Ancient China is the most ancient culture, which has practically not changed the way of life to this day. Wise Chinese rulers were able to lead a great empire through the millennia. Let's take a quick look at everything in order.
Ancient humans probably reached East Asia between 30,000 and 50,000 years ago. Currently, pieces of pottery, ceramics have been discovered in a Chinese hunter-gatherer cave, the approximate age of the cave is 18 thousand years, this is the oldest pottery ever found.
Historians believe that agriculture appeared in China around 7,000 BC. The first crop was a grain called millet. Rice was also grown around this time, and it is possible that rice appeared a little earlier than millet. As agriculture began to provide more food, the population began to increase, it also allowed people to do other jobs than constantly searching for food.
Most historians agree that Chinese civilization formed around 2000 BC around the Yellow River. China became home to one of four early civilizations. China is different from other civilizations, the culture that developed has remained to this day, of course, changes have occurred over the millennia, but the essence of culture has remained.
The other three civilizations disappeared or were completely absorbed and assimilated by new people. For this reason, people say that China is the oldest civilization in the world. In China, the families who controlled the land became the leaders of family governments called dynasties.
Dynasties of China
The history of China from ancient times to the century before last was divided into different dynasties.
Xia dynasty
The Xia Dynasty (2000 BC-1600 BC) was the first dynasty in Chinese history. Its period lasted about 500 years and included the kingdom of 17 emperors - the emperor is the same as the king. The Xia people were farmers, possessing bronze weapons and pottery.
Silk is one of the most important products China has ever created. Most historians agree that the Xia Dynasty produced silk garments, with silk production possibly beginning much earlier.
Silk is produced by extraction from silk insect cocoons. Each cocoon yields one silk thread.
Not all historians agree that Xia was a real dynasty. Some believe that Xia's story is just a mythical story because some points do not correspond to archaeological discoveries.
Shang dynasty
The Shang Dynasty (1600 BC-1046 BC) was originally a clan living along the Yellow River during the Xia Dynasty. A clan is a group of very close families that are often viewed as one large family. The Shang conquered the Xia land and gained control of the Chinese civilization. The Shang Dynasty lasted for over 600 years and was led by 30 different emperors.
The Shang was the oldest Chinese civilization, leaving behind written records that were inscribed on the shells of turtles, cattle bones or other bones.
Bones have often been used to define what nature wants or wants. If the emperor needed to know the future, for example, what “the king will have a son” or “whether to start a war,” the assistants carved questions on the bones, then heated them to cracks. Fissure lines told the desires of the gods.
During the Shang dynasty, people worshiped many gods, probably like the Greeks in ancient times. Also ancestor worship was very important as they believed that their family members became godlike after death.
It is important to realize that other smaller Chinese families also existed in different parts of China at the same time as the Shang, but Shang was apparently the most advanced as they left behind a lot of writing. The Shang were eventually defeated by the Zhou clan.
Zhou Dynasty
The Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC-256 BC) lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history. Due to a split in the dynasty, over time, Zhou split into parts called Western Zhou and Eastern Zhou.
The Zhou fought the invading armies from the north (Mongols), they built large mounds of mud and stone as barriers that slowed down the enemy - this was the type of the Great Wall. The crossbow was another invention of this time - it was extremely effective.
During the Zhou, the Iron Age of China began. Iron-tipped weapons were much stronger, and the iron plow helped increase food production.
All agricultural land belonged to the nobles (the rich). The nobles allowed the peasants to cultivate the land, similar to the feudal system that developed in Europe during the Middle Ages.
The emergence of Chinese philosophy
During the Zhou Dynasty, two major Chinese philosophies developed: Taoism and Confucianism. The great Chinese philosopher Confucius developed a lifestyle called Confucianism. Confucianism says that all people can be trained and improved if an approach is found.
Key tenets: people should focus on helping others; family is the most important value; the elders of the community are the most revered. Confucianism is still important today, but it did not become widespread in China until the Han dynasty.
The founder of Taoism was Laozi. Taoism is everything that follows "Tao", which means "the way." Tao is driving force of all things in the universe. The Yin Yang symbol is commonly associated with Taoism. Taoists believe that you should live in harmony with nature, be humble, just live without unnecessary things and have compassion for everything.
These philosophies differ from religions because they have no gods, although the idea of ancestors and nature is often viewed as gods. The strength of the emperor was also associated with religious beliefs. Zhou spoke of the Mandate of Heaven as the law that allowed the Chinese emperors to rule - he said that the ruler was blessed by Heaven to rule over the people. If he has lost the blessing of heaven, he should be removed.
The things that proved that the ruling family had lost the mandate of Heaven were natural disasters and riots.
By 475 BC. the provinces of the Zhou kingdom were more powerful than the central government of Zhou. The provinces rebelled and fought each other for 200 years. This period is called the Warring States Period. In the end, one family (Qin) united everyone else into one empire. It was during this period that the concept of Imperial China appeared.
Qin dynasty
From 221 BC e. Until 206 BC e. the Qin dynasty gained control of civilized China. Qin's reign did not last long, but it had an important impact on the future of China. The Qin expanded their territory and created the first empire of China. The brutal leader Qin Shi Huang declared himself the first true emperor of China. This dynasty created a currency (money) standard, a wheel axle size standard (to make roads all the same size), and uniform laws applied throughout the empire.
Qin also standardized the various spelling systems into one system that is used in China today. Qin Shi Huang imposed the philosophy of "Legalism", which focuses on people who follow the law and receive instructions from the government.
Mongol invasions from the north were a constant problem in China. The Qin government ordered that the walls built earlier be merged. This is considered the beginning of the creation of the Great Wall of China. Each dynasty built a new wall or improved the wall of the previous dynasty. Most of the walls of the Qin period have been destroyed or replaced today. The wall that exists today was built by a later dynasty called the Ming.
An amazing tomb was made for the emperor, larger than a football field. It is still sealed, but legend has it that there are rivers of mercury inside it. Outside the tomb is a life-size clay army discovered in 1974.
The terracotta army has more than 8,000 unique soldiers, more than 600 horses, 130 chariots, as well as acrobats and musicians - all made of clay.
Although the Qin dynasty did not rule for long, its standardization of Chinese life left a deep influence on later dynasties in China. It was from the period of this dynasty that we got the name "China". The first emperor of this dynasty died in 210 BC. e. he was replaced by a weak and small son. As a result, a rebellion began, and a member of the Qin army took control of the Empire, which began a new dynasty.
Han dynasty
The Han Dynasty began in 206 BC and lasted 400 years until 220 AD. and is considered one of greatest periods throughout the history of China. Like the Zhou Dynasty, the Han Dynasty is divided into Western Han and Eastern Han. Han culture defines Chinese culture today. In fact, most Chinese citizens today claim Han as ethnicity. The government made Confucianism official system empire.
During this time, the empire grew greatly, conquering land in modern-day Korea, Mongolia, Vietnam and even Central Asia. The empire had grown so much that the emperor needed a larger government to rule it. During this time, many things were invented, including paper, steel, compass, and porcelain.
Porcelain is a very tough type of ceramic. Porcelain is made from a special clay that heats up until it melts and becomes almost glass. Porcelain dishes, cups and bowls are often referred to as "Chinese" because all porcelain was made in China several hundred years ago.
The Han Dynasty was also famous for its military might... The empire expanded westward to the edge of the Taklamakan Desert, allowing the government to guard trade flows in Central Asia.
The caravan route is often referred to as the “Silk Road” because this route was used to export Chinese silk. The Han Dynasty also expanded and fortified the Great Wall of China to protect the Silk Road. Another important product of the Silk Road was the religion of Buddhism, which reached China during this period.
Chinese dynasties will continue to rule China until the Middle Ages. China has retained its uniqueness because from time immemorial they honor their culture.
Interesting facts about ancient China
Features of Chinese civilization.
1. Geographic isolation of China. In the north, China is bounded by the Gobi Desert and Siberian forests, in the east - By the Pacific Ocean, in the south - tropical jungle, in the west - the Himalayas. At the level of an agrarian society, these obstacles are difficult to overcome, so there have been practically no outside invasions into China, and, in addition, overpopulation (surplus labor resources) constantly arises.
2. Stability. The gradual development of society, without shocks, revolutions.
3. The economy is based on agriculture. The main industry is highly intensive agriculture based on the China-wide irrigation system. Cattle breeding was not developed due to the lack of pasture land and due to the use of people as a draft force. The surplus of workers contributed to the development of the craft.
4. Cyclicity political development... The whole history of China moves in stages:
Stage 1 - seizure of power during a whole period civil wars... At this time, a significant part of the population perishes and an excess of land appears and relatively high level life, social stability. By this, the emperor confirmed that he had a "mandate of heaven", i.e. the right to rule in the country.
Stage 2 - the population grows, there is not enough land, the peasants leave for the city, beggars appear, peasant uprisings, i.e. social instability appears. This testifies that the "mandate of heaven" has been exhausted for the emperor.
Stage 3 - the overthrow of the old dynasty, the establishment of a new one.
One cycle is about 300-500 years.
5. The peculiarity of the social structure of China is that cities and rural counties are no different from each other and bear the same duties to the state. The entire population is divided into 2 groups: 1) a full-fledged estate - peasants, artisans, merchants, ruling classes; 2) unequal estates - people of new professions, they do not have freedom of movement and cannot take exams to become an official.
6. China's management system. In China, until the 19th century, there was no police or army, the whole country was ruled by 1% of the population - officials (shenshi). To become shenshi, one had to pass exams on knowledge of philosophical literature, mathematics, etc. There were 9 shenshi grades: the first three were obtained in the county, the next three in the provinces, and the last three in the capital. The state shenshi were concerned with the politics and administration of the state. They served outside their home province and changed their duty station every 3 years to prevent corruption. The Shenshi, who did not have government posts, were engaged in the economy in their homeland, they were in charge of everything, they were teachers, doctors.
7. Strict obedience to traditions and observance of the ritual.
Periodization Chinese history.
Stage 1: 2nd millennium BC - the decomposition of the primitive system and the emergence ancient states(Xia, Shang-Yin, Western Zhou). The cities had a correct geometric layout. In the Shang-Yin period, the first written signs appear.
Stage 2: 8-3 centuries. BC. - Ancient China. Eastern Zhou.
At this time, the first schools of thought and the first collections of poetry appeared. Confucianism was born.
Stage 3: 221-207 BC The Qin Empire. The first unification of China took place during the Qin dynasty. A rigid administrative structure was created. Construction of the Great Wall of China begins.
Stage 4: 2 c. BC-3 c. AD Han Empire. From the 1st century A.D. called Eastern Han. Confucianism spread, palaces were built, the first history of China was written, paper and other "great" inventions were invented.
Stage 5: 3rd - 6th centuries AD Political decay. The most powerful state is Northern Wei (4th-6th centuries) with its capital in Luoyang. Buddhism spreads.
6 stage: Con. 6 - early. 7th century Sui Empire (unification of China). The Great Chinese Canal was dug, connecting the Yangtze and the Yellow River (more than 1000 km).
7 stage: 7th - early 10th centuries Tang Empire. The shenshi system has been introduced, a unified code of laws has been drawn up. China conducts intensive trade with the Arab Caliphate, Central Asia, and India. Typography was invented.
8 stage: Ser. 10 - end. 13th century The Song Empire. It was conquered by the grandson of Genghis Khan Kublai, who founded the Mongol Yuan dynasty.
9 stage: End 13 - mid 14 centuries. Yuan Dynasty. Mongols have mastered Chinese and writing, took over the control system. But more actively than the Chinese participated in international trade relations.
Stage 10: End 14 - mid 17 centuries Ming dynasty. Beijing became the capital. The craft is developing. Europeans appear in China, create a concession in Macau. Penetration of the first Jesuit missionaries into China.
Stage 11: 1644-1911 Manchu Qing Dynasty. The active penetration of Europeans, therefore, in 1757, all ports were closed to foreign traders (this lasted until the middle of the 19th century). China was cut off from the outside world, so the economic and social order is preserved, and development is deteriorating and delayed.
Mythology.
Allocate:
1. cosmogonic myths, according to which everything arose from two particles: Yang (male spirit, positive, light, governs the sky) and Yin (female spirit, cold, negative, governs the earth). Later, the idea arose that man was created by the goddess Nui-Wa from clay and dry grass. Subsequently, a myth arose that the Universe originated from the first man Pan-Gu.
2. Myths about natural disasters and the heroes who saved people from them. These are mainly floods and droughts.
The concepts of the other world reflected the order that existed on earth. All power in heaven belonged to the supreme deity Dee. The closest circle of Di is the deceased ancestors of the emperor (the emperor is Wang or Huangdi). They carry out Dee's orders and pass on Wang's requests to him. Therefore, making sacrifices to his ancestors, Wang could easily appease them, and at the same time enlist the support of the supreme deity. Wang's function as a high priest is to communicate with his ancestors, who are intermediaries between the world of people and the world of the gods.
Gradually there is a separation of the world of the ancestors from the world of the gods. As a result, two cults appear: the cult of ancestors, the cult of the supreme deity. At the same time, the cult of the supreme deity is transformed and Dee turns into Heaven.
Three thousand years ago, the first Chinese began to inhabit the Great Plain of China between the Yellow and Yangtze rivers. Despite the fact that the first states began to appear on this territory quickly, their inhabitants considered themselves a single people with a single culture and language.
The emergence of Ancient China took place in almost the same way as in Ancient Egypt, Sumer and Ancient India - on the banks of large rivers. The ancient Chinese civilization was born in the Yellow River Valley (in Chinese - "Yellow River"). The first kingdom arose in the 2nd millennium BC. e. and was called Shang or Yin. Archaeologists have unearthed the capital of this kingdom Great cityShan and the tombs of the Shan kings - wans.
In 1122 BC. e. the warlike Zhou tribe, led by Wu-wang, defeated the Trench and established their supremacy, and most the population of the country Shang-Yin turned into slavery. But in the 8th century BC. e. the state of Zhou collapsed under the blows of the nomads; now the main role is played by one or the other kingdom, of which the largest state was the kingdom of Jin (7–5 centuries BC). With the collapse of the Jin state, the period of Zhangguo ("Fighting Kingdoms") began, when China was divided into two dozen small warring principalities, poorly subordinate to the Zhoukomuwang.
6–5 centuries BC e. - the time of the appearance of the first philosophical teachings of ancient China. Of all the sages of this time, Confucius was especially revered by the Chinese. His teachings about a "noble man", about respect for elders, about modesty, about the importance of education, about the attitude to the ruler as the head of the family for a long time became in China the ideal of relationships between people - both in the family and in the state.
In 221 BC, the Qin ruler Ying Zheng united large territories into a single empire and took the title of Qin Shi Huang, which means "First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty." So that people would not grumble, they were kept in constant fear. Qin Shi Huandi brutally suppressed all resistance, using the most terrible types of executions, for example, they could boil alive in a cauldron. For the slightest offense, a person was beaten on the heels with a bamboo stick or his nose was cut off. If a person violated the law, then his whole family was also punished: the relatives of the convict were turned into slaves, who were used for heavy construction work.
Having established his full power in the empire, Qin Shi Huang started a war with the nomadic Huns who attacked from the north on his borders. He decided to secure his victory forever by building a powerful border wall, called the Great Wall of China. It was built of boulders and bricks by hundreds of thousands of convicted criminals and ordinary peasants. The height of the wall was about a three-story building. On the top, two carts could easily disperse. The towers were guarded. They lived below it, and on the upper platform the sentries closely watched the surroundings and, in case of danger, kindled a fire, the smoke, which could be seen far away. A large detachment of soldiers was in a hurry to his signal to this place.
With the fall of the Qin dynasty, one of the leaders of the peasant war, Liuban, came to power. He lowered taxes and abolished the most brutal laws introduced in China by Emperor Qin Shi Huang. Liubang became the founder of the Han Dynasty. During the Han era, the main features of the Chinese state were formed, which were inherent in it until the beginning of the 20th century.
Collecting taxes in a large country demanded knowledge of geometry and arithmetic from Han officials. To teach the basics of mathematics, special textbooks and collections of problems were used. Ancient Chinese astronomers accurately calculated the length of the solar year and made a perfect calendar; they knew hundreds of stars and constellations, they calculated the orbital periods of the planets. In ancient China, the beginnings of Chinese civilization and its culture - science, literature, art - were laid.
The death of the Han dynasty was associated with the uprising of the "yellow bands" that swept the country in 184. Although the uprising was brutally suppressed, it dealt a heavy blow to the country. In 220, the Han dynasty fell, and several independent states were formed on its territory. This event is generally considered to be the end of a period of antiquity in Chinese history.
Periodization of the history and culture of Ancient China
The most ancient period - V - III millennium BC
Shan-Yin period - mid. II millennium BC (XVI - XI centuries BC), I Chinese state
The Zhou and Zhanguo periods of the 11th - 3rd centuries BC.
Qin Dynasty - 221 BC - 206 BC
Han Empire - from 206 BC - Han dynasty
From the end of the end of the 3rd century A.D. e. to mid. The 19th century continued the Middle Ages in China. The period of Ancient Chinese civilization ended in the 3rd century AD.
China = Middle Kingdom = East and Central Asia appears about 6 thousand years ago as oldest civilization on the ground.
Chinese writing became the basis of writing for Koreans, Vietnamese, and Japanese.
Chinese great inventions: silk, gunpowder, compass, porcelain, paper, brushes, ink, printing.
Religion and theological schools of ancient China
The main religions of ancient China were Confucianism and Taoism.
Confucianism - goes back to the teachings of the Founder Confucius ≈ (551 - 479 BC). He wanted to give credibility to ancient traditions. He did not leave behind any written works, his ideas have come down to us in the late book "Lunyu". His theory is the basis for practical life and is completely conservative.
The main virtues that need to be imitated, from the point of view of Confucianism, were as follows: humanity, honesty, decency, wisdom, loyalty.
They are realized in fundamental relations between people, and the ruler must set a moral example, and put things in order consistently in all spheres of life: in his state - his family - his character - his heart - his thoughts, and initially he must come to discernment.
Confucius developed a program for ordering concepts, the ideal in it is a noble husband - a sage. Mencius (374 - 289 BC) believed that a person is kind by nature, therefore, the basis of all virtues lies in the person himself. The highest goal of the ruler should be the welfare and morality of the people.
Since the 11th century, neo-Confucianism has become the dominant religion in ancient China. He had a dualistic character: there are two main principles of the world - whether(world mind) and qi(the principle of material activity).
At the same time, the doctrine appears Yin Yang based on the comprehension of the "Book of Changes" ("I Ching"). Yang is a masculine principle, light, strong, strong, Yin is a feminine principle, passive, dark, malleable. These are two cosmic principles. And their interaction will explain the appearance and transformation of all things and phenomena on earth. From their interaction, five basic elements are created: fire, water, metal, wood, earth.
General order and rules:
Family - the eternal order of family relationships established by Heaven
Society
Etiquette - a system of rules and norms of human behavior - a ritual
Spiritual life - rules for all spiritual manifestations of life
Art - laws in music, literature and painting
Taoism.
Its classic text is the book "Tao de dzin" (about the 5th - 3rd centuries BC). The author is the legendary philosopher Lao Tzu, but his existence has not been proven.
"A book about the path (Tao) and the properties of nature, man," is attributed to Lao Tzu.
Tao is nameless and inexplicable, since it is outside the system of linguistic concepts, it is the supreme principle beyond all differences.
Several theses of Taoist wisdom.
According to Taoism, true wisdom is to let the Tao guide you and give up selfish activities. The sage acts through non-action: it is not inaction, it is sensitivity to what is happening and the absence of necessary intervention. "Tao forever and ever is inaction, and yet - nothing remains undone!"
Everything must be kept to a minimum.
The sage lives in simplicity and acts through apparent weakness. It is compared to water: "it is useful to all living things, but, despite all the softness of the water, nothing HARD WILL CAUSE IT HARM!" NB! Creative Activity: How Do You Understand This Ancient Chinese Wisdom?
Chuang Tzu (IV century BC) - the second ideologue of Taoism, despised Confucianism for the loss of the originally virtuous simplicity.
Tao lends itself to description only in paradoxical, self-canceling formulations, for example: Tao is nothing, Tao is everything!
The spirit must give up resistance, and then the wind of Tao will carry it like a leaf ... You need to find your Taoist stream and get into it, and then everything in life will turn out by itself, automatically. But the main job is to set the right goal.
NB! Creative assignment: write down the text of V. Vysotsky's song "Track" and find the relationship between its idea and Taoism.
Mo-tzu (V-IV centuries BC) - the third ideologue of Taoism, who created its new form - moism. The cause of evil is the lack of love for others.
Several Paradoxical Definitions of Tao:
Tao is everything, Tao is nothing
The path of the universe
Eternal variability of the world, subject to the laws of nature
Balance is possible thanks to the feminine and masculine principles - yang + yin
The natural laws of the Universe, they cannot be violated, otherwise the harmony of life is violated
Nature's way
The path of individual life
The measure of man is the earth, the measure of the earth is the sky, the measure of the sky is Tao, the measure of Tao is itself
Inspiration from the innermost depths of the universe
Nothingness, emptiness, silence,
Nothing is the abode of the Great Tao
The source of all things =
The manifestation of images of things in the visible world, pulling them out of emptiness
The rhythm of the universe
Energy flows
Everything in the universe moves in Space and Time, obeying the rhythm of the Great Tao
Nature
Absolute spirit
Universal mind
A mysterious pattern that captures the laws of the universe
The oldest period - V – III thousand BC
The tribes settled the river valleys of China around the 5th - 3rd millennium BC.
The settlements consisted of adobe huts
Agriculture, animal husbandry, handicrafts - developed gradually
Works of art: Yangshao vessels - the first ceramics in Ancient China, extraordinary correctness of forms
Intricate geometric designs on vessels of unsolved symbolism
Shan-Yin period - XVI - XI centuries BC.
Shan - Yin period (the name of the period was given by the name of the tribe) was marked by the creation of the first Chinese state in the Yellow River valley.
The first ideas about the universe formed the ancient Chinese cosmology and philosophy of being, here are its main postulates:
Natural phenomena are only the will of spirits and gods
Deification of all natural phenomena: clouds, rain, wind, thunder and were presented in the images of different animals
The defenders of the living were their deceased ancestors, hence the developed cult of ancestors, during which the living served the souls of the dead, looked after the graves, put all handicrafts in it
The sky is the supreme deity of the universe
The concept of the earth and the sky: the earth is square, China is in its center, and the sky is a circle. Semicircular sphere over the square of the earth; hence the ancient name of China "Middle Kingdom" and "Celestial Empire"
Sacrifices to heaven were made on round altars outside the settlements, square altars were created right on the ground as small images of the whole earth
The ruler of the state of China was called "wang", he was at the same time and = at the same time the high priest in the state.
Development of science, technology, architecture and art:
During this period appeared: silk spinning, bronze casting, hieroglyphic writing, the basics of urban planning
Bronze casting
Image of animals, birds
Jade, bone, wood carving
Deification of nature and ancestors
Decorative art objects (bronze, jade)
Lacquerware (China only)
Magic vessels for sacrifices, heavy, bronze, rich in relief
The relief included images of birds, dragons, cicadas, bulls, rams, their task is to protect people and crops
The capital is Shang, in the city is the Ruler's palace on a rectangular platform
The underground burials of the nobility were found: two underground chambers of a cruciform shape, their area is 400 m2
Zhou and Zhanguo periods
In the XI century. BC. the state of Shan-Yin was conquered by the tribe Zhou, but by the end of the 7th century. BC. protracted internecine wars began.
Period of the 5th - 3rd centuries. BC. in Chinese history named Zhanguo- it means Warring Kingdoms. During this period, large areas of neighboring territories were annexed to China.
Iron deposits were discovered, and iron tools began to appear. Trade developed. Round coins appeared for the first time. Strengthening the role of the state. Urban growth.
A significant event took place in science: the first educational institution, which was called the "Academy", was opened.
During this period, two main religious teachings, spiritual schools, two ancient Chinese philosophies - Confucianism and Taoism - were born and developed.
Development of architecture and other arts:
Marble sculptures
Imperial mausoleums
Wall paintings and stone reliefs of buried temples:
Image of scenes of life, legends, musicians
Labor of the people in the salt mines (relief from the city of Chandu)
Image of a person (carving, casting)
Silk paintings "Girl, Phoenix and Dragon"
Silk fabrics and the Great Silk Road
III centuries. BC. - the construction of the Great Wall of China began
Walled cities
The main feature of ancient Chinese architecture is a pagoda: a roof with curved corners
A Brief Chronological Table of the History and Culture of Ancient China
4 thousand BC - Yangshao culture (4000 - 2400 BC): red pottery, geometric spiral pattern
≈ 2500 BC - the emergence of acupuncture (= acupuncture)
≈ 2400 BC - culture "Longshan" near the Yellow River (Yellow River)
≈ 2160 BC - the first evidence of observation of an eclipse of the sun
≈ 2000 BC - semi-legendary Xia dynasty
XIX - XVIII centuries BC - the Hittites found their state
End of the 18th century BC. - the era of the Shan-Yin dynasty, until 1025 BC
Bronze ware technique
Writing
Ancient Chinese bronze ritual objects
XIV century. BC. - the construction plan of Anyang, the new capital of the Shang-Yin era
≈ 1025 BC - Zhou dynasty (replaced Shang-Yin)
spread of writing
722 BC - "Spring and Autumn" period, Eastern Zhou (722 - 481)
cities grow - palaces - capitals
≈ 600 BC - ancient Chinese poetry "Shijing" (collection)
481 BC - the period of "warring kingdoms"
End of the 4th century BC. - Chinese philosopher Zhuang Tzu - the author of a work with his name, the beginning of Taoism
III century. BC. - Confucianism (or Meng Tzu - the name of the work), Taoism ("Daodetszin" = "A book about the path (Tao) and properties of nature, man", is attributed to Lao Tzu
"Chuang Tzu" is also a Taoist trend in religion
Han Fei (died 233 BC) - treatise "Han Feits-zy" - the concept of "law"
Quasi-paper is created - from silk fiber
221 BC - the beginning of the reign of the I Emperor Qin Shi Huang, the unification of China
The beginning of the construction of the Great Wall of China
213 BC - the emperor ordered: burn all old books as a symbol of the old order
210 BC - life-size painted clay warriors from the burial
≈ 206 BC - the end of the Qin dynasty, the beginning of the Han dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD)
200 BC - the capital is transferred to Chan-an
165 BC - for the first time pass official examinations when recruiting government officials
134 BC - Chinese Emperor Wu Di, the beginning of the Mandarin reign
125 BC - the possibility of trade with India and Iran is open
119 BC - the Han empire - defeats the nomads and takes control of the "Great Silk Road"
80 BC - Sim Qian writes "Historical Notes" - the first prototype of the history of China
23 AD - the beginning of the Eastern (Younger) Han dynasty, the capital - Chant'an was renamed to Luoyang
40 AD - Vietnam uprising against Chinese invaders
48 AD - Southern Hunnu - Hunnu recognize the power of the Han Empire, its territory spreads on 2 sides of the Chinese wall
58 AD - Ming Di - Liu Zhuang became the emperor of China - the territory of the state expands
68 AD - I Buddhist settlements in China (Luoyang = Henan)
105 AD - invention of paper from plant fiber by Chinese scientist Tsai Lun
123 AD - Northern Xiongnu defeated by the Chinese
184 - the uprising of the "Yellow Bands" (the leaders were supporters of Taoism)
190 AD - the beginning of the reign of the Xian Di (Liu Xie) dynasty - this is the last Chinese emperor of the Eastern I Han dynasty
220 AD - the beginning of the period of internal fragmentation - until 581
220-280 years - the era of the Three Kingdoms: the empire breaks up into 3 independent states: the north - Wei (capital of Luoyang), Cao Pei center - Shu (capital of Chendru, Han Liu Bei); the southern part is the capital of Wushang, then Nanjing
260 - Chinese Liu Hui discovers the solution of a system of equations and calculates the number ∏ ≈ 3.14159
265 AD Sima Yan seizes power in Wei, Shu and founds a new dynasty: Western Jin
317 - the era of the Southern and Northern dynasties (317 - 589) came, Coptic art was formed in Egypt, the art of Monophysites appeared, which was different from the Hellenistic-Roman
420 AD - The Western Jin dynasty in southern China is replaced by the Song dynasty, which ruled in Nanjing
325 AD - Shapu II and the National Synod consolidate the final text of the "Avesta" - the holy book of Mazdeism
479 - The Song Dynasty is replaced by the Qi Dynasty.
General conclusion on the culture of Ancient China.
The world significance of ancient Chinese culture lies in its unique harmonious combination of strength and weakness, hardness and softness, social and individual, material and spiritual, active and contemplative, etc.
The symbols of Yin and Yang have become for all times and for all peoples of the earth the saving monad of understanding the unity and struggle of opposites, which formed the basis of European dialectical philosophy.
The tea ceremony of Ancient China for all subsequent turbulent and tragic periods of the struggle of mankind for its existence has become forever an outlet and the best way relaxation of tired people.
Humanity owes many technical achievements to the Chinese (compass, seismograph, paper, gunpowder and much more).
Chinese culture is considered traditional. This gave many reasons to believe that she was, as it were, incapable of scientific and technological progress. However, firstly, scientific and technological progress is an important, but far from the only indicator of the level of cultural development of a society. Secondly, if we bear in mind the ability of society to satisfy its daily needs, ancient Chinese culture in the period between the 1st century. BC. and XY c. AD was more effective than the culture of the West. In ancient Chinese culture, the contemplative attitude of man to nature was encouraged, and this bore fruit: among all ancient peoples, the Chinese were the greatest natural scientists.
And the very way of life of ancient Chinese society is very instructive for modern mankind.
The theory of Taoism and the image of the Great Tao are uniquely able to unite a person with his personal space, the universe, the universe, make us feel our lack of loneliness in the boundless expanses of time and space, lend us the hand of the Great's tenderness - to the small ...
NB! Creative assignment: what spiritual personal discoveries allowed you to make acquaintance with ancient Chinese culture and what does it mean for you personally?
Chinese civilization (ancestors of the state-forming Han ethnic group) - a group of cultures (Banpo 1, Shijia, Banpo 2, Miaodigou, Zhongshanzhai 2, Hougan 1, etc.) of the Middle Neolithic (c. 4500-2500 BC) in the Yellow River basin, which are traditionally united under the common name Yangshao. Representatives of these crops grew cereals (chumiza, etc.) and were engaged in pig breeding. Later, the Longshan culture spread in this area: Middle Eastern types of cereals (wheat and barley) and livestock breeds (cows, sheep, goats) appeared.
Shang-Yin State
The Zhou period as a whole was characterized by active development of new lands, resettlement and ethnic mixing of people from different regions, appanages (later kingdoms), which contributed to the creation of the foundation of the future Chinese community.
In the V-III centuries. BC. (Zhanguo period) China enters the Iron Age. Agricultural areas are expanding, irrigation systems are increasing, handicrafts are developing, revolutionary changes occur in military affairs.
During the Zhanguo period, seven largest kingdoms coexisted in China - Wei, Zhao and Han (previously all three were part of the Jin kingdom), Qin, Qi, Yan and Chu. Gradually, as a result of fierce rivalry, the westernmost, Qin, began to gain the upper hand. Having annexed neighboring kingdoms one by one, in 221 BC. e. the ruler of Qin - the future emperor Qin Shi Huang - united all of China under his rule.
Qin Shi Huang, who built all his reforms on the basis of legalism with barracks discipline and cruel punishments of the guilty, persecuted the Confucians, putting them to death (burial alive) and burning their writings - because they dared to oppose the cruel oppression established in the country.
The Qin Empire ceased to exist shortly after the death of Qin Shi Huang.
Han Empire
The second empire in the history of China, called Han (Chinese trad. 漢, simpl. 汉, pinyin Hàn; 206 BC e. - n. BC) was founded by a native of the middle bureaucracy Liu Bang (Gao-tsu), one of the commanders of the revived kingdom of Chu, who fought against Qin after the death of Emperor Qin Shihuang in 210 BC.
China at this time was experiencing an economic and social crisis caused by the loss of control and the wars of the commanders of the Qin armies with the elites of the kingdoms destroyed earlier, trying to restore their statehood. Due to resettlement and war, the rural population in the main agricultural regions has significantly decreased.
An important feature of the change of dynasties in China was that each new dynasty replaced the previous one amid a socio-economic crisis, the weakening of the central government and wars between military leaders. The founder of the new state was one of them who could seize the capital and forcibly remove the ruling emperor from power.
With the reign of Gao-tzu (206-195 BC), a new period in Chinese history begins, which is called the Western Han.
In the period from 8 to 23 years. n. e. power is seized by Wang Man, who proclaims himself emperor and founder of the state of Xin. A series of transformations begins, which is interrupted environmental disaster- the Yellow River changed its course. Due to a three-year famine, the central government has weakened. In these conditions, the uprising of the red-brows and the movement of representatives of the Liu clan for the return of the throne began. Wang Man was killed, the capital was taken, power returned to the Liu dynasty.
The new period was called the Eastern Han, it lasted until AD. e.
The Jin state and the Nan-bei chao period (IV-VI centuries)
Eastern Han was replaced by the period of the Three Kingdoms (Wei, Shu and Wu). During the struggle for power between the military leaders, the new state of Jin (Chinese trad. 晉, simpl. 晋, pinyin jìn; -).
Tang State
The rulers of the Liu dynasty put an end to the uprisings of the nobility and carried out a series of successful transformations. The country was divided into 10 provinces, the "allotment system" was restored, administrative legislation was improved, the vertical of power was strengthened, trade and urban life revived. The size of many cities and the size of the urban population increased significantly.
Despite the forced territorial concessions to neighbors, the Song period is considered an era of economic and cultural prosperity in China. The number of cities is growing, the urban population continues to grow, Chinese artisans are reaching heights in the manufacture of items made of porcelain, silk, lacquer, wood, ivory, etc. Gunpowder and a compass have been invented, printing is spreading, new high-yielding varieties of grain are being developed, and the plantings of cotton are increasing. One of the most impressive and effective of these innovations was the deliberate, systematic and well-organized introduction and distribution of new varieties of early maturing rice from South Vietnam (Champa).
Yang Guifei, saddle horse, painter Xing Xuan (1235-1305 AD)
Genghis Khan created an organized and efficient army, which became a decisive factor in the subsequent successes of the relatively small Mongolian ethnic group.
Having conquered the neighboring peoples of southern Siberia, Genghis Khan went to war against the Jurchens and took Beijing.
The conquests in South China were continued already in the 1250s, after the campaigns in Europe and the Near and Middle East. First, the Mongols seized the countries surrounding the South Sung empire - the state of Dali (-), Tibet (). The Mongol troops under the leadership of Kublai Khan invaded South China from different sides, but the unexpected death of the Great Khan Mongke () prevented the implementation of their plans. Khan Khubilai, having seized the khan's throne, moved the capital from Karakorum to the territory of China (first to Kaiping, and to Zhongdu - modern Beijing). The Mongols managed to take the capital of the South Sun state of Hangzhou only in. All of China was conquered, and the Song Empire was destroyed.
Heavy economic, political and national oppression established by the Mongol feudal lords restrained the development of the country. Many Chinese were enslaved. Agriculture and trade were undermined. The necessary work to maintain irrigation structures (dams and canals) was not carried out, which led to a monstrous flood and the death of several hundred thousand people. The Great Canal of China was built during the Mongol rule.
Popular discontent with the new rulers resulted in a powerful patriotic movement and uprisings led by the leaders of the White Lotus secret society (Bailianjiao).
The Mongols, pushed to the north, began to actively develop the steppes of modern Mongolia. The Ming Empire subdues part of the Jurchen tribes, the state of Nanzhao (modern provinces of Yunnan and Guizhou), part of the modern provinces of Qinghai and Sichuan.
The Chinese fleet under the command of Zheng He, consisting of several dozen multi-deck frigates, has made several sea expeditions to Southeast Asia, India and the east coast of Africa during the period from to. Without bringing any economic benefit to China, the expeditions were stopped, and the ships were dismantled.
The Manchu dynasty in the Qing state ruled from year to year. In the hands of the Manchu nobility were the highest authorities and the leadership of the army. Mixed marriages were prohibited, and nevertheless, the Manchus quickly became Sinicized, especially since, unlike the Mongols, they did not oppose themselves to Chinese culture.
In the first two centuries of the Qing dynasty, China, closed from everyday contact with outside world, manifested itself as strong independent state expanding in all directions.
During the war, the superiority of the Japanese army and navy led to major defeats of China on land and at sea (at Asan, July 1894; at Pyongyang, September 1894; at Jiuliang, October 1894).
Triple Intervention
The conditions imposed by Japan on China led to the so-called "triple intervention" of Russia, Germany and France - powers that by this time already maintained extensive contacts with China and therefore perceived the signed treaty as detrimental to their interests. On April 23, Russia, Germany and France simultaneously, but separately, appealed to the Japanese government with a demand to abandon the annexation of the Liaodong Peninsula, which could lead to the establishment of Japanese control over Port Arthur, while Nicholas II, supported by Western allies, had his own views of Port Arthur as an ice-free port for Russia. The German note was the harshest, even offensive to Japan.
Japan had to give in. On May 10, 1895, the Japanese government announced the return of the Liaodong Peninsula to China, however, having achieved an increase in the amount of the Chinese contribution by 30 million taels.
Successes of Russian politics in China
In 1895, Russia provided China with a loan of 150 million rubles at 4% per annum. The treaty contained China's commitment not to accept foreign control over its finances if Russia did not participate in it. At the end of 1895, on the initiative of Witte, the Russian-Chinese Bank was founded. On June 3, 1896, a Russian-Chinese treaty on a defensive alliance against Japan was signed in Moscow. On September 8, 1896, a concession agreement was signed between the Chinese government and the Russian-Chinese Bank for the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway. The CER society received a strip of land along the road, which passed under its jurisdiction. In March 1898, a Russian-Chinese agreement was signed on the lease by Russia of Port Arthur and the Liaodong Peninsula.
Capture of Jiaozhou by Germany
In August 1897, Wilhelm II visited Nicholas II in Peterhof and secured an agreement to set up a German naval base in Jiaozhou (in the then transcription version - "Qiao-Chao"), on the southern coast of Shandong. In early November, German missionaries were killed by the Chinese in Shandong. On November 14, 1897, the Germans landed troops on the Jiaozhou coast and captured it. On March 6, 1898, a German-Chinese agreement was signed, according to which China leased Jiaozhou to Germany for a period of 99 years. At the same time, the Chinese government granted Germany a concession for the construction of two railways in Shandong and a number of mining concessions in the province.
One Hundred Days of Reform
A short period of reforms began on June 11, 1898 with the publication by the Manchu Emperor Zaitian (the name of the years of reign - Guangxu) of the decree "On the establishment of the main line public policy". Zaitian recruited a group of young reformers - disciples and associates of Kang Yuwei - to develop a series of reform decrees. In total, over 60 decrees were issued that dealt with the education system, the construction of railways, factories and factories, modernization Agriculture, development of internal and foreign trade, reorganization of the armed forces, purge of the state apparatus, etc. The period of radical reforms ended on September 21 of the same year, when Empress Dowager Cixi staged a palace coup and canceled the reforms.
XX century
Map of China proper at the beginning of the 20th century from the Brockhaus and Efron encyclopedia
Boxing rebellion
Cixi, widow of the emperor (1900s)
In May 1900, a large uprising began in China, called the Boxing or Ihetuan Uprising. On June 20, the German envoy Ketteler was killed in Beijing. Following this, the insurgents besieged diplomatic missions located in a special quarter of Beijing. The building of the Catholic Cathedral of Petang (Beitang) was also besieged. The massacres of Chinese Christians by the "ihetuan" began, including the murder of 222 Orthodox Chinese. On June 21, 1900, Empress Cixi (慈禧) declared war on Great Britain, Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, Italy, Japan, USA and Russia. The great powers agreed on joint actions against the rebels. The German general Waldersee was appointed commander-in-chief of the expeditionary forces. However, when he arrived in China, Beijing was already liberated by a small forward detachment under the command of Russian General Linevich. The Russian army occupied Manchuria.
China Railroad Map (1908)
Russo-Japanese war
After the fall of the monarchy, the ruler of Mongolia refused to obey the republic and separated from China. On November 3, he signed an agreement with Russia. England took advantage of the internal struggles in China to turn Tibet into its zone of influence. Tibet rose to fight and forced the Chinese garrison to leave the country. All subsequent attempts by the Chinese to restore their power there were suppressed by Britain. Russia agreed to consider Tibet an English sphere of influence, and England recognized Russian interests in an independent (external) Mongolia.
On March 22, 1916, the republic was restored. Yuan Shikai was forced to relinquish the title.
The era of the militarists
After the death of Yuan Shikai, numerous military feudal estates of various militarist groups began to take shape in China. The largest was the Beiyang grouping, which later split into the Fengtian, led by the former leader of the Hunghuz gang, Zhang Zuolin, the Zhili, led by General Feng Guochzhang, and the Anhui, led by General Duan Qizhui. In Shanxi province, the militarist Yan Xishan dominated, flirting with the Beiyang group, and in Shaanxi province - General Chen Shufan. The camp of the southwestern militarists consisted of two large groups: the Yunnan group, led by General Tang Jiyao, and the Guangxi group, led by General Lu Rongting.
The provinces of Heilongjiang, Jirin and Fengtian were under the control of the Fengtian grouping, and Shandong, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangxi, Hunan, Hubei and part of Zhili were under the control of the Zhili group. The Fengtian and Anhui cliques were financed by Japan, the Zhili cliques - by England and the United States. Li Yuanhong was a protege of the southwestern militarists. Vice-President General Feng Guozhang was guided by England and the United States, while Prime Minister General Duan Qirui remained pro-Japanese. In 1917, Japan began to provide Duan Qizhui with large loans, receiving more and more concessions for them, including concessions in Manchuria.
Kuomintang victory
The government of Chiang Kai-shek received military aid from Germany even during the Weimar Republic. With Hitler's rise to power, aid was increased in order to fight the communists. Plants for the production of licensed German weapons were created in China, German advisers trained personnel, M35 Stahlhelm, Gewehr 88, 98, C96 Broomhandle Mauser were exported to China. China also received Henschel, Junkers, Heinkel and Messerschmitt aircraft, Rheinmetall and Krupp howitzers, anti-tank and mountain guns, for example, the PaK 37mm, and Panzer I tankettes.
On November 25, 1936, Japan and Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact against the USSR and the communist movement. On December 12, 1936, the Xi'an incident took place, forcing Chiang Kai-shek to unite with the communists.
Chinese Communist March in Beijing (1949)
Cultural revolution
In 1966, CPC Chairman Mao Zedong launched a massive campaign to maintain the revolutionary spirit among the masses. Its actual task was to establish Maoism as the only state ideology and the destruction of political opposition. Mass mobilization of youth, called "
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