Abstract on the topic:

Ancient Rome

Plan:

Introduction

• 1. History
• 2 State structure
• 3 Society
  • 3.1 Laws
  • 3.2 The social structure of Roman society
  • 3.3 Marriage and family
  • 3.4 Status of women
  • 3.5 Education
  • 3.6 Troop
• 4 Culture
  • 4.1 Language
  • 4.2 Religion
  • 4.3 Art, music, literature
• 5 Life
• 6 Science
• 7 Historiography
  • 7.1 Soviet historiography
• 8 Primary sources
  • 9.1 Fragments
• 9.1 Later fundamental works
Notes

Introduction

Rome and the territories under its control Roman Republic The Roman Empire Western Roman Empire Eastern Roman Empire

History ancient rome

Founding of Rome royal period Seven kings of Rome Republic Early Republic Punic Wars and expansion in the East allied war Civil War 83-82 BC e. Conspiracy of Catiline First triumvirate Civil War 49-45 BC e. Second triumvirate Empire List of emperors Principate Julio-Claudian dynasty Flavian dynasty Antonine dynasty Sever dynasty Crisis of the 3rd century Dominat Western Roman Empire Concepts: SPQR culture Marriage Prostitution Religion Christianity Theatre Language Literature Architecture Fashion Roads Provinces Army legions Masters People: Romulus and Remus Scipio Gracchi Mariy Sulla Cicero Pompey Caesar Mark Antony Octavian Nero Vespasian Trajan Marcus Aurelius Diocletian Constantine I

Roman Empire under Emperor Hadrian

Ancient Rome(lat. Roma antiqua) - one of the leading civilizations of the Ancient World and antiquity, got its name from the main city ( Roma), in turn named after the legendary founder - Romulus. The center of Rome developed within the swampy plain, bounded by the Capitol, the Palatine and the Quirinal. A certain influence on the formation ancient roman civilization had the culture of the Etruscans and the ancient Greeks. Ancient Rome reached its peak of power in the 2nd century AD. e., when under his control was the area from modern Scotland in the north to Ethiopia in the south and from Armenia in the east to Portugal in the west.

Ancient Rome presented the modern world with Roman law, some architectural forms and solutions (for example, an arch and a dome) and many other innovations (for example, wheeled water mills). Christianity as a religion was born on the territory of the Roman Empire. official language the ancient Roman state was Latin, religion was polytheistic for most of the period of existence, the unofficial coat of arms of the empire was a golden eagle ( aquila), after the adoption of Christianity, labarums (a banner established by Emperor Constantine for his troops) appeared as chrysma (pectoral cross).

1. History

The periodization of the history of Ancient Rome is based on the forms of government, which in turn reflected the socio-political situation: from royal rule at the beginning of the story to the empire-dominator at its end.

• Royal period (754/753 - 510/509 BC).
• Republic (510/509 - 30/27 BC)
  • Early Roman Republic (509-265 BC)
  • Late Roman Republic (264-27 BC)
• Empire (30/27 BC - 476 AD)
  • Early Roman Empire. Principate (27/30 BC - 235 AD)
  • Crisis of the 3rd century (235-284)
  • Late Roman Empire. Dominate (284-476)

Map of Ancient Rome

During the tsarist period, Rome was a small state that occupied only part of the territory of Latium - the region inhabited by the tribe of the Latins. During the period of the Early Republic, Rome significantly expanded its territory during numerous wars. After the Pyrrhic War, Rome began to reign supreme over the Apennine Peninsula, although the vertical system of control of subordinate territories had not yet developed at that time. After the conquest of Italy, Rome became a prominent player in the Mediterranean, which soon brought it into conflict with Carthage, a large state founded by the Phoenicians. In a series of three Punic Wars, the Carthaginian state was completely defeated, and the city itself was destroyed. At this time, Rome also began to expand to the East, subjugating Illyria, Greece, and then Asia Minor and Syria. In the 1st century BC e. Rome was rocked by a series of civil wars, in which the eventual winner, Octavian Augustus, formed the foundations of the principate system and founded the Julio-Claudian dynasty, which, however, did not last a century. The heyday of the Roman Empire fell on a relatively calm time of the 2nd century, but already the 3rd century was filled with a struggle for power and, as a result, political instability, and the foreign policy situation of the empire was complicated. The establishment of a system of dominance by Diocletian stabilized the situation for some time with the help of the concentration of power in the hands of the emperor and his bureaucratic apparatus. In the 4th century, the division of the empire into two parts was finalized, and Christianity became the state religion of the entire empire. In the 5th century, the Western Roman Empire became the object of active resettlement of Germanic tribes, which finally undermined the unity of the state. Overthrow last emperor Western Roman Empire Romulus-Augustulus by the German leader Odoacer September 4, 476 is considered the traditional date for the fall of the Roman Empire.

A number of researchers (S. L. Utchenko worked in this direction in Soviet historiography) believe that Rome created its own original civilization based on a special system of values ​​that developed in the Roman civil community due to the peculiarities of its historical development. These features included the establishment of a republican form of government as a result of the struggle of patricians and plebeians and the almost continuous wars of Rome, which turned it from a small Italian town into the capital of a huge power. Under the influence of these factors, the ideology and value system of Roman citizens took shape.

It was determined primarily by patriotism - the idea of ​​​​the special God's chosen people of the Roman people and the very fate of the victories intended for them, of Rome as the highest value, of the duty of a citizen to serve him with all his might. To do this, a citizen had to have courage, stamina, honesty, loyalty, dignity, moderation in lifestyle, the ability to obey iron discipline in war, the approved law and the custom established by the ancestors in peacetime, to honor the patron gods of their families, rural communities and Rome itself. .

2. State structure

Legislative powers in the classical period of the history of ancient Rome were divided between the magistrates, the senate and the comitia.

The magistrates could submit a bill (rogatio) to the senate, where it was debated. The Senate originally had 100 members, during most of the history of the Republic there were about 300 members, Sulla doubled the number of senators, later their numbers varied. A seat in the Senate was obtained after passing ordinary magistracies, but the censors had the right to conduct a lustration of the Senate with the possibility of excluding individual senators. The Senate met on calendars, nones and ides of each month, as well as on any day in the event of an emergency convocation of the senate. At the same time, there were some restrictions on the convening of the Senate and comitia in the event that the appointed day was declared unfavorable for one or another "sign".

The commissions had the right to vote only for ( U ti R ogas - UR) or against ( A ntiquo - A), but could not discuss and make their own adjustments to the proposed bill. A bill approved by the comitia received the force of law. According to the laws of the dictator Quintus Publius Philo 339 BC. e., approved by the people's assembly (comitia), the law became binding on the whole people.

The highest executive power in Rome (the empires) was delegated to the highest magistrates. At the same time, the question of the content of the very concept of empires remains debatable. Ordinary magistrates were elected by comitia.

Dictators, who were elected on special occasions and for no more than 6 months, had extraordinary powers and, unlike ordinary magistrates, lack of accountability. With the exception of the dictator's emergency magistracy, all offices in Rome were collegiate.

3. Society

3.1. Laws

3.2. The social structure of Roman society

On the initial stage development Roman society consisted of two main classes - patricians and plebeians. According to the most common version of the origin of these two main classes, the patricians are the indigenous inhabitants of Rome, and the plebeians are the alien population, which, however, possessed civil rights. Patricians were united first in 100, and then in 300 genera. Initially, the plebeians were forbidden to marry patricians, which ensured the isolation of the patrician class. In addition to these two estates, there were also patrician clients and slaves in Rome.

Over time social structure in general has become much more difficult. Horsemen appeared - persons not always of noble origin, but engaged in trading operations (trade was considered an unworthy occupation of the patricians) and concentrating significant wealth in their hands. Among the patricians, the most noble families stood out, and some of the genera gradually faded away. Approximately in the III century. BC e. the patriciate merges with the horsemen into the nobility.

However, the nobility was not uniform. In accordance with Roman ideas, nobility (lat. nobilitas) the genus to which a person belongs determined the degree of respect for him. Everyone had to correspond to their origin, and both unworthy occupations (for example, trade) by a person of noble origin, and ignoble persons who had reached a high position (they were called lat. Homo novus - new person). Citizens also began to be divided into lat. cives nati- citizens by birth and lat. cives facts- citizens who have received rights under a certain law. People of various nationalities also began to flock to Rome (primarily the Greeks), who did not have political rights, but played important role in the life of society. Freedmen appeared (lat. libertinus- Libertine), that is, slaves who were granted freedom.

3.3. Marriage and family

In the early period of the history of Rome, it was considered the goal and the main essence of a citizen's life - having their own home and children, while family relations were not subject to law, but were regulated by tradition.

The head of the family was called pater familias, in his power (patria potestas) were children, wife and other relatives (in upper-class families, slaves and servants also belonged to the family). The power of the father was that he could marry or divorce his daughter at will, sell children into slavery, he could also recognize or not recognize his child. Patria potestas also extended to adult sons and their families; with the death of their father, sons became full citizens and heads of their families.

Until the late Republic, there was a kind of marriage cum manu, “at hand”, that is, when a daughter married, she fell into the power of the head of the husband’s family. Later, this form of marriage fell into disuse and marriages began to be sine manu, without a hand, in which the wife was not under the authority of the husband and remained in the authority of the father or guardian. Ancient Roman marriage, especially in the upper classes, was often based on financial and political interests.

Several families with kinship ties formed a clan (gens), the most influential of which played an important role in political life.

The fathers of families, as a rule, entered into marriages between their children, guided by prevailing moral standards and personal considerations. A father could marry a girl from the age of 12, and marry a young man from the age of 14.

Roman law provided for two forms of marriage:

When a woman passed from the power of her father to the power of her husband, that is, she was accepted into the family of her husband.

A woman after marriage remained a member of the old family, while claiming the inheritance of the family. This case was not the main one and looked more like cohabitation than marriage, since the wife could leave her husband and return home at almost any moment.

Regardless of which form young people preferred, marriage was preceded by betrothal between the young. During the betrothal, the young people made a marriage vow. Each of them, when asked if he promised to marry, answered: “I promise.” The groom handed over to his future wife a coin, as a symbol of the wedding union concluded between the parents, and an iron ring, which the bride wore on the ring finger of her left hand.

At weddings, all the affairs of organizing a wedding celebration were transferred to the manager - a woman who enjoyed general respect. The steward took the bride into the hall and handed her to the groom. The transfer was accompanied by religious rituals in which the woman played the role of a priestess of the hearth. After the feast in the house of the parents, the newlywed was sent off to the house of her husband. The bride had to theatrically resist and cry. And the manager stopped the girl's stubbornness by taking her from her mother's arms and handing her over to her husband.

The celebrations associated with the appearance of a new family member began on the eighth day after childbirth and lasted three days. The father raised the child from the ground and gave the baby a name, thereby announcing his decision to accept him into the family. After that, the invited guests gave the baby gifts, usually amulets, the purpose of which was to protect the child from evil spirits.

It was not necessary to register a child for a long time. Only when a Roman came of age and put on a white toga did he become a citizen of the Roman state. He was presented before officials and entered into the list of citizens.

For the first time, registration of newborns was introduced at the dawn of a new era by Octavian August, obliging citizens to register a baby within 30 days from the moment of birth. Registration of children was carried out in the temple of Saturn, where the office of the governor and the archive were located. This confirmed the name of the child, his date of birth. His free origin and the right of citizenship were confirmed.

3.4. Status of women

The woman was subordinate to the man because she, according to Theodor Mommsen, "belonged only to the family and did not exist for the community." In wealthy families, a woman was given an honorable position, she was engaged in the management of the household. Unlike Greek women, Roman women could freely appear in society, and, despite the fact that the father had the highest power in the family, they were protected from his arbitrariness. The basic principle of building Roman society is reliance on the elementary cell of society - the family (surname).

The head of the family, the father, reigned supreme in the family, and his power in the family was formalized by law. The family included not only father and mother, but also sons, their wives and children, as well as unmarried daughters.

The surname included both slaves and all household property.

The power of the father extended to all members of the family.

Almost all decisions regarding family members were made by the father himself.

At the birth of a child, he determined the fate of the newborn; he either recognized the child, or ordered to kill, or abandoned without any help.

The father alone owned all the property of the family. Even having reached the age of majority and married, the son remained disenfranchised in the surname. He had no right to own any immovable property during his father's lifetime. Only after the death of his father, by virtue of a will, he received his property by inheritance. The unlimited dominance of the father existed throughout the Roman Empire, as well as the right to control the fate of loved ones. In the late period of the existence of the Roman Empire, fathers were freed from objectionable children due to economic difficulties and the general decline in the moral foundations of society.

In Roman families, a woman had great rights, since she was entrusted with the duties of housekeeping. She was the absolute mistress of her house. It was considered good form when a woman established a good family life, freeing up her husband's time for more important state affairs. The dependence of a woman on her husband was limited, in essence, property relations; A woman could not own and dispose of property without the permission of her husband.

A Roman woman freely appeared in society, went to visit, and attended ceremonial receptions. But politics was not a woman's business, she was not supposed to be present at the meetings of the people.

3.5. Education

Boys and girls began to be taught from the age of seven. Wealthy parents preferred homeschooling. The poor used the services of schools. Then the prototype was born modern education: children went through three stages of education: primary, secondary and higher. The heads of the family, taking care of the education of their children, tried to hire Greek teachers for their children or to get a Greek slave to teach.

The vanity of parents forced them to send their children to Greece for higher education.

At the first stages of education, children were mainly taught to write and count, they were given information on history, law and literary works.

IN high school training was in public speaking. During practical classes, students performed exercises that consisted in making speeches on a given topic from history, mythology, literature, or social life.

Outside of Italy, education was received mainly in Athens, on the island of Rhodes, where they also improved in oratory, got an idea about different philosophical schools. Education in Greece became especially relevant after Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Lucius Licinius Crassus, being censors in 92 BC. e., closed the Latin rhetorical schools.

At the age of 17-18 young man I had to leave teaching and do military service.

The Romans also made sure that women were educated in connection with the role they had in the family: the organizer of family life and the educator of children in early age. There were schools where girls studied with boys. And it was considered honorable if they said about a girl that she was an educated girl. In the Roman state, already in the 1st century AD, they began to train slaves, as slaves and freedmen began to play an increasingly prominent role in the economy of the state. Slaves became managers in the estates and were engaged in trade, were placed overseers of other slaves. Literate slaves were attracted to the bureaucracy of the state, many slaves were teachers and even architects.

A literate slave was worth more than an illiterate one, since he could be used for skilled work. Educated slaves were called main value Roman rich man Mark Licinius Crassus.

Former slaves, freedmen, gradually began to make up a significant stratum in Rome. Having nothing in their souls but a thirst for power and profit, they sought to take the place of an employee, manager in the state apparatus, engage in commercial activities, usury. Their advantage over the Romans began to manifest itself, which consisted in the fact that they did not shy away from any work, considered themselves disadvantaged and showed perseverance in the struggle for their place under the sun. In the end, they were able to achieve legal equality, to push the Romans out of government.

3.6. Army

For almost the entire time of its existence, the Roman army was, as practice proved, the most advanced among the other states of the Ancient World, having gone from the people's militia to professional regular infantry and cavalry with many auxiliary units and allied formations. At the same time, the main fighting force has always been the infantry (in the era of the Punic Wars, the Marine Corps, which proved to be excellent, actually appeared). The main advantages of the Roman army were mobility, flexibility and tactical training, which allowed it to operate in various terrain and in harsh weather conditions.

With a strategic threat to Rome or Italy, or a sufficiently serious military danger ( tumultus) all work stopped, production stopped and everyone who could simply carry weapons was recruited into the army - residents of this category were called tumultuarii (subitarii), and the army - tumultuarius (subitarius) exercitus. Since the usual recruitment procedure took longer, the commander-in-chief of this army, the magistrate, took out special banners from the Capitol: red, indicating recruitment into the infantry, and green, into the cavalry, after which he traditionally announced: “Qui rempublicam salvam vult, me sequatur” (“Who wants save the republic, let him follow me"). The military oath was also pronounced not individually, but together.

In this state, the rulings of the supreme legislative body were valid only if the sun was shining.

4. Culture

Politics, war, agriculture, the development of law (civil and sacred) and historiography were recognized as deeds worthy of a Roman, especially from the nobility. On this basis, the early culture of Rome took shape. Foreign influences, primarily Greek, penetrating through the Greek cities of the south of modern Italy, and then directly from Greece and Asia Minor, were perceived only insofar as they did not contradict the Roman value system or were processed in accordance with it. In turn, Roman culture at the time of its heyday had a huge impact on neighboring peoples and on the subsequent development of Europe.

The early Roman worldview was characterized by the feeling of being a free citizen with a sense of belonging to a civil community and the priority of state interests over personal ones, combined with conservatism, which consisted in following the mores and customs of ancestors. In II-I centuries. BC e. there was a departure from these attitudes and individualism intensified, the individual began to be opposed to the state, even some traditional ideals were rethought.

4.1. Language

Latin, the appearance of which is attributed to the middle of the III millennium BC. e. constituted the Italic branch of the Indo-European family of languages. In the course of the historical development of ancient Italy, the Latin language supplanted the other Italic languages ​​and eventually took over the dominant position in the western Mediterranean. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. Latin was spoken by the population of a small region of Latium (lat. Latium), located in the west of the middle part peninsula along the lower reaches of the Tiber. The tribe that inhabited Latium was called the Latins (lat. Latini), its language is Latin. The center of this region was the city of Rome, after which the Italian tribes united around it began to call themselves the Romans (lat. Romans).

There are several stages in the development of Latin:

• Archaic Latin
• Classical Latin
• Postclassical Latin
• Late Latin

4.2. Religion

Ancient Roman mythology is close to Greek in many aspects, up to the direct borrowing of individual myths. However, in the religious practice of the Romans, animistic superstitions associated with the veneration of spirits also played a large role: geniuses, penates, lares, lemurs and manes. Also in ancient Rome there were numerous colleges of priests.

Although religion played a significant role in traditional ancient Roman society, by the 2nd century BC. e. a significant part of the Roman elite was already indifferent to religion. In the 1st century BC e. Roman philosophers (primarily Titus Lucretius Carus and Marcus Tullius Cicero) largely revise or question many of the traditional religious tenets.

At the turn of N. e. Octavian Augustus took steps to establish the official cult of the empire.

4.3. Art, music, literature

5. Life

The social evolution of Roman society was first studied by the German scientist G. B. Niebuhr. Ancient Roman life and life were based on developed family law and religious rites.

To make the best use of the daylight, the Romans usually got up very early, often around four in the morning, and after breakfast, they began to attend to public affairs. Like the Greeks, the Romans ate 3 times a day. Early in the morning - the first breakfast, around noon - the second, in the late afternoon - lunch.

In the first centuries of the existence of Rome, the inhabitants of Italy ate mostly thick, hard-cooked porridge made from spelt, millet, barley or bean flour, but already at the dawn of Roman history, not only porridge was cooked in the household, but also bread cakes were baked. Culinary art began to develop in the III century. BC e. and under the empire reached unprecedented heights.

6. Science

Roman science inherited a number of Greek studies, but unlike them (especially in the field of mathematics and mechanics), it was mainly applied in nature. For this reason, it was the Roman numeration and the Julian calendar that received worldwide distribution. At the same time her feature was a presentation of scientific issues in a literary and entertaining form. Jurisprudence and agricultural sciences reached a special flowering, a large number of works were devoted to architecture and urban planning and military equipment. The largest representatives of natural science were the encyclopedic scientists Gaius Pliny Secundus the Elder, Mark Terentius Varro and Lucius Anneus Seneca.

Ancient Roman philosophy developed mainly in the wake of Greek philosophy, with which it was largely connected. Stoicism is the most widespread in philosophy.

Remarkable progress was made by Roman science in the field of medicine. Among the outstanding physicians of Ancient Rome, one can note: Dioscorides - a pharmacologist and one of the founders of botany, Soranus of Ephesus - an obstetrician and pediatrician, Claudius Galen - a talented anatomist who revealed the functions of nerves and the brain.

Written in the Roman era, encyclopedic treatises remained the most important source of scientific knowledge during most of the Middle Ages.

7. Historiography

Interest in the study of Roman history arose, in addition to the works of Machiavelli, also during the Enlightenment in France. Montesquieu wrote the book Discourses on the Causes of the Greatness and Decline of the Romans. The first major work was the work of Edward Gibbon "The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire", covering the period from the end of the 2nd century until the fall of a fragment of the empire - Byzantium in 1453. Like Montesquieu, Gibbon valued the virtue of Roman citizens, however, the decomposition of the empire along it began already under Commodus, and Christianity became a catalyst for the collapse of the empire, undermining its foundations from the inside. Niebuhr became the founder of the critical direction and wrote the work "Roman History", where it was brought to the First Punic War. Niebuhr made an attempt to establish how the Roman tradition arose. In his opinion, the Romans, like other peoples, had a historical epic, preserved mainly in noble families. Niebuhr paid some attention to ethnogenesis, viewed from the angle of the formation of the Roman community. In the Napoleonic era, the work of V. Durui "History of the Romans" appeared, which focused on the then popular Caesarian period. A new historiographic milestone was opened by the work of Theodor Mommsen, one of the first major researchers of the Roman heritage. His voluminous work "Roman History", as well as "Roman Public Law" and "Collection of Latin Inscriptions" ("Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum") played an important role. Later came the work of another specialist, G. Ferrero - "The Greatness and Fall of Rome." The work of I.M. Grevs “Essays on the history of Roman land tenure, mainly in the era of the Empire”, where, for example, information appeared about the farm of Pomponius Attica, one of the largest landowners at the end of the Republic, and the farm of Horace was considered a model of the average estate of the August era. Against the hypercriticism of the works of the Italian E. Pais, who denied the authenticity of the Roman tradition up to the 3rd century AD. e., De Sanctis spoke in his "History of Rome", where, on the other hand, information about the royal period was almost completely denied.

The study of Roman history in the USSR was closely connected with Marxism-Leninism, which had no specialized works at its core and relied on such frequently cited works as The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, Chronological Extracts, Forms Preceding Capitalist Production ”, “Bruno Bauer and early Christianity”, etc. The emphasis was on the uprisings of slaves and their role in Roman history, as well as agrarian history. A great place was given to the study of the ideological struggle (S. L. Utchenko, P. F. Preobrazhensky), which was seen even in the most favorable periods of the empire (N. A. Mashkin, E. M. Shtaerman, A. D. Dmitrev, etc.) . The ideology of the Gracchi movement was studied by S. I. Protasova. Slave uprisings were studied by A. V. Mishulin, S. A. Zhebelev, and others; agrarian questions were dealt with mainly by M. E. Sergeenko, Shtaerman, and V. I. Kuzishchin. Attention was also paid to the conditions for the transition from the Republic to the Empire, considered, for example, in the work of Mashkin "Principate of Augustus" or in "Essays on the History of Ancient Rome" by V. S. Sergeev, and to the provinces, in the study of which A. B. Ranovich stood out. Among those who studied the relations of Rome with other states, A. G. Bokshchanin stood out. Since 1937, the Vestnik ancient history”, where articles on Roman history and archaeological excavations began to be published frequently. After a break caused by the Great Patriotic War, in 1948 the "History of Rome" by S. I. Kovalev and "The History of the Roman People" by critic V. N. Dyakov were published. In the first work, the Roman tradition is considered reliable in many respects, in the second, doubt was expressed on this point.

8. Primary sources

• Titus Livy. "History from the founding of the city"
• Dio Cassius. "Roman History"
• Ammianus Marcellinus. "Acts"
• Polybius. "General history"
• Publius Cornelius Tacitus. "History", "Annals"
• Plutarch. "Comparative Lives"
• Appian. "Roman History"
• Sextus Aurelius Victor. "On the Origin of the Roman People"
• Flavius ​​Eutropius. "Breviary from the founding of the city"
• Gaius Velleius Paterculus. "Roman History"
• Publius Annaeus Flor. "Epitomes of Titus Livius"
• Herodian. "History of Rome from Marcus Aurelius"
• Diodorus Siculus. "Historical Library"
• Dionysius of Halicarnassus. "Roman Ancient History"
• Gaius Suetonius Tranquill. "Biography of the Twelve Caesars"
• The so-called "Authors of the biographies of the Augusts" ( Scriptores Historiae Augustae): Aelius Spartianus, Julius Capitolinus, Vulcation Gallicanus, Aelius Lampridius, Trebellius Pollio and Flavius ​​Vopiscus

9.1. Fragments

• Gnaeus Nevius. "Punian War"
• Quint Ennius. "Annals"
• Quintus Fabius Pictor. "Annals"
• Lucius Cincius Aliment. "Chronicle"
• Mark Porcius Cato the Elder. "Beginnings"
• Pompey Trog. "Philip's Story"
• Gaius Sallust Crispus. "Yugurtinskaya war"
• Granius Licinianus

9.1. Later fundamental works

• Theodor Mommsen Roman history.
• Edward Gibbon History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.
• Platner, Samuel Ball. A topographical dictionary of Ancient Rome

Notes

1. See e.g. Dementieva V.V. Magistrate power of the Roman Republic: the content of the concept of "imperium" // Herald of ancient history. - 2005. - No. 4. - S. 46-75.
2. most famous Homo novus, who overcame the resistance of the old nobility, was Mark Tullius Cicero
, Ancient Israel .

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Ancient Rome

Introduction 2

Rise of Rome 3

2.1. City of Rome 3

2.2. Roman kings 4

Formation of the Roman Republic 6

Formation of the Roman Empire 8

4.1. Principate 9

4.2. Dominat 13

Government of Rome 15

5.1. Structure of the Roman Community 15

5.2. The political system of Ancient Rome during the Republic 17

5.3. The state structure of Rome in the period of the empire 19

Roman law (Laws of the XII tables) 22

6.1. Laws XII tables 22

War with the Celts (Gauls) 27

7.1. Invasion of the Gauls 28

7.2. Consequences of the war with the Gauls 28

Fall of the Roman Empire 30

Conclusion 33

Literature 35

INTRODUCTION

The history of ancient Rome is the last stage in the development ancient world, which covers the time from the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. (754/3 BC - the traditional date of the founding of the city of Rome) until the end of the 5th century. AD (476 AD - the fall of the Western Roman Empire). Ancient Rome, in its almost thousand-year history, went from a small policy to the largest world power of antiquity. In its heyday, Rome subjugated a colossal territory that stretched from Britain in the north to North Africa in the south and from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Persian Gulf in the east.

The history of the Roman state is divided into three periods:

royal (mid-VIII century BC - 509 BC);

republican (509 - 27 BC);

imperial (27 BC - 476 AD).

In VSH - III centuries. BC. there was a process of formation of the early Roman slave society; in the SH BC. - P c. AD was its further development from a small community on the Tiber to the strongest Italian and then the Mediterranean power. In the SH AD came the economic, social and political crisis of the Roman state, which in the IV - V centuries. AD followed by a period of prolonged decline.

The most ancient period of Roman history, that is, the period from the formation of the Roman community to the establishment of the republic, is commonly called royal. According to the ancient tradition, which is confirmed by archaeological finds, the ancient Roman community was formed from three ethnic groups: Latins, Sabines (both Italian tribes) and Etruscans (the creators of the most ancient civilization on the Apennine Peninsula, whose origin is unknown) through synoikism (merging) of three settlements . The first Roman kings were Italians, then the Etruscan dynasty established itself in Rome, which led to a sharp rise in royal power and the expansion of the influence of the Etruscan civilization on ancient Rome. This period includes the formation of the Roman policy.

Rise of Rome

Literary data on the emergence of Rome are legendary and contradictory. This is noted even by the ancient authors themselves. So, for example, Diosinius of Halicarnassus said that "there are many disagreements, both on the question of the time of the founding of the city of Rome, and on the personality of its founder." The most common was the version cited by Livy: the founder of Rome was a descendant of the Trojan Aeneas, who came to Italy.

City of Rome

On the hilly bank of the Tiber, 25 km. from its confluence with the Tyrrhenian Sea, in the IX century. BC. settlements of shepherds and landowners arose. Gradually, the settlements merged, were walled and became the city of Rome.

Subsequently, a legend appeared that Rome was founded by the twins Romulus and Remus, fed by a she-wolf. The Romans believed this legend and began their reckoning from the fictitious date of the founding of the city.

According to this legend, the Trojan Aeneas, the son of the goddess Aphrodite and the mortal Anchises, survived the destruction of Troy. Together with his son Ascanius, Aeneas fled and, after long wanderings, arrived at the shores of Latium (a hilly plain along the lower reaches of the Tiber). At that time, Latinus, the king of the local tribe, ruled there. He friendly accepted Aeneas and married his daughter Lavinia to him. Aeneas did not reign over the Latins for long, he died in a battle with the Etruscans.

After the death of Aeneas, his son Ascanius (or Yul - that was his name in other versions of the legends) chose a place in the middle of Latium, on the long ridge of the Alban mountain, and founded new town- Albu Longu or the Long Road, where he began to reign. Over time, Alba became the main city of the Latin tribe. There, the descendants of Aeneas ruled safely, until in their fifteenth generation there was discord in the royal family. Two brothers succeeded their father. The elder Numitor received power, and the younger Amulius - royal wealth. Using gold, Amulius took the throne from his brother, and made his daughter Rhea Silvia a priestess of the goddess Vesta, the patroness of the hearth. Amulius hoped that his brother would not have legitimate heirs, since the Vestals, the servants of Vesta, took a vow of celibacy. However, Rhea Silvia secretly became the wife of the god of war Mars (Ares) and gave birth to two twins from him. For this she was condemned to death by Amulius. The king ordered the twins to be thrown into the Tiber. But the slaves who were entrusted with this left the basket with the twins in a shallow place. A she-wolf came running to the crying of the twins and nursed them with her milk. Soon the children were found by the royal shepherd Faustul. He brought them home and gave them to his wife Larenzia to raise. The twins were given the names Romulus and Remus. Having matured, the royal grandchildren turned into beautiful, strong and courageous young men. They became the leaders of rural youth, the main participants in numerous skirmishes that arose due to cattle rustling and the division of pastures.

Once Rem quarreled with the shepherds of Numitor and was captured by his own grandfather. During the disassembly, the secret of the origin of the twins was revealed. Having connected their supporters with the people of Numitor, Romulus and Remus overthrew the criminal king and returned power over Alba to his grandfather. They themselves, with their retinue, moved to the banks of the Tiber - to those places where they were fed by a she-wolf. There they decided to lay a new city, but could not agree on who would reign in it. Finally, relying on the will of the gods, the brothers began to follow the heavenly signs. Rem, who was guessing on the Aventine Hill, was the first to see a good sign - six kites soaring in the sky. Romulus, who was sitting on the Palatine, saw 12 birds a little later. Each of the brothers interpreted the signs in his favor, a quarrel broke out between them, and Romulus, having rashly hit his brother, killed him in the wrong place.

On the hill where fraternal blood was shed, the first fortifications of the city, which received the name of its founder, were erected. In honor of Romulus, he was named Roma (Roma), this is the name in Latin, in Russian - Rome. Roman historians, who studied the antiquities of their people, subsequently calculated the year and day of the founding of Rome - April 21, 745 BC.

Roman kings

Romulus, the founder of the city of Rome, became the first Roman king or, as they were then called, rex (from lat. rex - king). In an effort to increase his people, he accepted all the newcomers: beggars, robbers and even runaway slaves. The city grew, but it seemed that it would live only one generation: after all, the first Romans did not have wives and children, since the surrounding inhabitants, despising them for their low birth, did not give their daughters for them. Then the Romans went to the trick: having invited their closest neighbors, the Sabines, to the feast, on a signal they rushed to the unarmed guests and kidnapped their daughters. With the wives thus obtained, the Romans treated kindly and respectfully, so that they soon won their love, but the fathers and brothers of the Sabine women went to war against Rome. Once during the battle, tearful women appeared on the battlefield and rushed into the thick of the battle. Embracing relatives and husbands, stretching babies to them with a prayer, they stopped the slaughter and reconciled the soldiers. After that, many Sabine families moved to Rome and became part of the Roman people.

After the death of Romulus, the Romans for a long time could not find a worthy replacement for him. Finally, they gave preference to the most virtuous man in Italy. It was the forty-year-old Numa Pompilius, who lived modestly in the town of Kura on the Sabine land: he was loudly famous as a man of outstanding learning, kindness and justice. It was said that the warlike Romulus made the Roman people "iron", Numa - virtuous. Numa introduced new cults in Rome (worship of the gods), appointed priests, established priestly colleges - "partnerships" of priests. Among the gods he introduced, the place of honor was occupied by the goddess of Fidelity and the god of the Border, guarding the sacred sign of property. During the 43-year reign of Numa, the Romans fought no wars. Arranging sacrifices, processions and holidays in honor of the gods, the king accustomed his people to virtue and the joys of a peaceful life. Patronizing good work and rest, he organized colleges of artisans, established holidays and working days. In this regard, Numa introduced a new 12-month calendar in Rome.

After Numa, two warlike kings ruled - Tullus Hostilius and Ankh Marcius. Under them, the boundaries of both the cities of Rome and the Roman state expanded.

The last three Roman kings are called the Etruscans. Their history began with the fact that during the reign of Ancus Marcius, a rich and energetic man moved to Rome, who took the name of Lucius Tarquinius Prisca. He became an adviser to Ancus Marcius and won the love of the Roman people, so after the death of Ancus, bypassing his sons, he was elected king. He received the name Tarquinius the Ancient. This king brought to Latium the high urban culture of Etruria. Under him, many Etruscan artisans moved to Rome, construction work began to boil. Rome began to transform from a "big village" into a real city. Tarquinius waged successful wars with his neighbors, established public games, and began to drain the swampy parts of the city. Canals were built to drain the swampy lowlands between the hills, the future main square of the city, the Forum, was paved, the Great Circus was built in the valley between Avetino and Palatine, and a stone temple in honor of Jupiter was laid on the Capitol.

After Tarquinius the Ancient, his pupil Servius Tullius, the son of a slave, ruled. According to legend, once the household of Tarquinius saw a wonderful sign - a fiery radiance around a sleeping boy, the son of a servant. Guessing from this sign the great future of the child, the king and queen raised little Servius as a son, and then gave him their daughter. When Servius became king, he no longer transformed the city of Rome, but the Roman state itself. Servius Tullius was also famous for the fact that he surrounded Rome with the first stone wall. In the memory of his descendants, he remained as a kind king, patron of the plebeians.

The last, seventh king, the son of Priscus Tarquinius the Ancient - Lucius, bore the name of Tarquinius the Proud. He seized power by atrocity: deposing and killing the elderly Servius Tullius. Then he killed many senators, supporters of the legitimate king, and began to reign under the protection of bodyguards - not elected by the people, and not approved by the senate. He exhausted the plebeians with building work, and destroyed the prominent patricians out of fear and hatred of their influence.

The cup of patience of the Roman people overflowed when the son of the king outraged the noble patrician Lucretia, who rejected his love. The noble woman committed suicide, and the outraged Romans rebelled and drove the entire Tarquin family out of the city.

This period of Roman history is called period of seven kings.

In the "royal period" (7th-6th centuries BC), patriarchal-slave-owning relations and an agrarian system began to form in Roman society, under which private property of its individual members was born within the community, along with public land.

Formation of the Roman Republic

After in 509 BC. Tarquinius the Proud was overthrown, the consul Junius Brutus was elected head of the city. The royal period ended and the period of the republic began, lasting about 500 years (509-27 BC).

Territory of the Roman Republic

During the period of the early republic, an ancient form of ownership, characteristic of the polis, developed, in which only a full member of the civil community was the owner of the land. After the fall of the royal power and the formation of the republic, both classes - patricians and plebeians - found themselves face to face. For more than two centuries there was a fierce struggle between them. In general, the dispute was about three issues: the equalization of political rights, debt bondage, and access to communal-state land. The plebeians succeeded in the first decades of the 5th century. BC. achieve significant gains in the form of an independent organization of the plebeian community. By the middle of this century they had achieved their second great success, the writing of laws. Shortly thereafter, the plebeian poor achieved the virtual abolition of debt slavery.

Thus, the period of the Republic (the end of the 6th century BC - the middle of the 1st century BC) is characterized by the struggle of the plebeians and patricians, culminating in the complete equalization of the rights of these estates and the merging of the patrician-plebeian elite. In the course of the struggle, a new estate structure of Roman society developed: the nobility, consisting of the senatorial estate and the estate of horsemen, and the plebs - rural and urban. All of them were Roman citizens (unlike the plebeians of the time of the struggle with the patricians). Non-citizens included the classes of freedmen and slaves. During the period of the Republic, Rome became the largest power in the Mediterranean. In the course of continuous wars, the structure of the Roman army took shape, which had the character of a people's militia. Service in it was considered not only a duty, but also an honor. Starting from the IV century. BC. the state began to pay for military service. The development of commodity-money relations and the expanded use of slave labor (their influx increased sharply in connection with victorious wars) by the beginning of the 2nd century. BC. led to the mass dispossession of communal farmers, that is, the rural plebs. The nobles bought up and simply seized their lands, creating large farms, in which slaves became the main producers. The population deprived of land concentrated in the city and joined the ranks of the urban plebs, consisting of artisans, small traders, and the lumpen proletariat. A sharp reduction in the rural plebs - the basis of the Roman army - led to a military reform: the army began to accept the poor and volunteers (army reform - the end of the 2nd century BC). The army has become professional. Now a successful commander could easily use it to establish sole power. The crisis of the economic basis of the policy (predominantly a subsistence economy based on the personal labor of communal farmers), its social basis (erosion of the rural plebs), the crisis of republican institutions that were not suitable for managing a vast territory, and a sharp increase in the power of commanders who relied on a professional army, - all this led to the crisis of the polis as a type of state and to the crisis of the republic as its form typical of the polis.

Formation of the Roman Empire

With the increase in slavery, discontent among the peoples inhabiting the Roman Empire grew, and I in. BC. the wars of the disenfranchised Italics against Rome and the uprising of slaves, the most famous uprising of slaves led by Spartacus (74 - 71 BC), shocked all of Italy. It all ended with the establishment in Rome in 30 BC. the sole power of the emperor, based on armed force.

Growth of the Roman state

The era of Roman history from the middle of the III century. BC. until the end of the 1st c. BC. - the time of deep transformations of the previous structures, which led to the creation of a new image and essence of Roman society.

In turn, the victorious wars of the Roman-Italian Union in the Mediterranean led to the capture of masses of slaves and huge funds that were invested in the economy and contributed to the rapid development of the economy, social relations and culture of the peoples of Italy.

Roman-Italian society at the beginning of the 1st century. BC. entered a period of bloody civil wars, a deep general crisis, first of all, the political and state organization of the Roman Republic.

The complex relationship between Italy and the provinces, between citizens and non-citizens, urgently required a new system of government. It was impossible to manage a world power with methods and apparatus suitable for a small community on the Tiber, but ineffective for a powerful state.

The old classes, whose interests were reflected by the Roman Republic, by the end of the 1st century. BC. disappeared or degraded. There were new rich people, lumpen-proletariat, military colonists.

The traditional polis-communal (republican) socio-political system was replaced by the Roman Empire.

From the 30s BC. a new historical era begins in the history of the Roman state and the ancient world in general - the era of the Roman Empire, which replaced the Roman Republic.

It brought with it relative civil peace and a certain easing of external aggression. The exploitation of the provinces assumes a more organized and less predatory character. Many emperors encouraged urban construction and took care of the development of the cultural life of the provinces, the road system, and the introduction of a single imperial monetary unit. For the empire of the first two centuries, one can note the growth of technology, the development of crafts, the rise of economic life, the growth of local trade. Provincial cities receive self-government. Many new urban centers are emerging.

Thus, from 27 BC. and until 476 AD. Rome is going through a period of empire, which in turn breaks up into a period of principate (27 BC - 193 AD) and dominion (193-476 AD).

Principate

Empire period from the middle of the 1st c. BC. until the end of the 5th c. AD was divided into the principate, when all republican institutions formally continued to function, but in reality the power was in the hands of the princeps - the first citizen of the republic, in fact, the emperor, and the dominate (starting from the end of the 3rd century AD), when a new management system was formed led by the emperor.

The period of the principate, or early empire, covers the time from 27 BC. before 193 AD [rule of the dynasties Juliev - Claudius (27 BC - 68 AD), Flaviev (69-96), Antoninov (96-192)]. Augustus and his successors, being princeps of the senate, simultaneously concentrated in their hands the highest civil and military power. Formally, the republican structure continued to exist: the senate, popular assemblies (comitia), magistracies, but the actual power was in the hands of the princeps.

The emperor-princeps combined in his hands the powers of all the main republican magistracies: dictator, consul, praetor, people's tribune. Depending on the type of cases, he acted in one or another capacity: as a censor, he completed the senate; how the tribune canceled at his own will the actions of any authority, arrested citizens at his own discretion, etc.; how the consul and dictator determined the policy of the state, gave orders for the branches of government; how the dictator commanded the army, ruled the provinces, and so on.

Thus, the transfer of government to the princeps occurred due to the empowerment of him with supreme power (lat. imperium - power), election to the most important positions, the creation of a bureaucracy separate from the magistracies, provided by the formation of the princeps' own treasury, and command of all armies.

Sulla's dictatorship. In the 1st century BC. Rome was embroiled in a difficult Allied war for him and was forced to grant Roman citizenship to the entire population of Italy.

The allied war brought neither Rome nor Italy true peace. The era of personal power, the era of dictatorships, was coming. The first dictator was the general Sulla, who, relying on an army devoted to him, established a regime of sole power, or dictatorship, in Rome. It was indefinite, which distinguished it from the republican dictatorship described above. In addition, Sulla arrogated to himself legislative functions and the right to arbitrarily dispose of the lives and property of citizens. He granted new rights to the senate, but sharply limited the powers of popular assemblies and deprived the tribunes of political functions. The dictatorship of Sulla meant the onset of a new historical era in Roman history, and above all - end of the republic.

Dictatorship of Julius Caesar. Sulla's abdication (79 BC) restored Rome's republican constitution, but not for long. Gaius Julius Caesar (100–44 BC) became the new Roman dictator. His reign came at a time after the slave uprising (74 BC) under the leadership of Spartacus, which clearly exposed the crisis of the republican form of government and the need for an authoritarian state.

Elected in 59 BC Consul of Rome, Julius Caesar, heading the anti-Senatorial group, passed two land laws through the comitia, exercising direct violence against the Senate and rejecting the veto of the people's tribunes as insignificant. In a series of subsequent measures, Caesar won over to his side not only broad sections of the Roman people, but also the inhabitants of the provinces.

In 46 BC Caesar put an end to his last opponents (the Pompeians) and was proclaimed dictator for a 10-year term, and in 44 for life.

The peculiarity of the Caesarist dictatorship is that the dictator had not only consular and tribune powers, but also censorship (from 46 BC) and the highest priestly. As commander of the army, Caesar received the title of emperor. The comitia, made dependent on Caesar, although they continued to exist, imitating the preservation of the republic, followed the instructions of the emperor, including those related to election to office.

In addition, Caesar received the authority to dispose of the army and the treasury of the state, the right to appoint proconsuls in the provinces and recommend half of the candidates for magistrates in general, the right to vote first in the Senate, which was important, etc. A triumph for Caesar was the proclamation of him "father of the fatherland" with all the honors associated with this (a special chariot, a gilded chair, special clothes and shoes, etc.).

The form of government created under Caesar - the principate - was further developed under his successor Octavian Augustus (27 BC - 12 AD).

founder of an empire Octavian August first received the title of princeps from the senate. Placed first on the list of senators, he received the right to be the first to speak in the Senate.

The principate still retains the appearance of a republican form of government and almost all the institutions of the republic: popular assemblies are convened, the senate sits, consuls, praetors and popular tribunes are still elected. But all this is nothing more than a cover for the post-republican state system.

The emperor-princeps combined in his hands the powers of all the main republican magistracies: dictator, consul, praetor, people's tribune. Depending on the type of cases, he acted in one or another capacity: as a censor, he completed the senate; how the tribune canceled at his own will the actions of any authority, arrested citizens at his own discretion, etc.; how the consul and dictator determined the policy of the state, gave orders for the branches of government; how the dictator commanded the army, ruled the provinces, and so on.

The people's assemblies, the main organ of power in the old republic, fell into complete decline. Cicero wrote on this occasion that gladiatorial games attracted Roman citizens more than comitia meetings. The bribery of senators, the dispersal of meetings, violence against their participants, and other signs of the extreme degree of decomposition of the comitia became commonplace.

Emperor Augustus reformed the comitia in a democratic spirit (eliminated qualifying ranks, allowed absentee voting for residents of Italian municipalities), but took away judicial power from the assemblies, the most important of their former competencies. In addition, the comitia lost their original right to elect magistrates. First, a decision was made to test candidates for consulate and praetorship in a special commission composed of senators and equestrians, i.e. approbation. But after the death of Augustus, under his successor Tiberius, the election of magistrates was transferred to the competence of the senate. “Then for the first time,” wrote the Roman historian Tacitus, “senators began to elect officials, and not assemblies of citizens on the Field of Mars, because before that, although all the most important things were done at the discretion of the princeps, something was done at the insistence of tributary assemblies” (Tacitus Annals 1.14). Regarding legislation, Tacitus notes that the princeps replaced not only the senate and magistrates, but also the laws themselves (Annals. 1.21). This means, of course, that legislation has also become the business of the princeps.

Already under Augustus, the senate was filled with provincial nobility, who owed everything to the princeps, and especially those horsemen who had reached the rank of senatorial. From an organ of power extending to the "city of Rome", the Senate has become a kind of all-imperial institution. But his position was humiliated, and his powers were limited. Bills that came to the Senate for approval came from the princeps, and their adoption was ensured by his authority. In the end, the unwritten rule arises and asserts "Whatever the princeps decides has the force of law."

The right to elect the princeps himself belonged to the senate, but even this became a mere formality: in many cases the army decided the matter.

The center of the highest institutions of the empire was the "court", and precisely the court of the princeps. It housed the Imperial Chancellery with legal, financial and other departments. Finances occupy a special place: never before has the state shown such ingenuity in finding sources of taxes as in the departments of the Empire, never before - before Augustus - was the tribe of imperial officials so numerous.

The army became permanent and mercenary. The soldiers served for 30 years, receiving a salary, and upon retirement - a significant plot of land. The command structure of the army was completed from the senatorial and equestrian estates. An ordinary soldier could not rise above the position of commander of a hundred - centurion.

Dominat

Dominat (from Lat. dominus - lord) - an unlimited monarchy.

In the III century. AD (since 284) from the time of Emperor Diocletian, an unlimited monarchy regime was established in Rome - dominat. The old republican institutions are disappearing. The administration of the empire is concentrated in the hands of a few major departments. They are led by dignitaries who are directly subordinate to the emperor. Among these departments, a special place was occupied by: the state council under the emperor (discussion of major policy issues, preparation of bills), the financial department and the military department, which are led by generals appointed by the emperor and only by him.

Officials stand out in a special class: they wear a uniform, they are endowed with privileges, at the end of their service they are assigned pensions, etc.

Reforms of Diocletian and Constantine. Among the many reforms and laws of the empire, the reforms of the emperors of the period of dominance - Diocletian and Constantine - deserve special attention of historical and legal science.

Diocletian, the son of a freedman, became Roman emperor in 284 AD. (284-305 AD). The time of his reign was marked by two major reforms.

The first concerned the state structure of a vast empire. This reform can be reduced to the following: 1) the supreme power was divided among the four co-rulers. Two of them, who bore the title "August", occupied a leading position, each ruling their own half of the empire - Western and Eastern. At the same time, Diocletian August retained the right of supreme power for both parts of the empire. The Augusti elected their co-rulers, who were given the title "Caesar"; this is how the tetrarchy arose - the rule of four emperors, who were considered members of a single "imperial family"; 2) the army, increased by a third, was divided into two parts: one part of it was located on the borders of the empire, the other, mobile, provided internal security; 3) as a result of the administrative reform, the provinces were disaggregated (according to some sources, up to 101, according to others, up to 120); 4) the provinces, in turn, were united into dioceses, of which there were 12; 5) Divided into provinces and dioceses, Italy, among other lands of the empire, was now completely deprived of its special significance and position (although Rome continued to be considered the capital of the empire for some time).

The economic policy of Diocletian provides the first ever example of active administrative intervention in such a complex and mobile sphere of society as the economy.

Civil war Sulla (13878 BC) Title of dictator Introduction of proscriptions (list for execution) Strengthening the role of the army Gaius Marius 157 BC e 86 BC. e., -strengthening the army Armament at the expense of the state -contract army service 16 years -payment for service -

At the Forum, tablets were posted with the names of those who should have been eliminated, initially they were personal enemies of Sulla, but then the list began to replenish with wealthy Romans, far from politics. However, the possible ignorance of the sources about the real background of the listing of, at first glance, random persons is not ruled out. Also, the tablets contained the rationale for the proscriptions and legally fixed their various aspects. So, the killer of the proscribed, who brought Sulla's head as evidence, received two talents (40 kg) of silver, and if the killer was a slave, then he received freedom. Scammers also received gifts. Those who sheltered those included in the lists were waiting for death. Citizenship was deprived of the sons and grandchildren of the convicted, and the property of the proscribed was subject to confiscation in favor of the state. Many of Sulla's associates (for example, Pompey, Crassus, Lucullus) amassed enormous wealth by selling property and by making rich people into proscriptions. Crassus, however, was subsequently suspended from the proscriptions due to the inclusion of a person in the proscription lists without the consent of Sulla.

At that time, the future perpetual dictator Gaius Julius Caesar was also under threat of death, but his influential relatives managed to persuade Sulla to spare him. According to Plutarch, Sulla said about Caesar to his associates: “You don’t understand anything if you don’t see that there are many Maries in this boy.” Suetonius recorded a similar version: “Sulla surrendered, but exclaimed, obeying either divine suggestion or his own instinct: Your victory, take it! but know: the one whose salvation you are so trying to save will someday be the death of the cause of the optimates, which you and I defended: many Maries are hidden in Caesar alone!

Caesar's reign CAESAR Gaius Julius (July 13, 100 BC - March 15, 44 BC), Roman politician and commander; Began political activity as a supporter of the republic In 49 BC. e., relying on the army, began the struggle for autocracy. Having defeated Pompey and his supporters in BC. e. (Crassus died in 53 BC), was at the head of the state. Having concentrated in his hands a number of the most important republican posts (dictator, consul, etc.), he became in fact a monarch. Killed as a result of a conspiracy on March 15, 44

Mark Ulpius Trajan - the best emperor - a campaign against the Dacians - the annexation of Armenia and Mesopotamia - a fund was created to help the poor - obliged senators to invest in the country's economy - strengthening the borders - strict enforcement of laws (lawyer Papinion)

Caracalla gg

Soldier emperor - Diocletian 284 - 305 - Tetrarchy (divided Rome into 4 parts) - Divided the army into court and main - construction - high taxes "Table of Ranks" voluntary renunciation of power (grown cabbage)

Early empire III century n. e. - The systemic crisis of the empire. External danger. Reduction of slaves. The impoverishment of farmers - Columns (for life). Slave uprisings. Reducing trade. Tax increase. "Soldier" emperors. In the army - the provincials. Lack of funds for maintenance. The provinces are trying to get out of Rome's control

late empire. Constantine Mr. Roman emperor from 306. Consistently carried out the centralization of the state apparatus, supported the Christian church, while also preserving pagan cults. In founded the new capital Constantinople Introduced a residence permit at the place of birth 313 - Ediolan Edict - religious tolerance. Arianism: God the Son is not equal, but "like in essence" to God the Father. 325 - Council of Nicaea - Creed (code of dogmas), condemnation of Arianism. 330 - Capital in Constantinople. Columns to the ground. 395 - Division into Western and Eastern empires.

Late Empire 4th–5th centuries The Great Migration of Nations. The main enemies are the Germans (Goths, Vandals) and the Huns. 378 - The Goths defeated the Roman army. 408, 410 - Alaric to Rome. Ransom. Liberation of 40 thousand slaves. Again, fall, ruin. 451 - Catalunian fields. Huns. Death of Attila. But: 476 - Odoacer overthrew Romulus Augustus. Imperial regalia to Constantinople. Romulus Augustus presents the crown to Odoacer

At the end of the II millennium BC. Aryan tribes penetrated Europe and settled throughout the Apennine Peninsula. Various peoples descended from them. Southern Europe, including Latin. So, the first king of Rome (in Latin Roma) - Romulus - traces his genealogy to the hero of the Trojan War, Aeneas. According to legend, he and his brother Rem were fed by a she-wolf and, apparently, absorbed bestial cruelty with milk, for after the founding of Rome in 753 BC. Romulus brutally killed Remus and single-handedly seized power. At the very beginning, Rome was just one of several small settlements located on the hills. The male warriors who lived in them all together constituted the so-called people's assembly (Assembly), and these meetings were essentially gatherings of the armed people. Later, the affairs of the community began to be in charge of the Senate, which included the elders of all ancient Roman families, and at the head of the Senate was the king, who served as the chief military leader, judge and priest. Initially, the population of Rome was customarily divided into patricians (true Romans) and plebeians (subjugated peoples), but then the entire population began to be divided into five classes according to the size of their property. The poorest sections of the population - the poor, received the name "proletarians" from the Latin word for "offspring", since all their wealth was in the offspring. Each class supplied warriors to the people's militia in various outfits: from a cavalryman in full heavy weapons to a simple infantryman with a bow and arrows.

In the VI century BC. Rome was incorporated into the empire of its Etruscan neighbors, the bearers of a rich but fading culture. They did not have their own state, but twelve independent Etruscan cities (including Tarquinia, Veia, Cairo, etc.), united in an alliance, enjoyed significant influence in the North-West of the Apennine Peninsula. The Etruscans mined copper, iron, zinc and silver, knew bronze, used marble and clay to make pottery and ceramics. They cultivated cypress, myrtle and pomegranate, selected oats and barley, bred flax and sewed tunics, raincoats and ship sails from linen fabrics. Artificial irrigation and regulation of the flow of rivers were widely used. So, the ancient Etruscan city of Misa had paved highways up to 15 meters wide and a city wall 2 meters thick, large stone houses, gutters and drainages. The Acropolis of Misa included five Temple-Sanctuaries, oriented to the parts of the world and having entrances from the south side. Bronze candelabra, mirrors and utensils, Attic pottery, and ivory and amber items have been found in the city. As a rule, colossal necropolises or "cities of the dead" were located near the Etruscan cities, for example, burials near Cairo extend over an area of ​​\u200b\u200babout 400 hectares, and individual stone tombs under high embankments "tumuli" reach a diameter of 50 meters. 3000 years ago, the Etruscans were already building stadiums and theaters, where thousands of spectators gathered for sports and musical performances. The writing of the Etruscans still remains undeciphered. Subsequently, a significant part of the achievements of the Etruscan civilization was inherited by the Romans.

In 509 B.C. Tarquinius the Proud, the last Roman king, was expelled, and a republic was established in Rome. The Senate became the highest state authority, the number of its members subsequently fluctuated from 300 to 900 people. At the head of the Senate were Consuls and Praetors, who were elected, as a rule, for a year. In the Senate there was a thorough discussion of all issues and their voting. A good citizen was associated with an obedient son and a disciplined warrior, the younger generation was brought up in the spirit of respect for their ancestors. There were schools where boys from seven to twelve were taught Latin and Greek, writing, reading and counting. Rome needed strong and strong warriors, so if a baby was born weak, he was cruelly thrown off a cliff into the sea.

The ancient Romans borrowed their religious pantheon from the Etruscans and Greeks. Greek God Zeus corresponded to Jupiter, whose wife was the Goddess Juno. The ruler of the seas, Poseidon, corresponded to Neptune, and to the God of the underworld, Hades, to Pluto. The Greek Kronos turned into Saturn, and Venus was considered the Goddess of Love, the cult of which gradually began to resemble the cult of the Assyrian Goddess of carnal passion Astarte. The God of War Mars, the patron saint of Commerce Mercury and the Goddess of Fortune Fortune enjoyed special reverence among the Romans. The faith of the Romans in the Gods was very pragmatic and was reduced only to prayers in the Temples for the sake of gaining any favors from the Gods, like: "Oh, Mars, bring me victory over my enemies!" or "Oh, Fortune, help me to accomplish my plan!"

According to ancient Roman legends, four centuries replace one another in a circle: the Golden Age (of which Saturn was considered the ruler), silver Age(ruler Jupiter) Bronze Age(ruler Phaeton) and the Iron Age (ruler Mars). In memory of the Golden Age - the era of general prosperity and abundance - every year in the tenth month of the ancient Roman calendar - decembra - the Saturnalia festival was held in Ancient Rome. During Saturnalia, all public affairs were suspended, schoolchildren were released from classes, and unbridled fun reigned everywhere. Even the slaves at that time were considered free, and the masters feasted with them or served them - such a violation of the established order symbolized a return to the primordial Chaos, from which the whole world once originated.

The consistent and persistent development of Rome led to the gradual conquest of the entire Apennine Peninsula. Then came the turn of Greece, Europe and Asia Minor. By the end of the II century BC. Rome took possession of the British Isles, France, Spain, Greece, Turkey, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, the countries of Mesopotamia and the coast of Africa. In the occupied lands, Rome approved its governors - Proconsuls. Slavery reached unprecedented development in comparison with other states of the ancient world. People were branded with red-hot iron, chained and driven to the fields or mines. Often the slaves revolted; the most famous uprising is led by Spartacus, a former gladiator, in southern Italy in 74-70. BC. The exploitation of the provinces reached an unprecedented scale: trading and financial companies for the sale and lease of land flourished, speculation, the supply of goods for the army, the activities of usurers, etc. were in great demand. into riots.

In 45 BC. during civil strife, Consul Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) became the sole ruler of the state and received the right of an indefinite dictatorship to restore order. There was an even greater concentration of power based on military force. Caesar kept the gigantic Roman state from internal collapse and strengthened its borders. The Senate was deprived of real political power by him. Fearing that Caesar would sooner or later proclaim himself king, the noble aristocrats organized a conspiracy against him, and on March 15, 44 BC. Caesar was assassinated at a meeting of the Senate. After the death of Caesar, the Senate was split. Caesar's successor, Consul Mark Antony, who was married to the Egyptian queen Cleopatra VII, announced that he would give her children part of the land (Libya, Syria, Phoenicia, Armenia, etc.). Marc Antony was opposed by Caesar's disciple Octavian, who tried to keep the Roman state from collapsing. Mark Antony was forced to flee to Egypt. The outcome of their war was decided by the naval battle at Cape Action in Epirus on September 2, 31 BC, in which the fleet of Antony and Cleopatra was defeated. In the summer of 30 BC, when Octavian's land forces entered Egypt, Mark Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. In 29 B.C. Octavian returned to Rome and received the title of Emperor ("Augustus") from the Senate. The Republic in Rome has fallen. During the brilliant reign of Octavian Augustus, which lasted 43 years, many new temples were built in Rome, including the famous Temples of Mars the Avenger and Jupiter the Thunderer and the Sanctuary of Apollo. According to historians, "he was justifiably proud of the fact that he accepted Rome in brick, and leaves it in marble." Octavian Augustus cared not only about the prestige of Rome, but also about respect for the title of a Roman citizen, and in every possible way inspired the Romans that they were the born rulers of the world.

Back in 129 BC. Roman troops invaded Palestine and captured Jerusalem. Usually, in all their provinces, the Romans established the worship of Jupiter, but an exception was made for the Jews: they were allowed to maintain the existence of their faith in God Yahweh and leave the Sanhedrin - the Great Council of the high priests of the Jerusalem Temple. This was achieved by the class of the Sadducees - rich Jewish aristocrats who conspired with the Romans in order to maintain their position and property. But the Palestinian kings ruled the country under the strict control of the Roman Proconsul. One of these proteges of Rome in Palestine was King Herod (37-4 BC), during whose reign in Bethlehem the birth of the Messiah Jesus took place. When in 25 AD Jesus received initiation from John the Baptist and after that he wandered around Judea for three years, accompanied by the apostles, preaching his teachings, many members of the Sanhedrin, including the wise Nicodemus and Gamalikl, recognized Jesus as the Messiah. But the Romans thought that he was becoming too powerful, and were afraid that he would declare himself the new king of Judea. In the third year, Jesus appeared in Jerusalem for the Passover feast and, after a ritual meal, was treacherously captured and crucified at the direction of the Roman Proconsul Pontius Pilate, who ruled in Palestine from 26 to 36 AD. Before the execution, the Romans demanded that the Sanhedrin publicly accuse Jesus in blasphemy and recognized him as a false prophet, otherwise they will disperse the Sanhedrin and impose even greater taxes and taxes on the Jews. However, at the meeting of the Sanhedrin, to which even the Chaldean priests from Babylon were secretly invited, the Jewish priests did not dare to either support Jesus or blame him and decided to completely surrender to the Will of God. The great and wise Caiaphas (priest 18-37), who headed the Sanhedrin at that time, said: "It is better for us that one person die for the people than that the whole people perish." (John 11:49-53). So Jesus was crucified.

According to the Bible, after the crucifixion of Jesus, Peter took over the leadership of his disciples. He was the first disciple of Jesus, and his fishing house on the shores of the Lake of Galilee had previously served as a place for their constant meetings. On the fiftieth day after the crucifixion of Jesus, his disciples received the energies of the Holy Spirit, and Peter was the first of the apostles to perform a miracle in the name of Jesus: he healed the lame man at the Red Gate of the Temple, and later even resurrected the dead woman Serna in Joppa (modern Jaffa). For some time, the disciples of Jesus remained in Jerusalem, as they expected that Jesus would soon return and establish the Kingdom of God that he had promised. When several years passed, and he never returned, they decided to write their first handwritten essay "Didache" ("The Teaching of the 12 Apostles"), in which they tried to reflect the basic principles of the teachings of Jesus and the main points of his biography. After 36 AD, when persecution began against the followers of Jesus during the religious strife in Palestine, they moved north to Antioch (the capital of Syria) and Damascus. By that time, the apostles of Jesus began to be called "Christians" from the Greek word "Christ" - "Messiah".

In the year 36, already openly persecuting Christians under pressure from Rome and accusing them of violating the faith of their ancestors and the commandments of Moses, the head of the Sanhedrin Caiaphas instructed a certain Saul to go to Syria and arrest all Christians along the way. Saul (Paul) was from the Jewish community of the Greek city of Tarsus in Cilicia. He was born there in 10 AD. and had Roman citizenship. Since childhood, Pavel suffered from epilepsy, schizophrenia and sudden fits of irritation and, among other things, despised women and was sexually attracted to young men. From the age of 18, Paul lived in Jerusalem, where he studied theology under the guidance of Gamalikle, a member of the Sanhedrin, and was considered the recognized defender of Judaism, as he was a good soldier and, as a Roman soldier, killed many Christians. Having received Caiaphas' instructions, Paul went north, but at the entrance to Damascus he was allegedly blinded by a light from heaven, and he heard the words: "Saul, Saul, why are you persecuting me? I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting. But get up and enter the city, and you will be told what to do." Blind and helpless, he was brought to Damascus, where he fasted for three days, and then he was healed by one of the Christians. Immediately in Damascus, Paul declared that Jesus was the Messiah, which infuriated the Jews. It is possible that this story was partially or completely invented by Paul himself.

Three days after his healing, Paul went to Jerusalem to meet Peter. He found Peter and, being a great bureaucrat, managed to gain confidence in him. Paul said that Christ supposedly commissioned him to be an apostle to the nations. Peter was a weak-willed and selfish person, Jesus himself told Peter that he was Satan, and Paul managed to win him over to his side. So Paul actually became the head of the spread of Christianity. In fact, he could not accept much of what Jesus' disciples told him, so much of what Jesus said and preached is not in the Bible. Being a misogynist, Paul made sure that there was no mention of the Mother Goddess in the Bible, and even the mother of Jesus, Mary, is demeaningly called just a woman there. It was Paul who, wanting to humiliate women, introduced the concept of original sin into Christianity. Paul was wrestling with Matthew and could not believe in the virgin birth. He also did not believe in the resurrection of Jesus from the dead, and due to an incorrect explanation of the essence of the resurrection, Christians still have an absurd idea that the bodies of dead people should be resurrected, so the corpses are not burned, as it should be done, but buried in land and create huge cemeteries for this purpose. John, also disagreeing with Paul, left for the Greek city of Ephesus and began to create his own teaching there, which he called "Gnostics" ("Knowledge"). Also, it was Paul who, wanting to whitewash the Roman Empire, spread the rumor that Jesus was condemned and crucified by the Jewish Sanhedrin headed by Caiaphas, therefore Caiaphas is described in the Bible as an insidious and cruel fanatic, and the Roman Proconsul Pontius Pilate is depicted there almost as the lamb of God, despite that in 36 AD. Pontius Pilate was even recalled to Rome by decree of the Roman Emperor Tiberius "for cruel executions without any trial." With this lie, Paul stirred up a hatred of the Jews that continues to this day.

For 30 years, Paul and Peter preached their Christianity throughout the Mediterranean, creating Christian communities in many cities and villages. The apostles of Christ passed from one community to another and predicted the imminent End of the World and the coming of the formidable Judge. In the year 64, there was a fire in Rome, in which the emperor Nero (54-68 AD) blamed the Christians and resumed their persecution. In the same year, Peter was captured and crucified, and Paul was executed in Rome three years later. Immediately after Peter's death, the first Gospel of Mark, recognized by the Christian church, appeared. Mark was a Roman youth, a close friend and companion of Paul, for whom Paul had a lustful affection and lust. Mark accompanied Paul until his trip to Cyprus in 46 CE, and then, at the urging of Peter, who believed that Paul's affection for Mark cast a shadow on all Christianity, stayed with Peter and became his interpreter. According to the Bishop of Hierapolis Papias (60-130 AD), Mark "accurately, but not in order, wrote down all the words and deeds of the Lord that Peter remembered," and after Peter's death, he handed over his notes to Christians. The Gospel of Mark was too brief and only listed some of the events of the life of Jesus, therefore, after some time, Matthew (whom Mark and Luke called Levi) released his own Gospel of Matthew, supplementing the Gospel of Mark with sermons Jesus, which revealed the essence of the teachings of the Lord. The Gospel "According to Luke" appeared next. Luke was a native of Antioch and one of the first Greeks to convert to Christianity. He was personally acquainted with Jesus, and later became Paul's faithful and tireless secretary, physician, and companion. When writing his Gospel, he used not only the Gospel "From Mark", but also other sources: oral legends and stories about the life of Jesus, early records of the apostles "Didache", etc. extensive and versatile material, the "Acts of the Apostles" were also written, in which Paul and Peter were deftly presented as "God's chosen ones." The fourth gospel included in the Bible, "According to John", was written by John at the end of the 1st century. In addition to the Gospel, John also published the books "Gnostic" and "Apocalypse". According to legend, John did not say goodbye to life in the usual way, but chose a tomb for himself near the Greek city of Ephesus, entered there alive and closed the entrance behind him, forever disappearing from the eyes of mortals.

Supporters and followers of Paul carried out strict censorship of the Gospels and removed from them those passages that Paul considered fiction during his lifetime. In addition to the four canonical Gospels mentioned, there were others written by other disciples of Jesus, but the followers of Paul no longer needed them, so the remaining 11 Gospels were not included in the Bible and are not recognized by the Christian church. These Gospels "From James", "From Philip", another "Protoevangelium From John" and others were called Apocrypha. Nicodemus also wrote his gospel when Joseph of Arimathea, who was organizing the funeral of Jesus' body, helped him establish the first Christian community in Lydda. According to legend, Joseph of Arimathea also took with him the so-called Holy Grail, in which the blood of Jesus was collected at the time of the crucifixion; touching this cup healed various diseases and ailments.

Gradually, Christian communities founded in different countries, got a clear administrative structure and began to strive to unite in a single church. The Roman state began to persecute Christians even more strongly. In 132, under the emperor Hadrian, the Romans razed Jerusalem to the ground and built their new city of Elia Capitolina on its ruins, in which the Temple of Jupiter was erected on the site of the Temple of Yahweh. The struggle between Jupiter and Christ on the territory of the Roman Empire lasted more than two hundred years. The last massive offensive against Christians was undertaken by the emperor Diocletian in 303-304, who strongly defended the veneration of Jupiter. His successor Constantine the Great (AD 306-337) was the first to appreciate the prospects of Christianity and the possibility of having this powerful organization, which controlled huge masses of people, as the state religion. In 313, Constantine issued an edict on religious tolerance, equating Christianity with other religions officially recognized by Rome, and in 325, the Nicene Council, which Constantine personally led, finally turned the Roman Empire into a Christian state. At the same time, Constantine came to the conclusion that the city of Rome could no longer remain the capital of the Roman Empire, since from here it was difficult to control the borders of the vast Roman Empire along the Danube and Rhine in the north and the Euphrates in the east. He decided that the city of Byzantium on the Bosporus would be the ideal place to observe these borders. Here Constantine founded his new capital, Constantinople (now Istanbul). Later, in 395, the Roman Empire was divided into Western and Eastern parts (the capitals were Ravenna and Constantinople, respectively). On August 24, 410, the city of Rome fell under the onslaught of the Visigoths, and the Western Roman Empire was doomed. It ceased to exist in 476 AD. So the prophecy came true: "If the kingdom is divided against itself, that kingdom cannot stand." (Mark 3:24)

At first, it was customary to call all Christian priests with the Greek word "papa" ("father"), but over the years only bishops began to be addressed in this way. Peter is considered the first "pope" of Rome. In the eastern part of the Roman Empire, the title of "pope" eventually remained only with the heads of large metropolises - Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria and Jerusalem, who were commonly called Patriarchs. In 359, at the Council of Western Bishops, the Bishop of Rome ("the Pope") was recognized as the sole head of the Western Church, a kind of Patriarch of the West. western church recognized the descent of the Holy Spirit not only from God the Father, but also from God the Son ("filioque"), in addition, in the West there was "celibacy" - obligatory celibacy of the clergy, and in Byzantium the marriage of clergy was the norm of society, and it was allowed to leave clergy and divorce. When Pope Nicholas I (858-867) declared the election of Patriarch Photius in Constantinople non-canonical, and the Roman Council of 863 declared Photius deposed, in response Constantinople accused the Pope of violating church discipline and declared his doctrine of the "filioque" a heresy , and the Council of Constantinople in 867 excommunicated Nicholas I from the church. Thus began the split of the church into Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox. Later, the West undertook several crusades to subdue Byzantium. In 1204, Constantinople was taken by the Crusaders, and the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire also fell.

Christian priests tried their best to exterminate all ancient cults and rituals. The first deity to fall out of favor with them was Saturn (Hebrew for "Satan"). Since Saturn, among other things, symbolized the Earth, the priests of Saturn traditionally wore black clothes. Christian priests declared their doctrine of the return of the old God a heresy, the Saturnalia holiday was called demonic, and Saturn-Satan himself was equated with the devil. Particularly important evidence of the demonism of Satan was the evidence of Saturn-Kronos eating his children (Zeus and his brothers). Venus became the second ancient Deity that got into Christian binding: her cult was called demonic, and Venus herself (in Latin "Lucifer" - "Carrier of Light", in Babylonian "Ishtar" - "Daughter of Light") became a symbol of fornication and the fall. Taking advantage of what Venus has naked eye its phases can be distinguished, Christian priests were able to convince believers that this is nothing more than "the horns of the devil." As a result, the legend was fabricated about the archangel Lucifer, who tried to compete with God and was thrown into hell. Almost all ancient deities were subjected to this kind of slander, and at the same time, many ancient customs and rituals were skillfully replaced by Christian ones. So, the symbol of the Sun and Light in the Roman Empire was considered the ancient Persian Deity Mithra, whose birthday was celebrated on December 25, immediately after the winter solstice. In the IV century AD. the cult of Mithras was forcibly replaced by the cult of Christ, and the Christian church began to use this date to celebrate the birthday of Jesus Christ as the new Prince of Light.

Paul invested in Christian philosophy the ideology of the conquering Romans. As a result, all Christian communities embarked on a materialistic path of development. Christian missionaries exterminated dozens of peoples, millions of people in all parts of the world, arranged Crusades for the sake of power and enrichment, hiding behind the name of Christ. Thus the Church continued the conquests of the Roman Empire and preserved the power of Rome over the peoples through religion. Christian church should be infinitely grateful to Paul, because thanks to his efforts, as well as thanks to the efforts of Blessed Augustine (354-430 AD), who published the work “On the City of God” in 427, true faith in Jesus was skillfully replaced by blind faith in the Church. As a result of this, Christians still believe that the Church is the "Body of Christ", and a person who joins the Church automatically becomes "God's chosen one".