.