Decay Kievan Rus.

1. At the end of the XI century. begins the process of disintegration of Russia. Its main reasons are as follows:

> approval of feudal relations led to the formation of independent local political centers and their struggle with Kiev;

> the growth of large cities - Smolensk, Chernigov, Polotsk, Galich, Suzdal, Vladimir, etc., their rivalry with each other for leadership.

2. In 1097, for the first time in the history of Russia, large princes gathered in the family castle of the grandson of Yaroslav the Wise - Vladimir Monomakh - Lyubech in order to establish order in Russia. The princes agreed that hereditary lands were kept behind each of them, “each one keeps his own fatherland.” Punishment threatened for violation of the agreement. Thus, Russia broke up into “fatherlands” - the hereditary possessions of individual princes who were economically and militarily independent. It can be said that the decisions of the Lyubech Congress consolidated not the unification, but the division of Russia.

The largest political centers of Russia: Galicia-Volyn and Vladimir-Suzdal principalities

1. The principalities were the largest:

> Kievskoe (Kyiv);

> Chernigov (Chernigov), Severskoye (Novgorod-Seversky);

> Galicia-Volynskoye (Galych and Vladimir-Volynsky);

> Vladimir-Suzdal (Vladimir-on-Klyazma);

> Novgorod land (Veliky Novgorod).

But three main political centers were determined: in the southwest - the Galicia-Volyn principality; in the northeast - the Vladimir-Suzdal principality and Novgorod land.

2. The Galicia-Volyn principality arose on the territory of the Galician and Volyn lands and was the largest in the south of Russia. These lands played important role in the history of Russia XII-XIII centuries. Large boyar estates arose here. Favorable climate, natural soils, steppe spaces created conditions for arable farming and cattle breeding. The development of crafts contributed to the emergence of cities (XII century - more than 80). Among them - Przemysl, Galich. Hill, Lutsk, Berestye, Vladimir-Volynsky - centers of principalities, crafts and trade. Numerous suitable and overland trade routes passed through the Galician and Volyn lands. The descendants of Rostislav and Monomakh ruled here. In 1153, the warlike Yaroslav Osmomysl (the Wise) became the Prince of Galicia, who once captured even Kyiv. Under him, the Galician principality reached its peak, was famous for its wealth. In the last years of his reign, conflicts often arose between Yaroslav and the boyars. His son Vladimir also fought with the boyar clans of Galicia, as well as with the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich, who tried to capture Galich. In 1199, he succeeded, and Roman Volynsky formed the Galicia-Volyn principality, and later he became the Grand Prince of Kiev (1203). Roman suppressed boyar separatism, relying on service people, squads and artisans. After the death of Roman, the Galicia-Volyn principality fell apart. The Galician boyars began a long feudal war. The boyars concluded an agreement with the Hungarian and Polish feudal lords, the Hungarians captured the Galician principality and part of Volhynia. The national liberation struggle against the invaders began. She allowed Roman's son Daniel to fortify in Volyn, in 1238 take Galich and reunite Southwestern Russia into a single principality, which in 1240 included the territory Kiev principality. But the economic and cultural upsurge was interrupted by the invasion of Batu. After the defeat of Galicia and Volhynia by the Mongol-Tatars, these lands were captured by Lithuania and Poland.

3. For many centuries, North-Eastern Russia was a wild outskirts, which the Eastern Slavs settled relatively late. Only in the 8th century a tribe of Vyatichi appeared here. Fertile soils, rich forests, many rivers and lakes created favorable conditions for the development of agriculture, cattle breeding and handicrafts. Trade routes to the south, east and west passed here, which led to the development of trade. Of no small importance was the fact that the northeastern lands were well protected by forests and rivers from nomadic raids. There were large urban centers - Rostov, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Murom, Ryazan. Under Vladimir Monomakh, the cities of Vladimir and Pereyaslavl were built. In 1125, the youngest son of Monomakh, Yuri (1125-1157), became the prince of Suzdal, for his thirst for power, for his military activity, he received the nickname Dolgoruky. Under Prince Yuri, the Rostov-Suzdal Principality separated from Kyiv and turned into a vast independent state. He constantly fought with the Volga Bulgaria, fought with Novgorod for influence on the border lands and twice seized the throne of Kyiv. Under him, Moscow was first mentioned when, after one of the victories over rivals, Yuri invited his ally prince of Chernigov Svyatoslav to mark this event: "Come to me, brother, in Moscow!" On April 4, 1147, the allies met in Moscow, where a “strong dinner” (feast) was given. This date is considered to be the year of foundation of Moscow, although archaeologists believe that the settlement on the site of Moscow arose as early as the 11th century. Moscow was built by Dolgoruky on the site of the estate of the boyar Kuchka. In 1157, Yuri died in Kyiv (poisoned) and power in the Rostov-Suzdal land passed to Yuri's son, Andrei, nicknamed Bogolyubsky.

Andrei Bogolyubsky continued his father's policy aimed at expanding the Rostov-Suzdal principality: he fought with Novgorod, the Volga Bulgaria. At the same time, he sought to raise his principality above other Russian lands, went to Kyiv, took it, subjected it to terrible ruin, but did not stay in Kyiv. Andrei Bogolyubsky pursued a tough policy towards the boyars in his principality. Stepping on their rights and privileges, he brutally dealt with the recalcitrant, expelled from the principality, deprived of their estates. In an effort to further separate from the boyars and rely on the townspeople, he moved the capital from Rostov to the young commercial and industrial city of Vladimir. It was near Vladimir in the town of Bogolyubovo that he set up his residence, for which he received the nickname Bogolyubsky. A serious conflict was brewing between Andrei Bogoltobsky and the boyars. A conspiracy arose against the prince, in which Andrei's servants were involved - the Ossetian Anbal, the housekeeper Efrem Mozevich. On June 29, 1174, the conspirators broke into the prince's house and hacked the prince to death. After the death of Andrei, strife began. The Rostov and Suzdal boyars tried to give the throne to their henchmen, but the inhabitants of Vladimir offered the sons of Yuri - Mikhail and Vsevolod. In the end, in 1176, Vsevolod, nicknamed the Big Nest, became prince, as he had 8 sons and 8 grandchildren. Under him, the Vladimir-Suzdal principality reached its peak. He was the first among the princes of the Northeast to take the title of Grand Duke. Vsevolod severely punished the rebellious boyars. Under him, Ryazan was captured. Vsevolod interfered in the affairs of Novgorod, he was feared in Kyiv. After the death of the prince, his sons divided the principality into parts and waged strife. Only in the XIV century. North-Eastern Russia will become the center of the unification of Russian lands.

Middle - end of the XII century. in Russia there are 3 main centers:
— Novgorod land

- Galicia-Volyn principality

- Vladimir-Suzdal principality

The prerequisites for the development of large political centers of Russia and the principalities are similar:

• Fertile lands or communal land ownership made it possible to engage in crafts
• Principalities are at the crossroads of trade routes
• remoteness from steppes -> from nomads
• advantageous geographical position-> development economy -> economic independence
• rivalry for the throne of Kyiv

Novgorod Boyar Republic (Novgorod land) - the main political center of Russia

In 1136 Novgorodians began to invite princes to rule over their lands -> from that time Novgorod land was a feudal republic.

The main features of the Novgorod Republic:

1. Occupied a huge territory

2. Large shopping center "from the Varangians to the Greeks"

3. away from nomads

4. management: veche (general meeting)

Veche elects:

1 - bishop (responsible for the treasury, international relations)

2- mayor - was elected from the boyars - (responsible for the court, land management)

3000th (responsible for trade disputes and militia)

Galicia-Volyn principality - the main political center of Russia

Geographical position - between the rivers Dniester and Prut.

Princes: Yaroslav Osmomysl, Roman Mstislavovich (United the Galician and Volyn principalities), Daniil Romanovich (in 1240 he united the lands by annexing the Kiev land, Southwestern Russia, took Kyiv, but at the same time the Mongol-Tatars captured Kyiv).

Main features:

• fertile lands
• salt deposits
• Foreign trade in salt
• Favorable geographical position
• Distance from nomads

Vladimir-Suzdal principality - the main political center of Russia

Princes: Yuri Dolgoruky (1132-1157) - Founded Moscow, captured Kyiv;

Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) - Captured Kyiv, robs it, moves to Suzdal, conflict with the boyars, killed as a result;

Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176 - 1212) - expands the lands at the expense of the lands of Volga Bulgaria, white-stone construction of Moscow, annexation of the lands of the Ryazan, Chernigov, Smolensk principalities.

Main features:

1. Soil fertility - agriculture

2. Remoteness from nomads

3. Population growth (influx of new people from the south)

4. Volga trade route

5. The form of government is closest to the monarchy.

But, unfortunately, the development of many principalities was interrupted by the Mongol invasion.

Whoever comes to us with a sword will die by the sword.

Alexander Nevskiy

Rus Udelnaya originates in 1132, when Mstislav the Great dies, which leads the country to a new internecine war, the consequences of which had a huge impact on the entire state. As a result of subsequent events, independent principalities appeared. IN domestic literature this period is also called fragmentation, since the basis of all events was the disunity of the lands, each of which was actually an independent state. Of course, the dominant position of the Grand Duke was preserved, but this was already a figure rather nominal than really significant.

The period of feudal fragmentation in Russia lasted almost 4 centuries, during which the country underwent strong changes. They affected both the device and the way of life, and the cultural customs of the peoples of Russia. As a result of the isolated actions of the princes of Russia on long years It turned out to be branded with a yoke, which they managed to get rid of only after the beginning of the unification of the rulers of the destinies around a common goal - the overthrow of the power of the Golden Horde. IN this material we will consider the main distinguishing features of specific Russia as an independent state, as well as the main features of the lands included in it.

The main causes of feudal fragmentation in Russia stem from the historical, economic and political processes that were taking place in the country at that moment in time. The following main reasons for the formation of Specific Russia and fragmentation can be distinguished:

This whole complex of measures led to the fact that the causes of feudal fragmentation in Russia turned out to be very significant and led to irreversible consequences that almost put the very existence of the state on the line.

Fragmentation at a certain historical stage is a normal phenomenon that almost any state faced, but in Russia there were certain distinctive features in this process. First of all, it should be noted that literally all the princes who controlled the destinies were from one ruling dynasty. There was nothing like it anywhere else in the world. There have always been rulers who held power by force, but had no historical claims to it. In Russia, almost any prince could be chosen as chief. Secondly, the loss of the capital should be noted. No, formally Kyiv retained its leading role, but it was only formally. At the beginning of this era, still Kyiv prince was dominant over all, other destinies paid him taxes (as much as they can). But literally within a few decades, this changed, because at first the Russian princes stormed the previously impregnable Kyiv, and after that the Mongol-Tatars literally destroyed the city. By this time, the representative of the city of Vladimir was the Grand Duke.

Specific Russia - the consequences of existence

Any historical event has its own causes and consequences, which leave one or another imprint on the processes taking place within the state during such accomplishments, as well as after them. The collapse of the Russian lands in this regard was no exception and revealed a number of consequences that were formed as a result of the appearance of separate appanages:

1. Uniform population of the country. This is one of good points, which was achieved due to the fact that southern lands became the object of constant warfare. As a result, the main population was forced to leave for the northern regions in order to find security. If by the time of the formation of the State Specific Russia, the northern regions were practically deserted, then by the end of the 15th century the situation had already changed radically.
2. Development of cities and their arrangement. Economic, spiritual, handicraft innovations that appeared in the principalities can also be attributed to this item. This is due to a rather simple thing - the princes in their lands were full-fledged rulers, to maintain which it was necessary to develop a subsistence economy so as not to depend on their neighbors.
3. The appearance of vassals. Since there was no single system that ensured security for all the principalities, the weak lands were forced to accept the status of vassals. Of course, there was no talk of any oppression, but such lands did not have independence either, since in many issues they were forced to adhere to the point of view of a stronger ally.
4. Decrease in the country's defense capability. Separate squads of princes were strong enough, but still not numerous. In battles with equal opponents, they could win, but strong enemies alone could easily deal with each of the armies. Batu's campaign clearly demonstrated this when the princes, in an attempt to defend their lands alone, did not dare to join forces. The result is widely known - 2 centuries of yoke and the murder of a huge number of Russians.
5. The impoverishment of the country's population. Not only external enemies, but also internal ones led to such consequences. Against the backdrop of the yoke and the constant attempts of Livonia and Poland to seize Russian possessions, internecine wars do not stop. They are still large and destructive. In such a situation, the common people suffered, as always. This was one of the reasons for the migration of peasants to the north of the country. This is how one of the first mass migrations of people took place, which gave rise to specific Russia.

We see that the consequences of the feudal fragmentation of Russia are far from unambiguous. They have both negative and positive sides. Moreover, it should be remembered that this process is typical not only for Russia. All countries have gone through it in one form or another. In the end, the destinies nevertheless united and created a strong state capable of ensuring their own security.

The collapse of Kievan Rus led to the emergence of 14 independent principalities, each of which had its own capital, its own prince and army. The largest of them were the Novgorod, Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn principalities. It should be noted that in Novgorod there was a unique political system at that time - a republic. Specific Russia became a unique state of its time.

Features of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality

This lot was located in the northeastern part of the country. Its inhabitants were mainly engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding, which was facilitated by favorable natural conditions. The largest cities in the principality were Rostov, Suzdal and Vladimir. As for the latter, it became the main city of the country after Batu captured Kyiv.

The peculiarity of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality lies in the fact that for many years it retained its dominant position, and Grand Duke rules from these lands. As for the Mongols, they also recognized the power of this center, allowing its ruler to single-handedly collect tribute for them from all destinies. There is a large number of conjectures about this, but still we can say with confidence that Vladimir was the capital of the country for a long time.

Features of the Galicia-Volyn principality

It was located in the southwest of Kyiv, the features of which were that it was one of the largest in its time. The largest cities of this lot were Vladimir Volynsky and Galich. Their significance was quite high, both for the region and for the state as a whole. Local residents for the most part were engaged in crafts, which allowed them to actively trade with other principalities and states. At the same time, these cities could not become important trading centers due to their geographical position.

Unlike most appanages, in Galicia-Volynsky, as a result of fragmentation, wealthy landowners very quickly stood out, who had a huge impact on the actions of the local prince. This land was subject to frequent raids, primarily from Poland.

Novgorod principality

Novgorod is a unique city and a unique destiny. The special status of this city originates along with the formation of the Russian state. It was here that it originated, and its inhabitants have always been freedom-loving and wayward. As a result, they often changed princes, leaving only the most worthy for themselves. During the time of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, this particular city became the stronghold of Russia, a city that the enemy could not take. The Novgorod principality once again became a symbol of Russia and the land that contributed to their unification.

The largest city of this principality was Novgorod, which was guarded by the fortress of Torzhok. The special position of the principality led to rapid development trade. As a result, it was one of the richest cities in the country. In terms of its size, it also occupied a leading place, second only to Kiev, but unlike the ancient capital, the Novgorod principality did not lose its independence.

Significant dates

History is, first of all, dates that can tell better than any words about what happened in each specific period of human development. Speaking of feudal fragmentation, the following key dates can be distinguished:

• 1185 - Prince Igor made a campaign against the Polovtsy, immortalized in the "Tale of Igor's Campaign"
• 1223 - Battle on the Kalka River
• 1237 - the first invasion of the Mongols, which led to the conquest of Specific Russia
• July 15, 1240 - Battle of the Neva
• April 5, 1242 - Battle on the Ice
• 1358 - 1389 - Dmitry Donskoy was the Grand Duke of Russia
• July 15, 1410 - Battle of Grunwald
• 1480 - great standing on the river Ugra
• 1485 - joining the principality of Tver to Moscow
• 1505-1534 - the reign of Vasily 3, which was marked by the liquidation of the last destinies
• 1534 - the beginning of the reign of Ivan 4, the terrible.

Expansion of feudal landownership

By the middle of the 12th century, when the process of transition to feudal fragmentation was completed, about 15 independent principalities arose on the basis of Kievan Rus, corresponding to the former territorial units: Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn, Kiev, Murom-Ryazan, Pereyaslav, Polotsk-Minsk, Smolensk , Tmutarakan, Turov-Pinsk, Chernigov, as well as the Novgorod feudal republic and the Pskov land that spun off from it. The largest, influencing the neighboring lands and principalities, were Vladimir-Suzdal or Rostov-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn principality and Novgorod land. Number independent formations was not constant in view of frequent divisions or less often associations. By the middle of the XIII century. there were about 50 principalities and lands, and in the XIV century, when the process of unification began, their number reached 250. These principalities and lands were not bound by uniform laws, the order of inheritance of power and common state power. During the period of fragmentation, Russia was a territorial set of separate independent and fragmented private feudal estates - princely and boyar estates and peasant farms dependent to varying degrees.

The basis of this order was the development of private feudal (princely and boyar) land ownership, the accession to these possessions of the lands of the community members and the establishment of their dependence on the feudal lord. The feudal patrimony, formed by the forcible acquisition of communal lands and the enslavement of communal peasants, is the main form and center of the country's economic and political life. The votchina became the main link in the economy and a form of feudal land ownership. A feature of the landownership of the feudal lords was the consolidation of their property with political rights, obligations of vassal hierarchical dependence. The capture of communal (black) lands also meant their recognition in the supreme possession of the prince. The appearance of the supreme owner was not just a nominal act. A tax liability was imposed on these lands. The owner of these lands had to pay tax for them. However, the right of ownership for a long time (until the end of the 15th century) was recognized for the peasants cultivating the land.

Meanwhile, there is a reduction in the "black lands" owned by the communal peasants, and the expansion of the property of princes, boyars. The boyars received from the prince (sovereign) a part of the income from the lands - feeding or income from the state positions of the boyars.

The military support of the prince was the squad, the nature of which changed during the period of feudal fragmentation. Senior warriors, or boyars, settled on the ground. Under these conditions, the prince had to recruit military servants who received land from the prince during their service. Conditional land tenure was approved, from which arose the local form of land ownership by the feudal lord. Conditional land ownership meant that land was provided to provide services, church and monastic land ownership grew. The communal peasants, the former owners of the "black" lands (chernososhnye), became dependent "holders" of the owner's land. Compared with the privately owned peasants, the black-sowed peasants had greater economic independence: sometimes they could sell their land plots. In the future, the state began to severely suppress this practice.

In the XII century. part of the peasants begins to lose not only the "black" lands, but also economic independence and personal freedom. Getting a loan from the feudal lord, and then the debt and the inability to leave this land became the cause of the economic and personal dependence of the peasant. In the XIII-XIV centuries. the peasants still retained the right to transfer to another owner of the land upon paying the loan and fulfilling their obligations. In the process of the formation of a centralized state, the attitude towards the "black" lands as "sovereign" is being strengthened.

By the XIII-XIV centuries. the development of patrimonial landownership, the enslavement of the masses of peasants testify to the fact that feudal relations have become decisive. The economic basis of these relations is land ownership and landowning economy, based on the use of the labor of dependent peasants. The feudal owner acts as a “sovereign” over the entire population living in his patrimonial possessions, he manages and executes judgment. The basis of dependent, feudal relations of the direct producer (peasant) to the owner of the land (feudal lord) is economic coercion in the form of debt, lack of land for the peasant, as well as non-economic coercion in the form of attaching the peasant to the land, turning him into a serf.

In addition to the privately owned patrimony, there are princely , or palace, land ownership and economy. The specific prince expanded his patrimonial possessions, both by force and by buying land from ruined owners. So, Ivan I Kalita was able to bequeath 54 villages to his children, Vasily the Dark - 125 villages. Serpukhov and Borovsky princes - several dozen villages. Dmitrovsky - 31 villages, etc. The following types of estates were common: princely, ancestral, bought, granted.

Churches and monasteries expanded their possessions by giving them villages and lands by princes and boyars, purchases, and also by seizing lands by force. So, by the XIV century. monasteries became the largest landowners: Trinity-Sergius (near Moscow), Kirillov (near Beloozero), Solovetsky (on islands in the White Sea). The lands behind churches and monasteries were fixed forever.

The feudal lord, who owned land and the right to work as a peasant, used various forms of exploitation. feudal rent was the main form of exploitation of the peasantry. Different stages of development of feudal relations also corresponded to various forms of rent - labor rent, natural (grocery) and monetary rent. During the period of feudal fragmentation, the value of food rent increased to a greater extent than labor rent, which stimulated the growth of labor productivity. This did not mean that labor rent disappeared; it was used along with food rent. For example, the peasants who belonged to the monasteries, in addition to the food quitrent, were obliged to build a church, mansions, enclose the monastery and its courtyard, plow the abbot's arable land, sow, reap, store hay, take care of the garden, pond and clean the ponds. In the XV century. with the growth of the local form of land tenure, corvee became stronger. The privately owned peasants paid rent to the votchinnik, landowner, monasteries and churches, while the black-eared peasants paid rent and taxes to the state.

During the period of feudal fragmentation in Russia, there was no single salary tax unit, each principality had its own characteristics. Salaries were made according to plows, people and strength (the amount of labor). In addition, individual groups of the feudal peasantry were taxed differently. For example, ladles of sovereign taxes either did not pay, or paid them in a reduced amount.

feudal city. Craft Development

Feudal relations developed not only in agriculture, but also in handicraft production. The owner of the city in the XI-XII centuries. was mainly a feudal patrimony, and the artisans, merchants and peasants who lived in the city were its serfs and were engaged in the processing of agricultural products or some kind of handicraft. As historians V. Klyuchevsky, V. Solovyov and others believed, a feudal city in Russia in the 11th-15th centuries. was a fortified village of military strategic importance, with poorly developed industries and population, for the most part engaged in agricultural work. If in Western Europe already in the XII-XIII centuries. the city gains independence and becomes industrial center, playing a large role in the elimination of natural economic isolation and the development of capitalism, then in Russia the city becomes an industrial center much later - in the 16th-17th centuries.

It should be borne in mind that at an early stage of development, the cities went through an unequal path. Three forms of the emergence and development of a feudal city can be named: residence cities of princes, cities as trading points, and patrimonial cities in which free and dependent populations settled. The third way was passed by many cities in Russia. The social division of labor inherent in the economic activity of the city gradually changed the economy and social structure cities. The patrimonial economy is drawn into the production relations of the city. The agricultural products of the patrimony are sold in the city, at the same time, the products of handicraft production are received by the patrimony. This is how the feudal city is formed as a commercial and industrial center, gradually separating from the patrimony.

Feudal city in North-Eastern Russia in the development of handicraft production and trade in the XII century. did not reach the level of Kyiv. However, cities such as Novgorod, Smolensk, Pskov, Suzdal, Vladimir, Yaroslavl began to develop rapidly, to be built up and populated by artisans, turning into more or less big cities. One of the new crafts that developed in the second half of the 13th century was stone-building, associated with the construction of churches and monasteries. This type of craft develops especially rapidly with the beginning of the construction of stone walls around the Kremlin of various large cities.

Glass and icon-painting crafts are also developing. In the XIII-XIV centuries. metal processing, the manufacture of weapons, chain mail, shells, nets, household utensils, and agricultural implements are becoming widespread. The first artillery pieces appear. Coin minting, paper production are being established, book publishing workshops are emerging. The products of potters, tanners, carpenters, woodworkers, coopers, weavers, hat makers, etc. were in great demand.

In the second half of the XIV century. in connection with the increased military needs, the rise of handicraft production, especially metalworking, began. Development also began in the construction and jewelry business. In Moscow, Pskov and other large cities, there were up to 60-70 craft professions. Moscow craftsmen - armored workers, blacksmiths, jewelers - were distinguished by their high skill. In Moscow, not only free artisans worked, but also state-owned ones. In order to expand handicraft production, the Moscow authorities attracted skilled artisans from other cities, for example, Pskov, Novgorod, Yaroslavl, Vladimir. Fishing areas were formed: Tula, Ustyuzhna Zhelezopolskaya.

Domestic and foreign trade

During the period of feudal fragmentation and the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the role of commodity-money relations was not great. The payment of large sums of money and food to the Tatars in the form of tribute hindered the growth of trade. Meanwhile, these obstacles could not stop trade, it existed primarily within cities and villages. Agricultural products - grain, flour, vegetables, as well as cows, horses, sheep, poultry, fish, honey, wax, incense, hay, firewood, salt, ash, tar - were exported to local city auctions. Handicraft products - cloth, shoes, furs, collars, hats, weapons, household items.

In the XIII-XIV centuries. trade is developing not only between the nearest cities and villages, but also between individual territories. For example, goods from Novgorod reached Tver, Suzdal, Moscow, etc. In the trade exchange between cities and regions, an important place was occupied by salt, which was exported from the Crimea, the Galician land, from the Volga region, from the places of settlement of the Komi-Permyaks near the Kama. An important item of import to the northern regions of Russia was bread. There were county markets. Moscow, Novgorod, Beloozero, Tver, Smolensk became major centers of trade.

The development of trade relations was hindered by numerous internal customs duties: zamyt (bringing goods for sale or money for purchasing goods): turnout (notification of the intention to trade), living room (when hiring premises), weighty (when weighing goods), etc. Exempted from internal duties large monasteries, some population groups; individual feudal lords had the right to collect a fee in their favor in their fiefdom.

The feudal fragmentation of the country, the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the transfer of trade routes to the Mediterranean Sea made changes in foreign trade Russia. Russia's foreign trade with the West expanded (France, Northern Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, Czech Republic, Bulgaria). Russian merchants exported traditional goods (furs, honey, wax, hemp), while they imported mainly luxury goods (precious metals and stones, silk, wines, handicrafts).

Associations of merchants specializing in trade with individual countries were formed. So, "Ivanovskoye Sto", which united Novgorod merchants, carried out trade with Hanseatic cities; Moscow "guests-surozhane" traded with the Crimea; "Moscow cloth makers", united with Smolensk merchants, created a "cloth row", which carried out trade with Western countries

Among the merchants, the top stood out - the so-called guests (rich merchants, usurers), who issued loans to princes, feudal lords and, through usury, subjugated small merchants and merchants.

During the period of feudal fragmentation, the circulation of metallic money and their minting were reduced. However, Novgorod, which mined silver in the Ural mines, used silver bullion in foreign trade. The issue of silver coins began Novgorod, where he was founded mint. In Moscow, coinage began in the 14th century. under Prince Dmitry Donskoy, who ordered the re-minting of the Mongolian silver coin.

There is a Russian monetary system and a monetary metallic unit - the ruble and the kopeck.

The largest Russian lands

In the era of feudal fragmentation, the economic development of various Russian lands was very peculiar. As noted, the largest principalities after the collapse of Kievan Rus were the Vladimir-Suzdal and Galicia-Volyn and Novgorod Republics, the Vladimir-Suzdal principality occupied the territory between the Oka and Volga rivers. In the area of ​​the cities of Rostov and Suzdal, a large boyar land ownership developed. In the laid in the XII-XIII centuries. the cities of Vladimir, Pereslavl, Yuryev and others concentrated the serving boyars, artisans and merchants. In 1147, Moscow, the future center of the unification of the Russian lands, was mentioned for the first time in written sources.

The rise of the economy and the growing influence of the principality on national interests was facilitated by the movement of masses of the population from the southern territories bordering the steppe in search of protection from attacks by nomadic tribes and favorable conditions for agriculture and crafts. In the forest areas, clearing of areas for arable land was carried out. The first ruler of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality in the era of political fragmentation was Yuri Dolgoruky, who sought to expand the territory of the principality. He, and then Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest, managed to break the separatism of the old boyars. Already at the end of the XII century. the land of North-Eastern Russia was called the Grand Duchy of Vladimir. The development of agricultural and handicraft production, construction, the active policy of the Vladimir-Suzdal and then Moscow princes were factors that ensured the growth of the influence of the North-Eastern land on the politics of Ryazan, Pskov, Veliky Novgorod and other Russian lands. However, in the late 1930s 13th century the process of economic recovery was interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar conquest.

The Galicia-Volyn principality was located on the territory from the lands of the Prussians and Lithuanians to the Danube, from the Bug region to Transcarpathia. It was a region with fertile lands, a favorable climate, extensive forests and numerous cities (Galych, Przemysl, Cherven, Lvov, Vladimir-Volynsky, Kholm, Berest, etc.). The power of the Galicia-Volyn principality reached under Yaroslav I Osmomysl. In 1199 Prince Roman Mstislavich unified the Galician and Volyn lands. There was one of the largest states in Europe with a strong grand ducal power. The son of Roman Mstislavich Daniel waged a long struggle for the throne and in 1238 he managed to assert his power. characteristic feature The Galicia-Volyn principality was the development of large boyar land ownership, and the advantageous geographical position made it possible to establish a waterway from the Black Sea to the Baltic. This contributed to the development of trade with Silesia, the Czech Republic, Moravia, Poland, German cities. In 1240, the Galicia-Volyn principality was subjected to the Mongol-Tatar invasion. After 100 years, the Galicia-Volyn principality became part of Poland (Galych) and Lithuania (Volyn).

Novgorod land occupied the territory from the banks of the Narva to the Urals, from the coast of the Barents Sea to the upper reaches of the Volga. Novgorod included lands inhabited by Karelians and other nationalities: Izhora, Karelian, Kola Peninsula, etc. In 1136, Novgorod separated from the Russian lands, which by that time had become a feudal republic. Power formally belonged to the people's assembly - veche, but the true owners were the boyars, who ruled the veche, seeking through numerous supporters to resolve issues in their favor.

Novgorod owned huge land areas. Although the basis of the economy was agriculture, agriculture was less developed than in other parts of Russia. In unfavorable years, Novgorod imported grain from neighboring principalities. natural conditions allowed the development of animal husbandry. Cattle breeding was carried out not only by the villagers, but also by the townspeople. The feudal lord collected dues from the peasants in the form of a share (from 1/4 to 1/2) of the crop from the peasant allotment.

Various crafts have been developed: hunting, beekeeping, fishing. Handicraft production reached an unprecedented flourishing, the specialization of artisans was extremely wide: potters, blacksmiths, carpenters, shoemakers, glass blowers, bristles, nail makers, jewelers, boilermakers, etc. Some urban artisans already in the 11th-13th centuries. worked for the market, while the other still made products to order.

Novgorod was connected by trade relations with all Russian lands. Novgorod played an important role in international economic and political relations, established a major trade with Denmark, Sweden, Hanseatic cities. If in Russia as a whole representatives of the ruling class were engaged in foreign trade, then in Novgorod a layer of professional merchants formed early, who held foreign trade in their hands.

Mongol-Tatar invasion and its consequences

Despite the fact that feudal relations in Russia developed progressively and there were factors that contributed to the unification ( common language, a single faith, common historical roots, signs of a nationality, the need for protection from external enemies, etc.) ”political and economic fragmentation in the 13th century. reached the highest level. This weakened the strength of the country - it could not resist the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

The invasion and the established yoke had a huge impact on the further socio-economic and political development of the Russian lands. They destroyed the productive forces and slowed down the historical process.

Numerous sources point to colossal destruction and massive destruction of human and material resources. Of the 74 Russian cities of the 12th-13th centuries known from excavations. 49 were devastated, in 14 of them life was not revived, and 15 turned into villages. The heaviest blow was dealt to agriculture and handicraft production. The death of many artisans, passing on the secrets of craftsmanship from generation to generation, led to the disappearance of some branches of craft and craft professions. Stone construction stopped, cultural monuments perished. Russia's trade relations were interrupted both with the countries of the East and the West. The Russian lands became even more isolated.

The serious damage inflicted on the cities led to a sharp slowdown in the country's forward movement towards the establishment of capitalist relations. Russia, although it became a vassal of the Golden Horde, retained local governments. Meanwhile, for a great reign, it was necessary to receive a label - approval in the Horde. Mongol-Tatar officials in 1246 conducted a census of the population of Russia, which meant the legal registration of the Horde yoke, then the census was carried out in 1255-1256, 1257-1258, 1276. The population was subjected to cruel oppression, paying tribute to the Golden Horde - various "Horde hardships". The main one was the "tsar's tribute", or "exit", collected from the owner's court. Only Moscow and Novgorod "outputs" amounted to 7-8.5 thousand rubles. silver per year. In the XIV-XV centuries. tribute was a fixed amount. Completion of the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow.

At the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV centuries. The Russian lands that had been invaded began to recover from ruin. More productive two- and three-field systems were mastered. The manure of the fields with organic fertilizers has begun. The importance of animal husbandry has increased.

The restored cities were repopulated with artisans and merchants. Founded new cities often become the capitals of principalities, large craft and trade centers. There is a significant increase in material production, the development of commodity-money relations. A local system of land tenure and a new estate are taking shape - the service nobility, which was formed from the former specific princes, the patrimonial boyars, who transferred to the service of the Grand Duke, representatives of the lower strata - palace servants, fugitives, as well as immigrants from Lithuania, Poland, the Golden Horde. This was the estate that stood for the unification of the Russian lands into a single state.

In the XV century. in North-Eastern Russia, "black" lands still prevailed over patrimonial ones. The black-eared peasants who lived on these lands paid tribute and taxes to the state. Another category of the peasantry was the possessive peasants, who ran their households on separate land in the estate and were personally dependent on the feudal lord, in whose favor they performed a number of works. This personal dependence (serfdom) of the peasant on the feudal lord or the feudal state in property, legal and other respects, based on attaching the peasants to the land of the feudal lord, developed gradually. During the period of feudal fragmentation, the formation of a system of serfdom was reflected in an increase in duties and a restriction on the right of peasants to leave the landowner (Yuriev's day, XV century).

Rise of Moscow

In the second half of the XIII century. Moscow became a major trading and crafts city, and to mid-XIV in. in the territory north of Moscow, many villages and villages appeared. Moscow is put forward as a collector of Russian lands. This was favored by objective factors: the geographical environment, the influx of population, the presence of trade routes, the formation of signs of the Russian nationality and the subjective factor: the active and skillful policy of the Moscow princes. Ivan I Kalita received from the Horde a label for a great reign in 1328 and did not issue it until the end of his life. He significantly expanded the territory of the Moscow principality. From the Horde, he also received the right to collect tribute himself from all the great and specific principalities. The main positive consequence of this right was the establishment of the financial and economic dependence of the Russian principalities on Moscow and the formation on this basis of an economic and foreign policy union of Russian princes. Personally conducting calculations with the Horde, Ivan I made other princes dependent on him. The streamlining of economic relations with the Golden Horde contributed to the cessation of raids on Russian lands from 1328 to 1368. Ivan Kalita laid the foundations for the power of the Moscow principality, during his reign there were 97 cities and villages in which crafts and trades developed. Under him, the Moscow principality became the largest, economically and politically strongest in North-Eastern Russia, turned into the center of the future Russian centralized state. It was already difficult to challenge this right from Moscow. Successes in the economic and political development Moscow principality were used by Dmitry, the future Donskoy. He entered into an open struggle with the Golden Horde. In 1378, the Mongol-Tatars were defeated by the combined Russian troops on the Vozha River (a tributary of the Oka).