For a long time in Russian literature and science there was only one approach to the consideration and study of the past of mankind. According to him, the entire development of society is subject to changes in economic formations. This theory was put forward and clearly substantiated by Karl Marx. But today, more and more often, history is considered from the point of view of a wider range of development factors, combining together the formational and civilizational approaches to the history of origin and development.

There are many explanations for this phenomenon, but the main one is that Marx's theory is one-sided and does not take into account many factors and historical information that cannot be taken into account when studying such a multifaceted phenomenon as society.

Formational and based in their following on the following factors:

1. formational - based on economic development and property rights;
2. civilizational - takes into account all the elements of life, from religious to the relationship "individual - power".

It should be noted that as such a single concept in the civilizational approach has not been developed. Each researcher also takes into account only one or two factors. So, Toynbee identifies sixteen based on the development of society within a single territory from its inception to peak and decline. In contrast, Walt Rostow singles out only 5 civilizations, the basis of which is placed on the ratio of "population - consumption", the highest of which is the state of mass consumption.

As can be seen from the latter theory, the formational and civilizational approaches quite often overlap with each other, which does not seem strange. This situation is due to the fact that they all characterize the history of society from only one point of view. Thus, both the formational and civilizational approaches to the study of society cannot fully reveal its emergence and development at all stages, based solely on one method.

Thus, the most complete of them are the theory of formations of Marx and the theory of civilizations of Toynbee. At the same time, most researchers in recent years are increasingly inclined to think that if we combine the key parameters of these concepts, then the formational and civilizational approaches are able to fully substantiate why the development of science, economy, culture and other areas public life followed the path that can be traced through the pages of history.

The above is due to the fact that Marx's theory of 5 stages (formations) of human development is based mainly on the type of economy and the development of tools. Toynbee's theory effectively complements it by revealing social, religious, cultural, scientific and other factors. It is worth noting that in the early stages Toynbee paid more attention to the religious component, which was the reason for their opposition. Over time, the situation has changed, and today the formational and civilizational approaches to the study of society are divided only conditionally.

It is worth noting that these methods of comprehending history have both disadvantages and advantages. Thus, the theory of formations has a detailed study of all aspects of the five stages of the economic history of any community. The disadvantage is the one-sided understanding of the processes occurring in states (namely, they are studied by Marx's theory), expressed in the fact that only the countries of Europe were identified as the subject for study. The experience of the Arab, American and African world was not taken into account. Toynbee, the "father" of the theory of civilizations, based his judgments on approximately the same factor.

Formational and civilizational approaches to the history of human development in this moment are opposed, which is fundamentally wrong. Such an attitude to the methods of researching the essence of improving society does not leave the opportunity to most accurately consider all the deep processes taking place in society. Therefore, to prevent the formation of white spots, the formation and civilizational approaches should be applied simultaneously.

Philosophy: lecture notes Shevchuk Denis Alexandrovich

2. A civilizational approach to history

Another concept that claims to be universal coverage of social phenomena and processes is the civilizational approach to the history of mankind. The essence of this concept in its most general form is that human history is nothing more than a set of unrelated human civilizations. She has many adherents, including such famous names as O. Spengler (1880-1936), A. Toynbee (1889-1975).

At the origins of this concept, however, like the previous one, was the Russian thinker N. Ya. Danilevsky (1822-1885). In the essay “Russia and Europe. A look at the cultural and political relations of the Slavic world to the German-Romanesque ”, by the way, not yet fully appreciated, he expressed a new, original view of the history of mankind. According to Danilevsky, the natural system of history consists in distinguishing between cultural and historical types of development that took place in the past. It is the totality of these types, by the way, not always inheriting each other, that constitutes the history of mankind. In chronological order, the following cultural and historical types are distinguished: “I) Egyptian, 2) Chinese, 3) Assyrian-Babylonian-Phoenician, Chaldean, or Old Semitic, 4) Indian, 5) Iranian, 6) Jewish, 7) Greek, 8) Roman, 9) New Semitic, or Arabian, and 10) Germanic-Roman, or European. Perhaps, two more American types can be ranked among them: Mexican and Peruvian, who perished by violent death and did not manage to complete their development. " It was the peoples of these cultural and historical types that jointly made the history of mankind. Each of them developed independently, in its own way, in accordance with the characteristics of its spiritual nature and the specifics of the external conditions of life. These types should be divided into two groups - the first includes those that had a certain continuity in their history, which in the future predetermined their outstanding role in the history of mankind. These successive types were: Egyptian, Assyrian-Babylonian-Phoenician, Greek, Roman, Jewish, and Germanic-Roman, or European. The second group should include the Chinese and Indian civilizations, which existed and developed completely in isolation. It is for this reason that they differ significantly in the pace and quality of development from the European one.

For the development of cultural and historical types, or civilizations, certain conditions must be observed, which, however, Danilevsky calls the laws of historical development. He refers to them: 1) the presence of one or more languages, with the help of which a tribe or family of peoples could communicate with each other; 2) political independence, which creates conditions for free and natural development; 3) the originality of each cultural and historical type, which is developed with a greater or lesser influence of alien, previous or modern civilizations; 4) the civilization inherent to each cultural-historical type then only achieves completeness, diversity and richness when the ethnographic elements that make up it are diverse - when they, without being absorbed by one political whole, using independence, constitute a federation, or a political system of states; 5) the course of development of cultural and historical types is most closely compared to those perennial single-fruited plants, in which the growth period is indefinitely long, but the period of flowering and fruiting is relatively short and drains once and for all their vitality.

Subsequently, the civilizational approach was filled with new content, but its foundations, formulated by Danilevsky, essentially remained unchanged. Spengler presents this in the form of a multitude of independent cultures that underlie state entities, and their determinants. There is no single world culture and cannot be. In total, the German philosopher has 8 cultures: Egyptian, Indian, Babylonian, Chinese, Apollo (Greco-Roman), magic (Byzantine-Arab), Faustian (Western European) and Mayan culture. The emerging Russian-Siberian culture is on its way. The age of each culture depends on its inner life cycle and spans about a thousand years. Completing its cycle, culture dies and passes into a state of civilization. The fundamental difference between culture and civilization lies in the fact that the latter acts as a synonym for soulless intellect, dead "extension", while the former is life, creative activity and development.

Toynbee's civilizational approach manifests itself in comprehending the socio-historical development of mankind in the spirit of the cycle of local civilizations. Following his predecessors, Toynbee denies the existence of a single history of mankind and recognizes only separate, unconnected, closed civilizations. At first, he counted 21 civilizations, and then limited their number to 13, excluding minor ones that did not take place or did not receive proper development. All existing and existing civilizations in their quantitative and value parameters are essentially equivalent and equal. Each of them goes through the same cycle of development - emergence, growth, breakdown and decomposition, as a result of which it perishes. Identical, in essence, are the social and other processes occurring in each civilization, which makes it possible to formulate some empirical laws of social development, on the basis of which it is possible to cognize and even predict its course. So, according to Toynbee, the driving force of social development is the "creative minority", or the "thinking elite", which, taking into account the conditions prevailing in society, makes the appropriate decisions and makes the rest of the population, which is, according to in essence, inert and incapable of creative original activity. The development and flourishing of civilization directly depends on the ability of the "creative minority" to serve as a kind of model for the inert majority and to carry it along with its intellectual, spiritual and administrative authority. If the “elite” turns out to be unable to solve in an optimal way the next socio-economic problem posed by the course of historical development, it turns from a “creative minority” into a dominant minority, which makes its decisions not through convictions, but by force. This situation leads to the weakening of the foundations of civilization, and subsequently to its death. In the twentieth century, according to Toynbee, only five major civilizations survived - Chinese, Indian, Islamic, Russian and Western.

This text is an introductory fragment.

51. Formational and civilizational typology of social

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4. Civilizational rift as a tool for cooperation of civilizations. I would like to end this section with a small maxim. A sharp increase in the complexity of living conditions, the development of scientific and technological progress, the need to overcome the emerging environmental difficulties

The study of the history of international relations and military history international relationships, story foreign policy and diplomacy of various states, especially in the capitalist era. In doing so, he proceeded from a deep understanding

SCIENTIFIC APPROACH Let me explain briefly what a scientific approach to the objects under study (scientific understanding) is. Scientific approach there is special way thinking and cognition of reality, qualitatively different from the philistine and ideological. It is needed more in professional science and more often

Chapter 2 Formation and civilizational approach to history: pro et contra 2.1. Formations or Civilizations? The experience of the spiritual assimilation of history accumulated by mankind, despite all the differences in worldview and methodological positions, reveals some common features.

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A civilizational approach to the study of history can be opposed to the formational approach. This approach dates back to the 18th century. Vivid adherents of this theory are M. Weber, O. Spengler, A. Toynbee, and others. In domestic science, his supporters were K.N. Leontiev, N. Ya. Danilevsky, P.A. Sorokin. The word “civilization” comes from the Latin “civis”, which means “urban, state, civil”.

From the point of view of this approach, the main structural unit is civilization. Initially, this term was used to denote a certain level of social development. The emergence of cities, writing, statehood, social stratification of society - all these were specific signs of civilization.

In a broad concept, civilization is mainly understood as high level development of social culture. For example, in Europe, during the Enlightenment, civilization was based on the improvement of laws, science, morals, philosophy. On the other hand, civilization is perceived as the last moment in the development of the culture of any society.

Civilization, as a whole social system, includes different elements, which are harmonized and closely interconnected. All elements of the system include the uniqueness of civilizations. This set of features is very robust. Under the influence of some internal and external influences, changes occur in civilization, but their basis, the inner core, remains constant. Cultural and historical types are relationships that have developed since ancient times, which have a certain territory, as well as they have characteristic features only.

Until now, adherents of this approach are arguing about the number of civilizations. N. Ya. Danilevsky identifies 13 distinctive civilizations, A. Toynbee - 6 types, O. Spengler - 8 types.

A number of positive aspects stand out in the civilizational approach.

• - The principles of this approach can be applied to the history of a particular country, or a group of them. This methodology has its own peculiarity, in that this approach is based on the study of the history of society, taking into account the individuality of regions and countries.
• - This theory assumes that history can be viewed as a multivariate, multi-line process.
• - This approach assumes unity and integrity human history... Civilizations as systems can be compared with each other. As a result of this approach, you can better understand the historical processes, and fix their individuality.
• - By highlighting certain criteria for the development of civilization, one can assess the level of development of countries, regions, peoples.
• - In the civilizational approach, the main role is assigned to the human spiritual, moral and intellectual factors. Of particular importance for the assessment and characteristics of civilization are mentality, religion, culture.

The main disadvantage of the methodology of the civilizational approach is the formlessness of the criteria for identifying the types of civilization. This selection of like-minded people of this approach is based on characteristics that should be generalized, but on the other hand, would allow us to note the features inherent in many societies. In the theory of N.Ya. Danilevsky, the cultural and historical types of civilization are distinguished into a combination of 4 basic elements: political, religious, socio-economic, cultural. Danilevsky believed that it was in Russia that the combination of these elements was realized.

This theory of Danilevsky pushes for the application of the principle of determinism in the form of domination. But the nature of this dominance has a subtle meaning.

Yu.K. Pletnikov was able to identify 4 civilizational types: philosophical and anthropological, general historical, technological, sociocultural.

• 1) Philosophical and anthropological model. This type is the basis of the civilizational approach. It allows you to more clearly imagine the uncompromising difference between civilizational and formational studies of historical activity. The formational approach, which originates from the cognitive form of the individual to the social, allows us to fully understand the historical type of society. Let's counter this approach - the civilizational approach. Which is reduced from the social to the individual, the expression of which becomes the human community. Civilization appears here as the vital activity of society, depending on the state of this sociality. Orientation on the study of the human world, and the person himself, is a requirement of the civilizational approach. So during restructuring Western countries Europe from the feudal to the capitalist system, the formational approach focuses on the change in property relations, the development of wage labor, manufacturing. However, the civilizational approach explains this approach as a revival of the ideas of outdated cyclicality and anthropologism.
• 2) General historical model. Civilization is a special type of a particular society or their community. In accordance with the meaning of this term, the main features of civilization are civil status, statehood, urban-type settlements. In public opinion, civilization is opposed to barbarism and savagery.
• 3) Technological model. The method of development and formation of civilization is the social technologies of reproduction and production of immediate life. Many people understand the word technology in a rather narrow sense, especially in a technical sense. But there is also a broader and deeper concept of the word technology, based on a spiritual view of life. So Toynbee drew attention to the etymology of this term that among the "tools" there are not only material, but also spiritual, worldview.
• 4) Sociocultural model. In the 20th century, there was a "interpenetration" of the terms culture and civilization. At the early stage of civilization, the concept of culture dominates. In the form of a synonym for culture, the concept of civilization is often presented, concretized through the concept of urban culture or the general classification of culture, its structural formations and object forms. This explanation of the relationship between culture and civilization has its limitations, and its reasons. In particular, civilization is compared not with culture as a whole, but with its rise or decline. For example, for O. Spengler, civilization is the most extreme and artificial state of culture. It carries a consequence, as the completion and outcome of culture. F. Braudel believes on the contrary that culture - civilization, which has not reached its social optimum, its maturity, and has not ensured its growth.

Civilization, as it was said earlier, is a special type of society, and culture, according to the historical process, represents all types of society, even primitive ones. Summarizing the statements of the American sociologist S. Huntington, we can conclude that since its inception, civilization has been the broadest historical community of cultural equivalence of people.

Civilization is an external behavioral state, and culture is an internal state of a person. Therefore, the values ​​of civilization and culture sometimes do not correspond to each other. One cannot fail to notice that in a class divided society, civilization is one, although the fruits of civilization are not available to everyone.

Theories of local civilizations are based on the fact that there are separate civilizations, large historical communities that have a certain territory and their own characteristics of cultural, political, socio-economic development.

Arnold Toynbee, one of the founders of the theory of local civilizations, believed that history is not a linear process. This is the process of life and death of civilizations not interconnected with each other in different parts of the Earth. Toynbee singled out local and major civilizations. The main civilizations (Babylonian, Sumerian, Hellenic, Hindu, Chinese, etc.) have left a pronounced mark in the history of mankind and influenced other civilizations in a secondary way. Local civilizations converge within the national framework, there are about 30 of them: Germanic, Russian, American, etc. The challenge thrown from outside civilization, Toynbee considered the main driving forces. The response to the challenge was the activity of talented, great people.

The cessation of development and the appearance of stagnation is caused by the fact that the creative minority is able to lead the inert majority, but the inert majority is able to absorb the energy of the minority. Thus, all civilizations go through stages: origin, growth, breakdown and decay, ending with the complete disappearance of civilization.

There are also some difficulties in assessing the types of civilization, when the main element of any type of civilization is mentality, mentality. Mentality is the general spiritual attitude of people of any country or region, an extremely stable structure of consciousness, a multitude of socio-psychological foundations of the beliefs of an individual and society. All this determines the world outlook of a person, as well as forms the subjective world of an individual. Based on these attitudes, a person works in all spheres of life - makes history. But alas, the spiritual, moral and intellectual structures of a person have rather vague outlines. history formational civilizational society

There are also some claims to the civilizational approach associated with the interpretation of the driving forces of the historical process, the meaning and direction of the development of history.

Thus, within the framework of the civilizational approach, comprehensive schemes are created that reflect the general laws of development for all civilizations.

It is based on the idea of ​​the uniqueness of social phenomena, the originality of the path traversed by individual peoples. From this point of view historical process there is a change in a number of civilizations that existed at different times in different regions of the planet and simultaneously exist at the present time. Today, more than 100 variants of the interpretation of the word "civilization" are known. From the Marxist-Leninist, long dominant point of view, this is a stage in historical development that follows savagery and barbarism. Today, researchers are inclined to believe that civilization is a qualitative specificity (originality of spiritual, material, social life) of a particular group of countries, peoples at a certain stage of development. "Civilization is a combination of spiritual, material and moral means with which a given community equips its member in its opposition outside world. "(M. Barg)

Any civilization is characterized by a specific social production technology and, to no less extent, by a culture corresponding to it. It is characterized by a certain philosophy, socially significant values, a generalized image of the world, a specific way of life with its own special life principle, the basis of which is the spirit of the people, its morality, conviction, which determine a certain attitude towards people and towards themselves. This main life principle unites people in a given civilization, ensures unity for a long period of history.

Thus, the civilizational approach provides answers to many questions. Together with the elements of the formation doctrine (about the development of mankind along the ascending line, the doctrine of class struggle, but not as an all-encompassing form of development, the primacy of economics over politics), it allows you to build a holistic historical picture.

In the XX century. the work of A. Toynbee (1889-1975) "Comprehension of history" was and remains a major work exploring the civilizational approach to the study of history. As a result of the analysis of numerous historical facts, he comes to the conclusion that there were 21 civilizations. A. Toynbee analyzes the genesis and decline of civilizations. The concept of civilization, in his opinion, is based on two main pillars: civilization is a set of people stable in time and space (territory) with a characteristic mode of production, first of all, and a kind of moral (spiritual) -cultural-religious-ethnic aspect, Secondly. These two pillars are of equal size. It is this equalness in the definition of civilization that provides the key to understanding many complex problems (for example, the national question).

As part of the study of this course, we are interested in the definition of the civilization of Russia, Western Europe, America, our eastern and southern neighbors. A. Toynbee distinguishes Western civilization, Orthodox Christian (Rus, Russia), Islamic, Chinese, Indian; satellite civilizations: Iranian, Korean, Japanese, Southeast Asian, Tibetan.

Civilization, its main types:

1. Progressive (Western) type of civilization development.

2. Type of cyclical development (eastern).

Progressive (Western) type of civilization

1. Linear view of time. The past is past, it cannot be changed, but lessons can be learned. The present is his active person actor... Future - a person can influence it.

2. The dominant ideal is forward movement. It goes in fits and starts and is accompanied by the destruction of the old system of values.

3. Mono-confessional - one religion.

4. Man is the central link of society, the master of the world. Lost connections with nature, man influences the world in their own interests.

5. Freedom of the individual is one of the basic concepts of Western society. The interests of the individual are in the foreground.

6. Developed private property.

7. High prestige of entrepreneurship. The market as a way of functioning of the economy, its regulator. High prestige of labor, its morality.

8. The presence of horizontal ties (cultural, social, social), independent of the government, ie. civil society. The rule of law over the law.

9. The form of government is democracy.

Cyclical development type (eastern)

1. A peculiar idea of ​​time. An essential part of the worldview is belief in an endless chain of death and rebirth. The future of humanity had to be earned by a righteous life. Such a theory gave rise to the idea of ​​the eternal movement of all living things in a closed cycle (everything once already happened and will ever repeat itself again). The famous fatalism of the East originates from here.

2. The development of the East is not in jerks, but appears as a solid line. The new here does not destroy the foundations of civilization, but fits into the old and dissolves in it. Sustainability is an important property of Eastern civilizations.

3. Multi-confessionalism. The religions of the East are, first of all, the paths of self-improvement, and through them the improvement of the surrounding world.

4. An important feature of Eastern society is its connection with nature. The man of the East does not lose touch with the environment. The world is perceived by him as a single whole, and man in this world is not the master, but only a component part.

5. In the East, there is no concept of freedom valued by Western civilization. The Eastern person is not free, but obliged.

He is obliged to observe traditions, rituals, a system of subordination, and everyone is bound by duty - from the sovereign to his subjects. Social roles strictly distributed, society has a vertical structure: ruler, bureaucracy, communities.

6. The state assumes the disposal of the property. Private property as a self-reproducing capital is not developed. The interests of social groups and communities are strong. The interests of the individual are subordinated to the collective. Large state property is possible.

7. Horizontal ties (cultural, ideological, social) are not developed. There is the rule of law over law.

8. The main form of government is despotism.

Black-moss peasants... Peasants living on "black" state land and exploited by the state. In the XVII century. they were in Pomorie and Siberia. Taxes were paid to the state. They could transfer their plots by inheritance on the condition that the owner fulfilled the tax. Together they owned rivers, pastures, forests. Were organized into communities. Closely connected with local settlements.

Economic development of Russia in the 17th century. XVII century- the time of the mass settlement of the Volga, the Cis-Urals, the beginning of the development of Siberia. The dominant farming system was threefields. Growth of commercial production of agricultural products. Crafts and small-scale commodity production are the dominant forms of industrial production. It was new in the 17th century. the use of hired labor. Manufactories arose and developed (the Money House, the Armory). Construction of copper, iron-smelting and ironworks. Textile factories. In total in the 17th century. there were about 30 manufactories.

Development of market relations and specialization of areas. The most important point foreign trade- Arkhangelsk. In 1653, the Customs Charter was issued, regulating domestic trade and introduced a single ruble duty. In 1667 the New Trade Charter was issued. It concerned foreign trade and was of a protectionist nature (compiled with the participation of A. Ordin-Nashchokin). Taxes under Mikhail Romanov have doubled. In 1646, 1677. house-to-house population censuses were carried out. In the years 1679-1681. the government abandoned the pososny (from the "plow") taxation and passed to the courtyard (from the "yard"). Growth of local land tenure. On the question of land funds the nobility again in the 17th century. collided with the church. The Church had to part with for the most part of their city possessions during the Posad reform of 1649-1652. The Code of 1649 forbade the church to acquire new lands.

Forms of feudal rent: natural quitrent, monetary quitrent, corvee (work on a lord's arable land and estate). Central governing bodies - orders. Local government bodies (the country was divided into about 250 counties) are represented by groups of counties (in the 19th century - provinces), which were led by voivods. Armed forces - the withering away of the old local noble army and the creation of soldiers, dragoons and reitar regiments on a permanent basis.

Ethnic system- a community of people united by attitude and behavior stereotypes.

Ethnogenesis- the process of the origin and development of ethnic groups (origin of peoples).

Ethnology (ethnography)- ethnology, a science that studies the everyday and cultural characteristics of peoples, problems of origin (ethnogenesis), settlement (ethnogeography) and the relationship of peoples.

Ethnos- a collective of people naturally formed on the basis of an original stereotype of behavior, existing as a system that opposes itself to other similar systems. Ethnicity is a stable social group of people represented by a tribe, nationality, nation. The term is close to the concept of "people" in the ethnographic sense. Sometimes it denotes several peoples (Slavic ethnos) or a part within the people.

Paganism- traditional beliefs of the ancient Slavs (pre-Christian), including mythology, magic, rituals. The mythological part included the ideas of the ancients about the origin of the universe, nature, man, animals, plants, facts past life and their relationship with each other. Magic - industrial, medical, etc. - determined the relationship of a particular person with the world around him. Ritualism was the connecting link and external manifestation paganism. With the adoption of Christianity, in the 10th century, in Russia, paganism was not completely supplanted in the 15th-16th centuries. had a parallel circulation among the people with Christianity. Some of its manifestations were noticed as early as the 19th-20th centuries.

With the development of the eastern territories from the Urals to the Pacific Ocean, the indigenous peoples of this region fell into Russia: the Tunguses, Tofalars, Evenks, etc. Their traditional beliefs from the 17th century. to the present time, one can qualify as paganism (both objectively and according to their own current assessments).

A prominent researcher of this phenomenon was B.A. Rybakov (Paganism of the ancient Slavs; Paganism Ancient Rus and other books).

Label- immunity privileged letters given by the Golden Horde to rulers under their control. Labels were issued to the princes of North-Eastern Russia for the great and appanage reign. Labels were also issued to Russian metropolitans for the exemption of the Russian Church from taxes and duties.

Trade fairs- regular trades; markets that met at a specific place and at a specific time. They appeared in Russia in the XII century. They developed especially in the 17th century, when a national market began to form in the country. The most famous fairs in the XVII - 1st floor. XIX centuries - Makarievskaya, Irbitskaya, Kontraktova (near Kiev), Kyakhtinskaya, Kharkovskie

The civilizational approach, in contrast to the formation approach, does not represent a single concept. In particular, modern social science does not even have a single definition of the concept of "civilization". However, despite the fact that the civilizational approach is presented by different scientific schools and directions using various criteria in defining the essence of civilization, this approach in generalized form can be designated as a concept that integrates in the concept of civilization as a single self-developing system all social and non-social components of the historical process, such as, for example:

• o natural and geographical habitat;
• o biological nature of man and psycho-physiological characteristics of ethnic groups;
• o economic and production activities;
• o the social structure of society (castes, plans, estates, classes) and the social interaction arising within it;
• o institutions of power and management;
• o the sphere of spiritual production, religious values, worldview (mentality);
• o interaction of local communities, etc.

In its most general form, the civilizational approach acts as an explanatory principle, the logical direction of which is opposite to that which we see in the formational approach. If in the structure of formations, in accordance with the principle of economic determinism, the phenomena of a spiritual order are derived from the economic basis, then in the structure of civilization, on the contrary, the economic characteristics of society can be derived from its spiritual sphere. Moreover, one of the basic foundations of a civilization that predetermines all its other characteristics, as a rule, is precisely the type of spiritual values ​​and the corresponding type of personality (mentality), which, in turn, are predetermined by the characteristics of a particular natural-geographical environment.

The father of the civilizational approach is considered to be the English historian A. Toynbee (1889-1975). However, in the 1960s. The works of the Arab historian and philosopher Ibn Khaldun (c. 1332 - c. 1402) became widely known, who came to brilliant conclusions that anticipated the views of the creators of the theory of civilization for a century. So, he argued that civilization is created by the division of labor between town and country, trade, exchange, while the development of society goes through certain historical cycles; the difference in the way of life of people, societies, he associated, mainly with the geographical environment of their habitat.

In all the variety of approaches to defining the essence and content of the concept of "civilization" used today in science, there are two main fundamentally different meanings of this concept:

• a) civilization as a stage phenomenon in world history;
• b) civilization as a local (regional) phenomenon in relation to humanity as a whole.

If the first approach (stadial-civilizational) is based on the recognition of the existence of a global civilization and, accordingly, a single global history for mankind as an object of scientific study, then the second approach (local-civilizational) is associated with the denial of global civilization and world history on the basis of statements about self-sufficient and the original nature of the development of closed local civilizations.

Sometimes it is generally accepted that the first approach, associated with the study of universal stadial regularities of global history, does not take into account regional differences at all, while the second approach, on the contrary, focuses only on local specifics. Such opposition of the two approaches as purely integrating and differentiating the historical process cannot be absolutized. On the one hand, any stage of world history proposed within the framework of the first approach in relation to individual regions can receive a specific specific embodiment, since the chronological framework and historical forms of world historical phenomena will always differ for different countries and peoples. On the other hand, within the framework of the second approach, universal schemes are created that reflect the stadial laws of development common for all civilizations.

Periodization of history based on the stage-civilizational approach

history civilization society

The concept of civilization as a state of society, embodying its peak achievements, appeared in ancient times, when this concept was used to determine the qualitative difference between ancient society and the barbarian environment. Later, in the Age of Enlightenment and in the 19th century, the concept of civilization began to be viewed as a universal highest stage in the historical development of all human societies according to the three-tier periodization of world history that was established at that time in science, suggesting a successive change of three stages: "savagery", "barbarism", "civilization". The concept of the ascending movement of society from one stage to another means the progressive build-up of its achievements in the field of economy, social self-organization and spiritual culture. In this regard, it is necessary to briefly consider the main substantive characteristics of these stages, reflecting the economic, social and spiritual evolution of society.

Signs of the "wildness" stage.

• · An appropriating economy based on activities that represent extensive interaction with nature: gathering and hunting.
• · Social self-organization in the form of small autonomous communities (several hundred people) with a consanguineous basis and a rigid gender-age stratification.
• Spiritual culture, the main and higher forms expressions of which are ritual and early forms of religion (totemism, fetishism, magic, animism), which is due to the dominance of the mythological worldview and the lack of individual consciousness.

Signs of the stage of "barbarism".

• · The economic structure of society is characterized by the transition from extensive interaction with nature to intensive, in connection with which appropriating economic activities (gathering and hunting) are combined with elements of an emerging production economy, which includes agriculture, cattle breeding, handicrafts and trade. An important feature is that the main source of the formation of material benefits for society is not internal, but external military activities aimed at redistributing the wealth of neighboring regions in their favor (military predatory and military trade expeditions, mercenary activities, control over the transit of international trade, etc. etc.).
• · Social self-organization is characterized by the transition from consanguineous to territorial-political foundations, the formation of large-scale inter-tribal associations linked by "allied-tributary" relations and, above all, a single fixed-mobilization system that provides the combined military power of all its participants. The most development of the form of such self-organization in the scientific literature is often called the "barbarian state". The historical feature of such a state is its internal fragility, due to the lack of established mechanisms for the succession of power and a self-sufficient diversified manufacturing economy.
• · Spiritual culture is characterized by the emergence of patriarchal family-clan ancestor cults, the cult of leaders, the cult of tribal gods and the formation on this basis of polytheism (paganism), the appearance of pictorial writing (pictography).

Signs of the stage of civilization.

• o Developed economic system, ensuring intensive interaction of society with natural environment and meaning the folding on a certain vast territory of a ramified social division of labor in the form of separation into independent specialized, types of economic activities of agriculture, cattle breeding, handicraft production, trade.
• o A stable institution of the state that significantly increases the efficiency of social self-organization, primarily due to fiscal and mobilization mechanisms that allow accumulating material and human resources over a vast territory and directing them to solving problems that are historically significant on the scale of the entire population of this territory.
• o Spiritual culture based on a developed written tradition, calendar chronology and individual consciousness. A significant role in the establishment of civilization is played by the emergence of a monotheistic religion based on the idea of ​​a single "creator god" who created all that exists living and inanimate and, as such, appeals to an individual with a "sacred text" in which it is established how she should use her own life and the surrounding world.
• o The city as a new type of settlement, performing the functions of the center of the economic, political and cultural life of society. For example, in antiquity and in the Middle Ages, a city is, first of all, a center of handicraft production and economic exchange (trade), a center of state power (a place for keeping the treasury, placing a military garrison and a prison), a center for the reproduction and preservation of spiritual culture (education system, library ).

In the second half of the 20th century, the above three-tier periodization of world history was further developed. In modern social science, it is presented in more detail in the following form:

• a) the pre-civilization period, which includes the stages of "savagery" and "barbarism" already discussed above;
• b) the period of civilization, in which agar, industrial and post-industrial stages are distinguished, or agar, industrial and post-industrial civilizations.

In order to better understand the logic of historical changes associated with the progressive movement of society from one civilizational stage to another, it is necessary to briefly consider their content.

Signs of an agrarian civilization:

• o creation by society of basic wealth in the field of agricultural production (agriculture, cattle breeding), which covers most of the population;
• o use in craft production of simple tools and technologies based on manual labor;
• o predominance of natural forms of economy;
• o empirical knowledge, the dominance of myths and religions;
• o preservation of the dominance of the collectivist consciousness and the related estate and patriarchal social self-organization.

Signs of an industrial civilization:

• o creation by society of the bulk of wealth in industrial production, where the bulk of the population is concentrated;
• o use in industrial production of machine technology and factory organization of labor;
• o transformation of mass market production into the basis of economic life;
• o rational perception of the world and the application of scientific knowledge, the central role of scientific and technical activities;
• o the transition from collectivist to individualized consciousness, the tendency to erase hereditary social differences, traditional class privileges and the establishment of equals civil rights and universal equality before the law.

Signs of post-industrial civilization:

• o the emergence of fundamentally new technologies - nuclear, information, space; transformation of the production and use of scientific, technical and other types of information into the main factor of social development;
• o Replacement of standardized mass production with a system of individual production, which is based on mental labor based on information and supertechnologies;
• o new system values ​​oriented towards decentralization, independence, diversity, individualism.

Within the framework of the civilizational approach, there is no single concept of transitions from one stage of civilizations to another. However, in science, some concepts have been developed regarding historically transitional eras. Thus, historians associate the formation of the prerequisites for the transition from the pre-civilization period to the period of civilization with the concept of the Neolithic revolution, which became the largest technological breakthrough of mankind, predetermining all of its subsequent development.

Conceptually, the most developed is the transition from an agrarian to an industrial civilization, which is usually denoted by the term "modernization". The historical process of this transition presupposes interdependent changes in the economic, political and spiritual structure of society:

• · The transition from manufacturing to industrial industry and the associated redistribution of the bulk of labor resources from the agricultural sector to the industrial sector in the course of urbanization, an increase in the literacy of the population;
• · Development of civil society, stimulating public and private initiatives in the economic, political and spiritual spheres;
• · Building the rule of law and institutions of parliamentary democracy that facilitate decision-making based on the participation of the population - political parties, parliament, suffrage by secret ballot;
• · Ensuring political, economic and legal conditions for entrepreneurial activity, first of all, observance of the principles of private ownership of the means of production, market competition and freedom of decision-making by business entities;
• · Secularization of public consciousness due to the formation of the social ideal of an autonomous personality and the ideology of nationalism.

The maturation of the historical prerequisites for the transition to the post-industrial stage of civilization is associated with the concept of the scientific and technological revolution.