England in. How England fought in World War II

Henry VIII and church reforms. Episcopal Church. Mary Tudor. Etzabeth and Mary Stuart. Reformation in Scotland. The fate of Mary Stuart. Shakespeare and Bacon. Great English Revolution. James I. Charles I. The Long Parliament. Internecine war. Cromwell. Republic. The last Stuarts and the 16SS revolution. Charles II. Whigs and Tories. Jacob II. Wilhelm III. Culture of England. Morals. Milton. newton

HENRY VIII AND CHURCH REFORM

Henry (1485-1509), the first Tudor king, managed to calm England after the long wars of the Scarlet and White Roses. The feudal aristocracy, weakened and ruined by these wars, had to humble itself under his firm rule. By his thrift and the confiscation of the property of the delinquent nobles, Henry had accumulated considerable sums, so that he did not need new taxes, which required the consent of Parliament; therefore, the parliament itself met quite rarely in his presence. He thus left to his son Henry kingship, strengthened to a degree that had not been achieved in England for a long time. Henry VIII (1509-1547), distinguished by his handsome appearance and friendly manner, acquired a sincere popular disposition in the first years of his reign. He also showed himself at the beginning of his reign as a zealous Catholic and wrote a book against the teachings of Luther in defense of the seven sacraments; for this book, Pope Leo X gave him the title of "defender of the faith." But then Henry himself led the Reformation in England. The reason for this change of views was the following circumstance.

Henry VIII was married to the Spanish princess Catherine of Aragon, daughter of Ferdinand II the Catholic. She had previously been married to his elder brother; and when the latter died, Henry succeeded to the throne and with him - the hand of Catherine. For about twenty years they lived peacefully. Meanwhile, Catherine grew old, became even more pious than before; Heinrich, on the contrary, loved a distracted lifestyle and pleasure. He liked the lively, lovely Anne Boleyn, the queen's maid of honor. And then he remembered that their marriage with Catherine, according to the rules of the Church, was illegal, since she was formerly the wife of his brother. Henry began to petition in Rome for a divorce. But Pope Clement VII, fearing to offend the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, the nephew of Catherine of Aragon, hesitated to make a decision. Then Henry VIII arbitrarily divorced Catherine and married Anne Boleyn (1532). At the same time, he, with the consent of Parliament, declared the Anglican Church independent of the pope, and himself its head. The pope wrote to him about the excommunication, but the message had no effect; Henry responded to papal curses by destroying Catholic monasteries, whose vast wealth and lands he took away for his own benefit or distributed to courtiers.

The Anglican Church did not accept the teachings of either Luther or Calvin, but showed its own kind of Reformation. She rejected the power of the pope, monasticism, the celibacy of priests; accepted worship in English and communion under both types, but retained the rank of bishop and most Catholic rites during worship. Therefore, the Anglican Church is otherwise called the Episcopal Church. The Reformation in England did not meet with great opposition from the people: the power of the pope here was much weaker than in the South-West

Europe, and among the people, various opinions that disagree with Catholicism have long been circulating (for example, the teachings of Wyclif and the ideas of the humanists).

Since English Reformation, throughout the second half of his reign, Henry VIII acts as a tyrant. He, without flinching, executed the nobles, incurring royal displeasure, his wives did not escape the same fate. Anne Boleyn died on the chopping block for her frivolous behavior. After her, Heinrich was married four more times.

The death of Henry VIII, as one would expect, brought England Time of Troubles. His son from his third wife, Jenny Seymour, sickly Edward VI, reigned for about six years. Edward was succeeded by Henry's eldest daughter by Catherine of Aragon, Mary I Tudor (1553-1558). After the death of Edward VI, the most powerful of the English nobles, the Duke of Northumberland, enthroned a relative of the royal house, Jenny Gray, who was the wife of his son. This young and well-educated woman became queen against her will and reigned for only ten days. Mary overthrew her, and Jenny paid with her head along with her husband and the Duke of Northumberland. Mary tried to restore Catholicism and began to execute Protestants; her marriage to Philip II of Spain brought England into the war with France. During this war, the British lost the city of Calais, the last remnant of their possessions across the English Channel. But the reign of Mary (nicknamed Bloody for her cruelty) lasted no more than five years.

ELIZABETH AND MARY STUART

The second daughter of Henry VIII (from Anne Boleyn) Eshzaeeta / Tudor (1558-1603) came to the throne. Almost rejected by her father (after the execution of her mother), Elizabeth spent most of her youth in seclusion and deprivation; during this time she became accustomed to firmness and frugality, and by reading books she developed her mind. Elizabeth knew how to choose her assistants - talented statesmen; William Cecil, who received the title of Lord Burley, was her first minister for forty years. But she did not give her favorites much power and knew how to protect her supreme rights. (The Earl of Leicester enjoyed her greatest favor.) She achieved the final approval of the Anglican Church, like her own father, equally crowding out both Catholics and "dissidents" (that is, Protestants who do not belong to the Episcopal Church). England in her time achieved prosperity in industry and commerce. Many of the Netherlands, fleeing the religious persecution of Philip II, settled in England and contributed to the improvement of go local manufactories (especially linen, woolen and metal products).The English sea trade spread to almost all known seas.English sailors made a number of glorious expeditions, finding new ways and founding colonies (Vorbischer, John Davies, Francis Drake, who traveled around the world, and Walter Raleigh, the latter founded a colony in North America, which he named Virginia in honor of her queen, since Elizabeth forever refused marriage and was considered a maiden, in Latin virgo).

The relationship between Elizabeth I and the Scottish Queen Mary Stuart became the property of the theatrical scene.

Mary Stuart remained a child after the death of her father, James V; her mother, having become the ruler of the state, sent Mary to the French court, in the care of her brothers Guise. Here she received a brilliant upbringing for that time. Maria loved poetry, she composed poetry herself, spoke several languages, among other things, in Latin, her beauty, grace and liveliness of character did not leave anyone around her indifferent. She became the wife of Francis II; but he, as is known, reigned for a little over a year. After his death, eighteen-year-old Mary Stuart retired to her hereditary kingdom of Scotland.

“Farewell to the country where Maria spent her happiest years was touching. For five whole hours the queen remained on the ship's deck, leaning against the stern, with her eyes full of tears and turned to the receding shore, repeating incessantly: "Farewell, France!" Night has come; the queen did not want to leave the deck and ordered her bed to be made in the same place. When dawn broke, the coast of France was still visible on the horizon, Maria exclaimed: “Adieu chere France! je ne vous verrai jamais plus!" - "Farewell, beautiful France!"

The ship docked in the harbor of the Scottish capital of Edinburgh. The wild northern nature, the poverty of the inhabitants and their stern faces made a heavy impression on the young queen. The riding horses prepared on the shore for her retinue were so ugly and poorly dressed that Mary involuntarily remembered the luxury and splendor with which she was surrounded in France, and burst into tears. She stayed at the royal castle of Golirood. The people greeted her warmly. At night, several hundred citizens gathered under her windows - and sang a long serenade to her; but they played bad violins and so clumsily that they only prevented the poor queen, tired of the journey, from falling asleep ”(Brantome’s memoirs).

Brought up in devotion to Catholicism, Mary saw her calling in the fight against the Reformation, which took hold in Scotland during the short regency of her mother. The Scottish nobility was one of the most recalcitrant; it constantly came into conflict with the royal power for its feudal rights; most of the nobles adopted Protestantism, which spread here in the form of severe Calvinism, more suitable than other teachings to the Scottish character. The main preacher of the Reformation was the bold, eloquent John //oke, a student of Calvin. Scottish Protestants constituted the so-called Presbyterian Church, because they recognized only one spiritual order - the priest (presbyter); the most severe of them became known as the Puritans. The Catholic party received support from France, but the Protestant barons entered into an alliance with Elizabeth I Tudor and, with her help, defeated the Catholics even before the arrival of Mary Stuart in Scotland.

The “invincible armada”, equipped by Philip II the following year, was supposed to take revenge on Elizabeth for helping the Dutch Protestants and for the death of Mary Stuart. The defeat of the "Armada" dealt a strong blow to the power of the Spaniards at sea; England since then began to acquire the degree of the first sea power. Elizabeth's last years were poisoned by the execution of her favorite, the Earl of Essex. This young nobleman began to abuse the trust of the queen, clearly disobeyed her and even started a rebellion, for which he laid down his head on the chopping block. Elizabeth was distinguished by great thrift and therefore little depended on Parliament in financial matters. She led a modest, moderate lifestyle, her court was more enlightened and stricter in morals than other European courts, and therefore had a more beneficial effect on the people.

SHAKESPEARE AND BACON

The revival of sciences and arts in Italy spread to England. The study of ancient languages ​​became so fashionable that here, as in France, many ladies of the highest circle spoke Latin and even Greek. At the same time, the birth of secular English literature, especially dramatic literature, began. Under Elizabeth I, the first permanent theaters were built in London. (Until then, performances took place only on temporary stages by itinerant actors.) The great William Shakespeare (1564-1616) also lived in her time. He was born in the town of Strafford on Avon, the son of an artisan. In his youth, Shakespeare did not escape various excesses and hobbies. He married early; then he left his wife and children and went to London, where he became an actor. Then he himself began to compose plays for the theater; plays were successful, won him the favor of the queen and noble persons. His main patron was the Earl of Southampton (a friend of the unfortunate Earl of Essex). IN last years life Shakespeare retired to his native Strafford and here, among the family, peacefully ended his earthly lot. The most famous of his tragedies are Macbeth, Othello, and Hamlet*, the contents of which are taken from folk tales. His brilliant art of revealing the innermost movements of the human soul and depicting the development of any passion has received worldwide recognition. In "Macbeth" we see how ambition and the desire for power little help lead the hero to terrible crimes. In Othello, a gradual development of jealousy is presented, which completely blinds the hero and ends with the murder of his innocent wife. In Hamlet, he portrays a man richly gifted by nature, but who is tormented by doubts and indecision. (This tragedy was written under the obvious influence of the classical myth about the fate of Agamemnon.) In general, Shakespeare's tragedies abound in bloody scenes; this corresponded to the taste of his contemporaries, when manners were still rather rough and the audience loved strong sensations. In addition to tragedies from ancient times, he wrote wonderful dramas borrowed from recent events: the Wars of the Scarlet and White Roses.

A contemporary of Shakespeare was the brilliant scientist and philosopher Francis Bacon (Y56\-1626). He is considered the father of the so-called experimental (empirical) philosophy, which recognizes the only way to achieve truth through observation of nature, the study of reality. Scientific merits brought Bacon the deep respect of his contemporaries; Elizabeth's successor elevated him to the rank of Chancellor of State. But with all his talents and knowledge, Bacon was not distinguished by high morality: he loved honors and money and even decided to trade in justice. Parliament appointed a commission to investigate the state of the judiciary in England. The commission reported that there was no truth in the courts of England, that justice could be bought, and that the chancellor himself was the main promoter of abuses. Over Bacon

instituted an investigation. He was sentenced to imprisonment and a large monetary fine; the king granted him a pardon. The rest of the years Bacon spent in retirement, under the burden of his shame, and died a victim of curiosity. Moving from his estate to London in the winter, Bacon took it into his head to get out of the carriage and stuff a freshly killed bird with snow to see how long it could survive when exposed to cold. This experience cost him a fatal cold.

THE GREAT ENGLISH REVOLUTION

With the death of Elizabeth I, the Tudor dynasty ended. She appointed as her successor the son of Mary Stuart, James, who thus peacefully united both neighboring states, England and Scotland, under one crown. Jacob / (1603-1625) was a sovereign of a close mind, a timid character, and meanwhile claiming the most unlimited royal power. The English Catholics expected that he, as the son of Mary Stuart, would ease their situation, but they were mistaken. The dissidents (Puritans, Independents, and other sects) were also deceived in their calculations of James as a king brought up in Scotland, where Puritanism dominated. He showed himself to be a zealous champion of the Episcopal Church, persecuted Puritans as well as Catholics, and even tried to introduce the Episcopal Church into Scotland itself. At the same time, with his extravagance and desire for unlimited power, James set the English Parliament against him. Only the death of the king extinguished the discontent that was already beginning to flare up among the people.

The son of Jacob Karl / (1625-1649) was distinguished by the virtues of a family man and knew how to behave with truly royal dignity; the people met his reign with joy and hopes. But it soon turned out that Charles I did not surpass his father in foresight. He started wars with Spain and France and, in need of money, several times convened Parliament, so that, according to custom, he approved taxes for the entire period of his reign. But parliament did not want to approve them until the king canceled his abuses of power, since Charles arbitrarily dissolved parliament, made money without his consent and threw many citizens into prison without trial. The persecution of dissident sects continued as before. Thus, the dissension between the government and the people increased more and more. Since the time of James, many Scots and Englishmen, persecuted for their political and religious beliefs, began to leave their homeland and move to North America. The government of Charles I finally paid attention to these migrations and banned them by decree. There were several ships on the Thames at that time, ready to sail for America, and among the settlers was Oliver Cromwell. It was only thanks to this prohibition that he remained in England and soon took an active part in the overthrow of Charles L.

The first to rebel against the king were the Scots, in whom he tried to introduce episcopal worship. Then in Ireland, oppressed by the British, resentment of Catholics broke out. In order to receive funds for the maintenance of the troops, Charles was forced to convene parliament again. But this parliament began to act decisively. Relying on the common people of London, Parliament seized the supreme power and decided not to disperse against the will of the king. In history, it was called the Long Parliament. Lacking a standing army, Charles left London and called under his banner all the vassals loyal to him (1642). Most of the noble nobility joined him, who looked with displeasure at the claims of the townspeople and feared for their privileges. The royal party, or royalists, was called the Cavaliers, and the parliamentary party - round-headed (due to short-cropped hair). At the beginning of the internecine war, the advantage was on the side of the cavaliers, as they were more accustomed to weapons, but Karl failed to take advantage of the first successes. Meanwhile, the parliamentary troops, which consisted mainly of townspeople and petty nobility, gradually increased in strength, gaining experience in military affairs. The victory finally passed to the side of Parliament, when the Independents became the head of its army. (That was the name of a Protestant sect that did not recognize any clergy and aspired to a republican form of government.) Cromwell was the leader of the Independents.

CROMWELL

Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) came from an humble noble family, he spent his youth violently, indulging in all sorts of excesses. But then a change took place in him: he became pious, began to lead a moderate way of life and became a good father of a family. Being elected to the lower house, Cromwell did not excel as an orator; his voice was hoarse and monotonous, his speech drawn out and confused, his features coarse, and he dressed casually. But under this unattractive appearance, the talent of the organizer and the iron will were hidden. During the internecine war, he received permission from Parliament to recruit his own special cavalry regiment. Cromwell realized that the courage of the cavaliers and their sense of honor could only be countered by religious enthusiasm. He recruited his detachment mainly from people of pious, strong character and introduced the strictest discipline. His warriors spent time in the camp reading the Bible and singing psalms, and in battle they showed reckless courage. Thanks to Cromwell and his detachment, the Parliamentary army won a decisive victory at Merstonmoor; since then, Kro\tvel has attracted everyone's attention. Charles I was again defeated (at Nasby) and, dressed in peasant dress, fled to Scotland. But the Scots handed him over to the British for £400,000. At the request of the Independents, the king was put on trial, sentenced to death as a traitor and beheaded in London in front of the royal palace of Whitehall (1649). Corrected by misfortunes, Charles 1 showed true courage in the last minutes - his death produced a deep

impressed the people and aroused regret in many.

England was declared a republic, but in essence it did not cease to be a monarchy, because Cromwell, who bore the title of Protector, had almost unlimited power. Since the Long Parliament (actually, the rest of it, or the so-called rultfparlamenpg) did not want to completely obey the protector, Cromwell one day appeared with three hundred musketeers, dispersed the meeting and ordered the building to be locked. Then he convened a new parliament of people devoted to him, from the Independents, who spent a significant part of their meetings in prayer and in their speeches continuously inserted texts from Old Testament. Cromwell's military actions were accompanied by constant good fortune. In 1649-1652, he pacified the uprising of the Irish and Scots (who called Charles II, son of Charles I, as king). Then he started a war with the Dutch Republic. The reason for it was the "Navigation Act" issued by Parliament, which allowed foreign merchants to bring to England on their own ships only goods produced in their country, all other goods had to be imported on English ships; this act greatly undermined Dutch trade and favored the development of the English merchant fleet. The Dutch were defeated and had to recognize the "Act of Navigation" (1654). Thus England regained the glory of the first maritime power, which she had acquired under Elizabeth I and lost under the Stuarts.

Under Cromwell, the internal government of the country was distinguished by activity and strict order. Everyone feared him, but did not like him. The most resolute republicans openly murmured against his despotism; and when they noticed in him a desire to appropriate the royal title, they organized assassination attempts on him. Although these attempts were unsuccessful, they were the main cause of his death. Cromwell became very restless, always wary of secret assassins and took all sorts of precautions: he surrounded himself with guards, wore armor under his clothes, rarely slept in the same room, traveled extremely fast and did not return back the same way. Constant stress led him to a debilitating fever, from which he died (1658).

THE LAST STUARTS AND THE REVOLUTION OF 1688

The people, tired of long turmoil, longed for peace. The royalist party, therefore, soon gained the upper hand over the other parties, with the help of old General Monk. The new parliament, convened through his influence, entered into relations with Charles II, then living in Holland, and finally solemnly proclaimed him king. Thus the Great English Revolution ended with the restoration of the Stuarts.

Karl //(1660-1685) was greeted with enthusiasm in England, but did not justify the hopes placed on him by the state. He was frivolous, indulged in pleasures, inclined towards Catholicism and surrounded himself with bad advisers. In his reign, the struggle between parliament and royalty resumed. At that time, two main political parties were formed in England: the Tories and the Whigs, which continued the division into cavaliers and roundheads that had already arisen in the country. The Tories stood for monarchical power; part of the aristocracy and most of the rural nobles belonged to them. And the Whigs defended the rights of the people and tried to limit the power of the king in favor of parliament; on their side was another part of the aristocracy and the population of large cities. Otherwise, the Tory party can be called conservative, and the Whigs - progressive. Thanks to the efforts of the Whigs, a famous law was issued in this reign, which approved the personal immunity of English citizens. (It is known as Habeas corpus.) By virtue of this law, an Englishman could not be arrested without a written order from the authorities, and after arrest must be presented to the court no later than three days.

Charles II was succeeded by his brother.^AW 7/(1685-1688), a stubborn and zealous Catholic. Despising the displeasure of the English, he introduced the Catholic Mass in his palace and submitted to the influence of Louis XIV who could be considered his vassal.

The illegitimate son of Charles II, the Duke of Monmouth, who then lived in Holland, decided to take advantage of the popular unrest; with a small detachment he landed on the coast of England to take the crown from his uncle. But he did not succeed. Monmouth was defeated and captured; in vain this handsome, brilliant prince on his knees asked for mercy from the king - he laid his head on the scaffold. Yakov opened emergency courts to punish all involved in the uprising. Chief Justice Jeffreys, who with his executioners traveled around England and carried out executions on the spot, was especially ferocious. As a reward for such jealousy, Jacob made him a great chancellor. Thinking that the people were completely frightened by these measures, he began to clearly strive to establish an unlimited royalty and the restoration of Catholicism in England: contrary to the previous statutes, public posts were distributed exclusively to Catholics.

The people still remained calm in the hope that the death of Jacob would stop the policy he had begun: since he had no male offspring, the throne was to pass to his eldest daughter Mary or, in fact, to her husband, the Dutch stadtholder William of Orange, an zealous Protestant. And suddenly the news spread that King James had a son, who immediately after birth received the title of Duke of Welsh, or heir to the throne; there was no doubt that he would be raised a Catholic. Discontent in the country has increased to an extreme degree. The leaders of the Whigs, who had long been in secret relations with William of Orange, invited him to England. Wilhelm landed with a Dutch detachment and went to London. Jacob was left alone; the army also betrayed him, even another daughter, Anna, with her husband, a Danish prince, took the side of her sister. Yakov completely lost his head, threw

state seal to the Thames and, in disguise, fled the capital. William and Mary solemnly entered London. William was recognized as king and signed the Bill of Rights. The bill consolidated all the main rights acquired by the English parliament and people during the revolution, namely: the king promised to convene parliament periodically, at certain times, not to keep a standing army in peacetime, not to collect taxes that were not approved by parliament.

Thus the Stuart dynasty was overthrown forever. This coup is known as the Revolution of 168S; however, it had a peaceful character, because it took place without the shedding of blood. From that time a new period begins English history, the period of constitutional, or parliamentary, government. Wilhelm III (1688-1702) conscientiously carried out the conditions he signed; therefore, despite his unattractive manner and dry, uncommunicative character, he managed to win the loyalty of the people. Among the Tories, the so-called Jacobites existed for a long time, who did not abandon the hope of the return of the heirs of Jacob Stuart to England.

CULTURE OF ENGLAND

The development of education and art in England slowed down due to the protracted unrest. The Long Parliament, which was predominantly Puritan, enacted Puritan customs and banned even theatrical performances. Republican monotony of life and lack of entertainment bored the English, and when the restoration of the Stuarts took place, the desire for pleasure showed itself with particular force. Theaters were reopened, but instead of Shakespeare, the British turned to French models and their shortcomings were taken to the extreme. Theatrical performances, especially comedies, went beyond all limits of decency and fell into gross cynicism, although female roles at this time for the first time in England began to be performed not by men, but by women. A decent lady did not dare to go to the theater without knowing in advance about the content of the play, and if curiosity overcame modesty, then, going to the theater, women put on a mask. The 17th century brought to England the remarkable poets John Milton (160S-1674) and John Doyne (1572-1631). Milton was a zealous supporter of the republic and the Puritan party. Under Cromwell, he served as secretary of state, but lost his sight and was forced to leave the service. Then he turned to his favorite pastime, poetry, and dictated his works to his daughters.

He left behind the majestic religious poem "Paradise Lost", the content of which was the biblical story about the fall of the first people. The poem appeared during the restoration of the Stuarts, when purism was ridiculed, and therefore was received rather coldly by contemporaries.

John Donne also wrote the mystical poem "The Path of the Soul", but his poetry, cheerful, going to the human heart (elegies, satires, epigrams), opening up new paths for English Baroque poetry, did not leave contemporaries indifferent either.

However, scientists and thinkers followed mainly the practical direction of Bacon, that is, experiments and observations on the external world came to the fore; This trend has contributed greatly to the success natural sciences. The first place here belongs to Isaac Newton (1643-1727). He studied at the University of Cambridge, where he was later a professor of mathematics, and became the founder of classical physics; William III made him head of the mint (he died at the age of eighty-five, president of the Royal Society of London). Newton is credited with a postcard of the law gravity. Tradition tells that once an apple that fell from a tree led Newton to the idea of ​​the gravitation of all bodies towards the center of the Earth. (From the same law, the structure of the planetary system was also explained: smaller celestial bodies tend to be big. Moon to Earth, and Earth and other planets to the Sun.)

Of the other English thinkers who developed Bacon's ideas, John Locke deserves special mention. His main work is “The Experience of the Human Mind”, in which Locke proves that people do not have any innate concepts, and all their knowledge and concepts are obtained through external impressions, through experience and observation. At the same time, a school of philosophers was formed in English literature, known as deists (Shaftesbury, Bolingbroke): they went to extremes and fell into atheism. Of the new Protestant sects that appeared in England in the 17th century, the Quakers, who still exist today, are noteworthy. They deny church rites and gather for prayer in a simple hall. Here the Quakers sit with their heads covered, eyes downcast, and wait for one of them, man or woman, to be inspired from above to deliver a sermon. If no one has been inspired, they silently disperse. In ordinary life, Quakers are distinguished by strict, simple morals and removal from secular pleasures (like the German Mennonites).

By the beginning of the XX century. England lost its first place in terms of industrial production, but remained the strongest maritime, colonial power and financial center of the world. In political life, the restriction of monarchical power and the strengthening of the role of parliament continued.

Economic development

In the 50-70s. Britain's economic position in the world was stronger than ever. In subsequent decades, the growth of industrial production continued, but much more slowly. In terms of the pace of development, British industry lagged behind American and German. The reason for this lag was that the factory equipment installed in the middle of the 19th century was outdated. Its renewal required large capitals, but it was more profitable for banks to invest in other countries than in the national economy. As a result, England ceased to be the "factory of the world" and at the beginning of the 20th century. in terms of industrial production was in third place - after the United States and Germany.

As in others European countries, by the beginning of the 20th century. a number of large monopolies arose in England: the Vickers and Armstrong trust in military production, tobacco and salt trusts, etc. There were about 60 of them in total.

Agriculture at the end of the 19th century experienced a crisis caused by the import of cheap American grain and falling prices for local agricultural products. The landowners had to reduce the area under crops, and many farmers went bankrupt.

Despite the loss of industrial superiority and the agricultural crisis, England remained one of the richest countries in the world. It owned enormous capital, had the largest fleet, dominated the sea routes, and remained the largest colonial power.

Political system

At this time there was a further development of the system of parliamentarism. The role of the Cabinet of Ministers and its head increased, and the rights of the monarch and the House of Lords were even more limited. Since 1911, the decisive word in passing laws belonged to the House of Commons. The lords could only delay the approval of the bills, but were not able to fail them altogether.

In the middle of the XIX century. In England, a two-party system was finally formed. The country was alternately ruled by two large bourgeois parties, which changed their names and strengthened the organs of leadership. The Tories became known as the Conservatives, while the Whigs adopted the name of the Liberal Party. Despite differences in political orientation, both parties vigorously defended and strengthened the existing system.

For a long time, the leader of the conservative party was one of its founders, the flexible and intelligent politician B. Disraeli (1804-1881). Coming from a bourgeois-intellectual family, he nevertheless showed respect for the aristocracy and traditions. However, Disraeli was not a defender of all traditions and an opponent of all reforms. As head of the cabinet, he passed several laws in favor of trade unions and workers.

A prominent figure in the liberal party, who headed four cabinets, was W. Gladstone (1809-1898). He put his political talent and oratorical skill at the service of the party, justifying even the most unseemly actions of the government, especially in the colonies.

Domestic politics of liberals and conservatives

The ruling circles felt strong pressure from the working class and the petty bourgeoisie, who sought to improve the economic situation and expand political rights. In order to prevent major upheavals and maintain power, liberals and conservatives were forced to carry out a series of reforms.

As a result of their implementation, the number of voters greatly increased, although women and poor men did not receive the right to vote (until 1918). The right of workers to strike was reaffirmed. From 1911 workers were paid sickness, disability and unemployment benefits.

feature political development England was to expand democracy through peaceful reforms, not as a result of revolutions, as in France and the United States.

But even in bourgeois-democratic England, far from all problems were solved. The national liberation struggle of the Irish did not stop. The liberals were ready to give autonomy to the Irish Catholics, but they ran into such fierce resistance from conservatives and Protestant circles that they were forced to abandon this intention. Only in 1921 Ireland (with the exception of Ulster) received autonomy.

Foreign and colonial policy

Leaders, both conservatives and liberals, sought to expand the British Empire (this is how Great Britain was called together with the colonies since the 70s of the 19th century).

One of the most staunch supporters of the expansion of the empire (they called themselves imperialists) Cecil Rode stated: "What a pity that we can not reach the stars ... I would annex (i.e., capture) the planets if I could."

IN North Africa England occupied Egypt and captured the Sudan. IN South Africa the main goal of the British was to capture the republics of Transvaal and Orange, founded by the descendants of Dutch settlers - the Boers. As a result of the Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902), the 250,000-strong British army won, and the Boer republics became English colonies. In Asia, England occupied Upper Burma, the Malay Peninsula, and strengthened its position in China. The wars of the British were accompanied by the ruthless extermination of the local inhabitants, who offered stubborn resistance to the colonialists.

On the eve of the First World War, the British Empire occupied an area of ​​35 million square meters. km with a population of over 400 million people, which accounted for more than a fifth of the earth's land area and a fourth of the world's population. (Think about these numbers and draw your own conclusions.)

The exploitation of the colonies gave England huge profits, which made it possible to raise the wages of workers and thereby alleviate political tensions. S. Rode directly said: “If you do not want civil war you must become imperialists."

Colonial conquests led to a clash between England and other countries, also striving to seize more foreign lands. Germany became the most serious enemy of the British. This forced the British government to conclude allied treaties with France and Russia.

Unions. Formation of the Labor Party

The economic opportunities of entrepreneurs and the state made it possible to increase the material well-being of a significant part of the population of England. Wages for the period from 1840 to 1900 increased by 50%, housing conditions and nutrition of the population improved. But wealth was distributed extremely unevenly. Poverty has persisted, although on a smaller scale than before, unemployment has not disappeared. Half of the London workers did not even have money for a decent funeral. Hundreds of thousands of Englishmen in search a better life sailed across the ocean.

All this created the ground for the labor movement, the growth in the number and influence of trade unions. In 1868, the most massive trade union organization was founded - the British Congress of Trade Unions (TUC), which exists to this day. It included highly paid skilled workers. The BKT peacefully sought from entrepreneurs to increase wages and reduce working hours, and from Parliament to pass laws in favor of workers.

In 1900, on the initiative of the BKT, the first (after the Chartist) mass political organization workers - the Labor (i.e. workers) party. It included not only workers, but also representatives of the petty bourgeoisie and intelligentsia, who played a leading role in the party. The Labor Party is still an influential political force today. Then she declared herself the defender of the interests of the workers and directed her main efforts to winning seats in parliament and carrying out peaceful reforms. At the beginning of the XX century. its population reached 1 million people.

THIS IS INTERESTING TO KNOW

In 1880 Irish tenants for the first time used boycott (disobedience, termination of work) as a way to fight for the improvement of their position against the English manager Boycott. Since then, the word has become widespread.

The English General Raglan died of cholera in the Crimea during the war of 1853-1856. The style of the coat is named after him, in which the sleeves are one with the shoulder. The general wore just such a coat, as it did not hurt his wound.

References:
V. S. Koshelev, I. V. Orzhehovsky, V. I. Sinitsa / The World History New time XIX - early. XX century., 1998.

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England in the second half of the 17th century

Plan. 1. The period of the Cromwellian Republic. 2. Cromwell's protectorate and the restoration of the Stuarts. 3. "Glorious Revolution" and its results.

Period of the Cromwellian Republic

After the revolution, the situation of the common people did not improve. The confiscated lands of the king, his supporters and his bishops were sold in large plots. Only 9% of these lands fell into the hands of wealthy peasants, the rest were bought up by the urban bourgeoisie and the new nobility. The peasants did not receive land and were not exempted from dues.

The civil war led to the decline of economic life in the country: interrupted economic ties between the counties, this was especially hard on London - the center of industry and trade. Difficulties in marketing cloth led to mass unemployment. Therefore, part of the population was not satisfied with the reforms of the parliament. Protest movements broke out across the country.

The Diggers, led by Gerard Wistenley, encouraged the poor to occupy the wastelands and farm freely, based on the principle that every person has a right to land. How do you think the levellers and diggers substantiated their views? (They proceeded that God created people equal and property and legal differences must be overcome.) ?

Everywhere diggers were dispersed, arrested, severely beaten; destroyed their crops, destroyed their huts, maimed their livestock. Why do you think? The propertied classes saw in these peaceful workers the most dangerous enemies of bourgeois property. ?

Having suppressed the movement of the Diggers in England, Cromwell set out in August 1649 at the head of an army to suppress the Irish uprising, but in essence to reconquer the "Green Isle". Of the one and a half million population in Ireland, a little more than half remained. The ensuing mass confiscations of the lands of the rebels transferred 2/3 of the Irish territory into the hands of the English owners.

In Scotland, on February 5, 1649, the son of Charles I was proclaimed King Charles II. Cromwell with his army went there and by September 1651 the Scottish army was completely destroyed, the king fled and soon crossed over to the continent.

Cromwell understood that the army was the main pillar of power. Therefore, heavy taxes were entirely preserved in the country in order to maintain a standing army, the number of which in the 50s had already reached 60 thousand people.

England was ravaged by crop failures, a drop in production, a reduction in trade, and unemployment. The new owners of the land infringed upon the rights of the peasants. The country needed legal reform and a constitution.

Cromwell's protectorate and the restoration of the Stuarts

A conflict was brewing between Cromwell and Parliament. In 1653 Cromwell disbanded the Long Parliament and established a regime of personal dictatorship, assuming the title of Lord Protector for Life. A new constitution was adopted in the country - "Instrument of Control", according to it, Cromwell received the highest power for life. The protector commanded the armed forces, was in charge foreign policy, had the right to veto, etc. The Protectorate was essentially a military dictatorship. Protectorate - a form of government when the head of the republic was a lifelong lord protector.

The country was divided into 11 districts, each of which was headed by a major general subordinate to Cromwell. The Lord Protector forbade public festivals, theatrical performances, work on Sundays. - Why do you think? (Oliver Cromwell was a convinced puritan, and, in his opinion, various amusements were contrary to Christian principles.) ?

September 3, 1658 Cromwell died, and power passed to his son Richard, but in May 1659 Richard leaves his post. The British political elite did not want a new dictator. Why do you think? (Military dictatorship was not the goal of the English Revolution. In addition, Cromwell's regime did not have serious support in society: he was condemned by royalists, Catholics, and moderate Puritans. The Lord Protector relied solely on the army.) ?

In 1660, a bicameral parliament was again convened, mostly from Presbyterians. The rich were afraid of a "new turmoil", they needed legitimate power. In this environment, a conspiracy in favor of the "legitimate dynasty" of the Stuarts was becoming more and more mature.

General Monk entered into direct negotiations with the son of the executed king, the emigrant king Charles II, on the conditions for the restoration (restoration) of the monarchy. On April 25, 1660, the new Parliament approved the return of the Stuarts; a month later, Charles II solemnly entered London. General Monck Charles II

England during the Stuart Restoration

Charles became king under certain conditions. He confirmed the rights won by the new nobility and bourgeoisie. He was deprived of royal lands, but was assigned an annual allowance. The king did not have the right to create a standing army. Do you think his power was absolute? But he rarely convened parliament, patronized Catholics, re-established the position of bishop, and began persecution of active participants in the revolution. Charles II?

Whigs - a party to which the bourgeoisie and gentry belonged, who defended the rights of parliament and advocated reforms. The Tories are a party to which large landlords and clergy belonged, who advocated the preservation of traditions. In the 70s. two political parties began to form.

"Glorious Revolution" and its results

After the death of Charles II, his brother James II took the throne. He did everything to reduce the role of parliament and establish Catholicism. This caused outrage in the English public. In 1688 The Glorious Revolution took place, as a result of which James II was overthrown from the throne, and the ruler of Holland, William III of Orange, and his wife Mary Stuart, daughter of James II, were proclaimed king and queen. James II

At the same time, William and Mary accepted the crown on special conditions. They recognized the Bill of Rights, according to which the powers of the king and parliament were demarcated. The Bill of Rights also guaranteed freedom of religion throughout the kingdom. The "Bill of Rights" (bill - bill) finally laid the foundation for a new form of statehood - a constitutional monarchy. William III of Orange

The affirmation of the principle "the king reigns, but does not rule" meant that all the most important issues would be decided in a parliament consisting of representatives of the bourgeois parties. The party that wins the majority of seats in the House of Commons forms the government headed by the prime minister.

The form of government in England is a parliamentary monarchy Legislative power Executive power Parliament House of Lords House of Commons King Government Prime Minister Elections based on property qualification What is the name of the form of government that developed in England after the revolution?

After the death of William III and his wife, the throne passed to the daughter of James II, Anna Stewart (1702-1714). During her reign in 1707, a union was concluded between England and Scotland. The Scottish Parliament was dissolved, and representatives of this region sat from that moment on in the English Parliament. Anna Stuart (1702-1714)

Main stages bourgeois revolution in England.

Questions to reinforce: 1. Why did the new owners decide to restore the Stuarts? 2. What made it necessary to finally remove the Stuarts from power? What did they interfere with and what threatened their rule? 3. What was the difference between the events of 1688-1689. from the events of 1642-1649. ? Why are they called "glorious revolution"? 4. What is the essence of the parliamentary monarchy regime? What form of government exists in England today? 5. What is the reason for the durability of the two-party system? ?

Following are the causes of the revolution in England. Enter the wrong answer. The dissatisfaction of Parliament with the desire of the Stuarts to rule alone. Dissatisfaction of Parliament with the economic policy of the Stuarts. Embezzlement and bribery in the royal court. Translation of the Bible into English language and conducting services in this language.

With a “yes” or “no” sign, mark whether you agree with these judgments: 1 2 3 4 5 The revolution in England destroyed absolutism. English revolution established a parliamentary monarchy in the country. After the revolution, capitalism began to develop in the country. The English Parliament became unicameral. Catholicism became the state religion in the country. yes yes yes no no

Glossary of terms and dates: 1688 - coup d'état in England, overthrow of the Stuart dynasty. 1689 - adoption of the "Bill of Rights" - the beginning of a parliamentary monarchy in England. RESTORATION - restoration. PROTECTOR - patron, protector.

Homework: prepare for testing on the topic "English Revolution of the 17th century."

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For many people, Great Britain and England are consonant concepts, synonyms that are used to name the same state. But in fact, everything is not so simple, and there are serious differences between them, which we will discuss later in the article.

What is Great Britain

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the full name of an independent island state located in the north-west of Europe and occupying the largest territory in it.

Great Britain was founded in 1801. It includes such territorial units (the so-called "historical provinces") as northern Scotland, the Principality of Wales, which have sufficient autonomy and their own parliaments.

England is also one of the "provinces" of Great Britain (by the way, the largest in the country). Around it, in fact, initially there was a formation modern state. But, unlike other parts of the kingdom, it does not have its own legislative and executive powers, and their role is performed by the national parliament of Great Britain.

In addition to these territories, the United Kingdom owns three more Crown Lands - the islands of Jersey, Maine and Guernsey, as well as fourteen overseas territories, which include, for example, Gibraltar, Bermuda, Falklands, etc.

England: country information

Despite the large number of dependent lands, England, again, is the historical core of the United Kingdom, and its population is 84% ​​of all inhabitants of the UK.

Here the English language was "born", and from here the formation of a powerful state began. This was started by the Angles and Saxons, who in the early ninth century conquered the area, displacing the Britons who inhabited it. In 825, King Egbert of Wessex united most of the petty kingdoms into one, giving it the name England (this translates as "Land of the Angles").

But when in 1707 Scotland became part of the state, and the United Kingdom was formed, it was decided to call it Great Britain, so as not to infringe on anyone's pride. After all, the name, for example, Great England (Great England) would be absolutely unacceptable for the Scots.

Some features of the British government

That the meaning of the word "England" in our minds is closely intertwined with the meaning of the word "Great Britain", and even some explanatory dictionaries these names are cited as synonymous, a cultured person should still understand what their internal difference is.

Of course, the role of England for the whole state is difficult to overestimate. After all, it was her legal, legal and constitutional innovations that were adopted by many states of the world. And it was this part of the United Kingdom that became the cradle of the Industrial Revolution, making Great Britain the world's first industrialized country.

In fact, the United Kingdom has a rather complex state structure which, nevertheless, does not prevent her from being an example in maintaining democratic relations within the country.

Interestingly, the UK does not have a single constitution. It is to some extent replaced by a set of acts of a different nature, common law rules, which include many judicial precedents, and some constitutional customs. The most important of them include (signed back in 1215), as well as the Act of Succession to the Throne.

Why does England not have its own Parliament?

Because England is the only component Great Britain, which does not have its own parliament and government, has formed a movement in the country in support of its creation. After all, if decisions relating to Scotland alone can be made by the Scottish legislature, then decisions regarding England are made by Welsh, Scottish, and Northern Irish deputies who are members of the national parliament.

But in response to this, representatives argue that if the largest part of Great Britain receives independent authorities, this will lead to the fact that the remaining small territories will sharply lose their significance, and this, in turn, may lead to the collapse of the Kingdom.

Once again about the differences between England and Great Britain

We hope the article helped to finally understand how England differs from Great Britain. And in order to finally systematize the information, we once again recall their main differences:

• UK is independent state, which includes England as an administrative unit;
• England has no foreign policy relations, and Great Britain is an indispensable member international organizations(UN, NATO, European Union, OSCE, etc.) and "arbiter of fate" for countries dependent on it;
• England does not have its own currency, armed forces and parliament;
• The territory of England is only a small part of the whole of Great Britain.