Chronicles are ancient Russian writings, they described events by year, described the life of ordinary people and the princely court, rewrote legal documents, church texts. They covered different periods for the description. In some, the description came from biblical events, and in some, from the settlement of the land by the Slavs. The emergence of the state, the adoption of Christianity are described. They described all the historical events that took place in Ancient Rus... Each period described in them, of course, contains elements of ideology and propaganda of unification, descriptions of the merits of the princes. In addition to historical events, there is a description of the state policy, the way of life of the Slavs.
Unlike European chronicles, which are written in Latin, the Old Russian chronicles are written in the Old Russian language. What made them accessible, since in Ancient Russia there were many men and women who were taught to read and write, and there were also many very educated people.

Centers of chronicle writing in Ancient Rus

The annals used various methods of writing and writing. Here, for example, we used lists. These are rewritten copies of ancient chronicles. The changes were made for various reasons. If the prince changed, then it was necessary to glorify the deeds, to describe the events of past years in a new way, making changes, taking into account new events. It was also done to introduce religious aspects into the writing.

The concept of "vaults" or "summary annals" is also used. The Chronicle of Ancient Russia is a description of what is happening in chronology. The description takes place from the point of view of the ruling class, the whole process of chronicling was under the control of the authorities. Ideology played important role.

Kiev-Pechersky Monastery - the center of chronicle writing

This place has always been the main shrine and pride. It was here that they lived, clothed in monks, after the haircut, moving away from the bustle of the world and the blessings of life, completely surrendering themselves to the works of God, many of the brightest and worthy people... It is not only a shrine, but also a concentration of enlightenment. And later - the main concentration of the chronicle. It was within these walls that the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" was compiled and recorded for a long time. And the monk Nestor, who created this and a number of other significant works, lived here, having done many holy works, for 41 years. Together with other monks, he compiled a scripture about the Old Russian Church, described all the important church events and gave a description of its peculiarities in Russia. After his death, the incorruptible body was transferred and still rests in the cave of the Lavra.
The Vydubetsky Monastery also plays a special role. Within the walls of the Vydubets shrine, Jegumen Matthew was responsible for maintaining the Kiev vault, in which he chronized events in the period 1118-1198. Gave them a very accurate description and disclosure, without distorting the facts. This work is also one of the written monuments that plays an important role in the study of the history of our ancestors. It became a logical continuation of the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years".

The Kiev model of conduct formed the basis for the creation and application of principles in the writing of chronicles. This is where the rules and methods are based.

What were the names of the centers of chronicle writing in Ancient Rus:

Novgorod
Vladimir-Suzdal
Galicia-Volynsky

Novgorod Center for Chronicle Writing

Novgorod was largest city with a developed structure, therefore it became the center of chronicles. A description of the city can be seen in the "Tale of Ancient Years" for the year 859. In the XI century, Yaroslav the Wise, having ascended the throne, did not stay in Kiev, for 10 years his court spent in Novgorod. All this time the city was considered in fact the capital of Russia.

Compilation began in the 11th century with the writing of the first Novgorod Chronicle. Four of them were created in total, but the rest were written later. It included:

Brief description of "Russian Truth"
Brief description of the legal compendium
Description of ongoing events and processes

The vaults also led here, led by the mayor Ostromir. But history did not leave us any information about him.

Vladimir-Suzdal Center of Chronicle Writing

Vladimirsky temple - the place where they were engaged in the keeping of chronicles, monks did the work. The chronicles, the earliest of those that have come down to us, there are two of them, compiled from 1177-1193, describe the "Chronicler of Russian Pereyaslavl." They covered politics, church life, described life and the main events at the prince's court. Everything was presented and interpreted from the point of view of the church. Only, at the beginning of the XII, the chronicle began to be kept at the prince's court.

Galicia-Volyn Center of Chronicle Writing

For these lands, the confrontation between the princely and boyar power has always been a big problem. The chronicles were created at the court, therefore the main idea when writing was a strong and just princely power, and the complete opposite is the boyar. Perhaps the chronicle was written by vigilantes. They described events as separate fragments and descriptions. They stood on the side of the princely power, so the idea of fighting the boyars, a negative description of their desire for power, passes through the chronicle.

The Galicia-Volyn Chronicle refers to a later period, approximately 1201-1291. She entered the Ipatiev vault. Later, it was formalized in the form of a chronology, before it consisted of parts:

Galician Chronicle, compiled in Galicia in 1201-1261.
Volyn Chronicle, compiled in Volyn 1262-1291.

Main feature: church events and way of life were not described.

The first ancient Russian chronicle

The oldest Russian chronicle was called "The Tale of Bygone Years." Created in the 12th century. This is a consistent chronological description of events on the territory of Russia, the place of creation is the city of Kiev. It was redone an unspecified number of times, but no fundamental changes were made. In any case, this version is officially considered correct.
Contains descriptions up to 1137, but dates back to 852. Consists of a large number of articles of different nature. And in each there is a description of a specific year. The number of articles is the same as the number of years described. As a rule, each section begins with a phrase in the form: "In summer such and such" and then a description, extracts from important documents or in the form of legends, there is a description. It got its name from the phrase that appears at the beginning - "The Tale of Bygone Years".

The most ancient collection of chronicles, indicated by the most ancient Russian chronicle, "The Tale of Bygone Years", which managed to reach our days, was rewritten by the monk Lawrence and dates back to the XIV century. The original chronicle, unfortunately, has been lost forever. Now found late versions with various modifications by other authors.
On the this moment many versions of the history of the annals. If you believe them, then it was completed in 1037, and the author is still the monk Nestor. It was even rewritten under Nestor, because he made changes there for the sake of adding Christian ideology, and political additions were also made. Ideology even in those days was important tool to strengthen the princely power. Other versions say the date of creation is 1100. It is believed that the oldest Russian chronicle of the beginning of the XII century. is "The Tale of Bygone Years".

A distinctive feature is that it carries a structured description of events, does not try to interpret them in its own way. In the first place was the Will of God, its existence explained many events. The causal relationship was not interesting and was not reflected in the work. The genre of the Tale of Bygone Years was open, it could include anything, from various legends to weather reports. The chronicle had legal force along with the set of officially adopted documents.

Purpose of writing first Old Russian chronicle, called "The Tale of Bygone Years" - an elucidation of the roots of the Russian people, the philosophy of Christianity and a description of the valiant princely power. Begins with a story and discussion about the origin and settlement. The Russian people are shown as a descendant of Noah's son, Japheth. The basis to which most of them are subordinated consists of legends about the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, about wars and brave heroes. The ending consists of stories of battles from the obituaries of the princes.
"The Tale of Bygone Years" is the first important document, which described the history of Russia from its very beginning. She played a very important role in further historical research and is a very important source of knowledge about our ancestors.

Old Russian chroniclers

In our time, information about the chroniclers is collected bit by bit. The centers of their writing were, as a rule, temples. Chroniclers of Ancient Russia, names: Nestor and hegumen Matthew. These are some of the first chroniclers, and others later appeared. Initially, almost everywhere, chronicles were written only in temples, and later at princely courts. Unfortunately, nothing is known about the life of Jehumna Matthew, except that he was engaged in chronicle writing in the Vydubetsky monastery.

We know little more about Nestor the chronicler. As a seventeen-year-old teenager, he received monastic ordination from Theodosius of the Caves. He came to the monastery as a literate and educated person; there were many teachers in Kiev who could teach him. In addition to The Tale of Bygone Years, Nestor left us a lot of works, one of them: The Biography of Theodosius of the Caves, whom he often saw as a novice. In 1196, he witnessed the destruction of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra. In his last works, he raised the topic of the unity of Russia by Christianity. Death overtook the chronicler at the age of 65.

Conclusion

Chronicles, summary chronicles and annalistic lists have only partially survived to this day, which help in the study of the history of the ancient Slavs, political events, the way of life, both of the common people and the princely court.

IV. PECHERSKY MOVERS. BEGINNING OF BOOK FACILITIES AND LEGISLATION

(continuation)

The origin of the chronicle. - Sylvester Vydubetsky, its compiler. - A fable about the vocation of the Varangians. - Daniel the Pilgrim.

Laurentian list "Tale of Bygone Years"

By all indications, these two works, full of high dignity, brought Nestor the respect of his contemporaries and a lasting memory in posterity. Maybe he wrote something else that has not come down to us. In any case, his author's glory mainly explains the fact that subsequently such an important monument of Old Russian literature as the initial Russian chronicle began to be associated with his name; although she did not belong to him.

Our chronicles arose with the direct participation of the Russian princes themselves. It is known that already the son of the first Christian prince in Kiev, Yaroslav, was distinguished by his love for book enlightenment, gathered around him translators and scribes; forced to translate from Greek or rewrite ready-made Slavic-Bulgarian translations. Here one must understand the translations of Holy Scripture, the works of the Church Fathers, as well as Byzantine chronographs. Yaroslav's zeal for the successes of Russian literature is also evidenced by the patronage shown by him to such a gifted writer as Hilarion, who by his will was elevated to the rank of metropolitan. We repeated the same phenomenon as in Danube Bulgaria: Boris was baptized with all the Bulgarian land; and under his son, the book-lover Simeon, the flourishing of Bulgarian literary literature had already begun. Yaroslav's sons continued their father's work. By at least it is known that Svyatoslav Yaroslavich already had a significant book depository, from which came the collection known under his name. The clerk John, who copied this collection from the Bulgarian manuscript for Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, remarked about this to the prince in his afterword that he "fulfilled his duties with divine books." Some of their boyars also imitated the princes. From the same era, we have preserved a list of the Gospel, known under the name "Ostromirova". It was written by the order of Ostromir, who was a relative of the Grand Duke Izyaslav Yaroslavich and his mayor in Novgorod, as the copyist himself, some deacon Gregory, noted in the afterword. Especially close book education is Yaroslav's grandson Vladimir Monomakh, who himself was the author. Two of his works have come down to us: an eloquent letter to Oleg Svyatoslavich about his son Izyaslav, who fell in battle, and the famous "Precept", addressed to children. If both of these works were written with the help of one of the clergy close to him, in any case, a significant share of creativity here undoubtedly belongs to the prince himself. The participation of Vladimir Monomakh in the matter of Russian literature is most clearly confirmed by the fact that it was during his Kiev reign and, of course, not without his assistance, that our first annalistic collection was compiled. There is no doubt that the beginnings of chronicle writing in Russia date back to an earlier time and, in all likelihood, to the era of the book-lover Yaroslav. Brief notes about important events military, about the birth, about the death of princes, about the construction of the most important temples, about solar eclipses, about hunger, sea, etc. could be entered in the so-called. Easter tables. From these tables the chronicles in the West developed; so it was with us. The Easter tables came to us, of course, from Byzantium with their chronology according to indications, with a solar circle, etc. The mentioned notes, as in Western Europe, we were led by literate monks at the main episcopal churches or in the silence of monastic cells. With the development of literacy, in Russia itself there was a need to explain where the old Russian princes came from, and to perpetuate the deeds of modern princes: there was a need for historical literature. Translated Byzantine chronographs, or reviews world history, served as the closest models for our chronicle. Such a chronicle naturally had to appear in the center of the Russian land, near the main Russian prince, i.e. in the capital Kiev.

A few versts from the capital, further beyond the Pechersk monastery, on the steep bank of the Dnieper, was the Mikhailovsky monastery Vydubetsky, which was especially patronized Grand Duke Vsevolod Yaroslavich, father of Monomakh. By the way, he built a stone church of St. Michael. After Vsevolod, this monastery enjoyed special respect and patronage from his offspring. When Vladimir Monomakh established himself on the Kiev table, Sylvester was the abbot of the Vydubetsky monastery. It is to him that belongs to the beginning of our annals, or the so-called. The tale of bygone years, which undertook the task of telling "where the Russian people came from, who first reigned in Kiev and how the Russian land was established." The author of the "Tale", obviously, had a skill in the book business and a remarkable talent. He based his work on the Byzantine chronograph Georgiy Amartol, who lived in the 9th century, and his successors, having at hand the Slavic-Bulgarian translation of this chronograph. From here, Sylvester, by the way, borrowed the description different nations and the languages that populated the earth after the Flood and the Babylonian pandemonium. From here he took the news about the first attack of Russia on Constantinople in 860 and the attack of Igor in 941. The story is often adorned with texts and large extracts from Holy Scripture, from collections of Old Testament legends (i.e. from Paleia), from some church writers Greek (for example, Methodius of Patarsky and Mikhail Sinkela) and Russian writers (for example, Theodosius of the Caves), as well as from the works of the Slavic-Bulgarian (for example, from the Life of Cyril and Methodius), which testifies to the rather extensive reading of the author and his preparation for his business. The stories about the first times are filled with legends and fables, as is the case in the initial history of every nation; but the closer one gets to its time, the fuller, more reliable, more detailed the "Tale" becomes. Its reliability, of course, has been increasing since the time of the final establishment of Christianity in the Kiev land, especially since the time of Yaroslav, when the literacy began to develop in Russia and when the above-mentioned notes at the Easter tables began. Traces of these tables can be seen in the fact that the chronicler, telling the events by year, also designates those years, the incidents of which he did not know or in which nothing remarkable happened. For the XI century, the memories of old people still served him. Sylvester himself points to one of these old men, namely the Kiev boyar Yan Vyshatich, the same one who was a friend of Theodosius of the Caves and died in 1106, ninety years old. Citing the news of his death, the writer of the "Tale" notes: "Much that I heard from him I have entered into this chronicle." The history of the second half of the 11th century and the beginning of the 12th century took place before the very eyes of the author. His conscientious attitude to his work is evident from the fact that he tried to collect stories about this time first-hand, i.e. asked eyewitnesses and participants whenever possible. Such, for example, are the testimonies of some monk of the Caves about St. Abbot Theodosius, about the discovery and transfer of his relics from the cave to the Church of the Assumption, the story of some Vasily about the blindness and keeping under guard Vasilko Rostislavich, the stories of a noble Novgorodian Gyurata Rogovich about the northern lands, mentioned by Yan Vyshatich, etc.

Vladimir Monomakh, in all likelihood, not only encouraged the compilation of this chronicle, but, perhaps, himself helped the author by providing information and sources. This circumstance can explain, for example, the entry into the chronicle of his letter to Oleg Svyatoslavich and "Teachings" to his children, as well as the well-known agreements with the Greeks of Oleg, Igor and Svyatoslav - agreements, the Slavic translations of which were kept, of course, at the Kiev court. It is also possible that, not without his knowledge and approval, the well-known fable that Russia called from overseas three Varangian princes to establish order in its vast land was included in the first pages of the chronicle. When and how this fable was first brought into play will, of course, forever remain unknown; but its appearance in the second half of the XI or in the first XII century is sufficiently explained by the circumstances of that time. In history, the tendency of sovereigns is often found to derive their lineage from noble foreigners, from a princely tribe of another land, even from an insignificant tribe, but somehow made famous. This vain desire was probably not alien to the Russian princes of that time and, perhaps, to Monomakh himself. The idea of the Varangian origin of the Russian princely house could very naturally arise in those days when the glory of Norman exploits and conquests was still thundering in Europe; when the whole Kingdom of England became the prey of the Norman knights, and in southern Italy they founded a new kingdom, from where they smashed Byzantine empire; when in Russia memories of the close ties of Vladimir and Yaroslav with the Varangians, of the brave Varangian squads who fought at the head of their militias were still alive. Finally, such a thought most naturally could arise with the sons and grandchildren of the ambitious and intelligent Norman princess Ingigerda, the wife of Yaroslav. Perhaps this idea originally appeared not without the participation of the Russified sons or descendants of those Norman immigrants who really found their happiness in Russia. An example of such noble immigrants is Shimon, the nephew of that Varangian prince Yakun, who was an ally of Yaroslav in the war with Mstislav of Tmutarakansky. Expelled from the fatherland by his uncle, Shimon arrived in Russia with many of his fellow citizens, entered the Russian service and converted to Orthodoxy; later he became the first nobleman of Vsevolod Yaroslavich and helped with rich donations in the construction of the Pechersk Church of the Mother of God. And his son George under Monomakh was the governor in Rostov. In the era of the chronicler, the friendly and family ties of the Russian princely house with the Norman sovereigns still continued. Vladimir Monomakh himself had in his first marriage Gida, the daughter of the English king Harold; their eldest son Mstislav was married to Christina, daughter of the Swedish king Ing Stenkilson; two granddaughters of Vladimir were married to Scandinavian princes.

When Sylvester began his chronicle work, two and a half centuries had passed since the first attack of Russia on Constantinople, mentioned in the Chronicle of Amartolus. With this attack, the chronicler, in fact, begins his "Tale of Bygone Years". But, in accordance with the naive concepts and literary techniques of that era, he prefaced this historical event with several fables, as if explaining the previous fate of Russia. By the way, he tells a Kiev legend about three brothers Kyi, Shchek and Khoryv, who once reigned in the land of the meadows and founded Kiev; and next to it he put a legend, of which the first grain, in all likelihood, came from Novgorod - a legend about three Varangian brothers called from across the sea to the Novgorod land. This speculation, obviously, was not yet a generally known legend: we do not find a hint of it in any of the other works of Russian literature of that time. But afterwards it was especially for him. lucky. The legend expanded and changed, so that among the later compilers of the annals, it is not Rus and the Novgorod Slavs who call the Varangian princes to themselves, as was the case with the first chronicler, but the Slavs, Krivichi and Chud call the Varangians - Rus, i.e. already the entire great Russian people are numbered among the Varangians and comes to Russia under the guise of some kind of princely retinue who came from across the sea. Of course, the ignorance and negligence of Sylvester's later writers are to blame for such a distortion of the original legend. Sylvester finished his Tale in 1116. Vladimir Monomakh, obviously, was pleased with his work: two years later, he ordered him to be made bishop of his hereditary city of Pereyaslavl, where Sylvester died in 1123.

Almost at the same time as "The Tale of Bygone Years" by Abbot Sylvester, a work by another Russian Abbot, Daniel, was written, namely: "Walking to Jerusalem." We have seen that the pilgrimage, or the custom of going to worship holy places, arose in Russia after the establishment of the Christian religion. Already in the XI century, when Palestine was under the rule of the Seljuk Turks, Russian pilgrims penetrated there and endured oppression there along with other Christian pilgrims. Their number has increased since the beginning of the 12th century, when the Crusaders conquered the Holy Land and founded a kingdom there. Busy with fighting other Turks, i.e. with the Polovtsy, our princes did not participate in the crusades; nevertheless, the Russian people sympathized with the great movement of the Western peoples against the infidels. This sympathy was also reflected in Daniel's notes about his walk. He calls himself simply the Russian abbot, without naming his monastery; judging by some of his expressions, it is believed that he was from the Chernihiv region. Daniel was not alone in visiting the Holy Land; he mentions a whole squad of Russian pilgrims and calls some by their names. His entire composition breathes deep faith and reverence for the sacred objects that he was worthy to see. He speaks with praise of the King of Jerusalem Baldwin; who paid attention to the Russian abbot and allowed him to put a censer on the Holy Sepulcher for the Russian princes and for the entire Russian land. Among the princes whose names our abbot wrote down for prayer for their health in the Lavra of St. The Savvas, where he had a shelter, took the first place: Svyatopolk - Mikhail, Vladimir (Monomakh) - Vasily, Oleg - Mikhail and David Svyatoslavichi.

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Modern Russian historical science about ancient Russia is based on ancient chronicles written by Christian monks, while on handwritten copies that are not available in the originals. Can such sources be trusted in everything?

"The Tale of Bygone Years" is called the oldest chronicle collection, which is an integral part of most of the chronicles that have come down to us (and there are about 1,500 of them preserved). "Story" covers events up to 1113, but the earliest list was made in 1377 Monk Lawrence and his assistants at the direction of the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod prince Dmitry Konstantinovich.

It is not known where this chronicle was written, named Lavrentievskaya by the name of the creator: either in the Annunciation Monastery in Nizhny Novgorod, or in the Nativity Monastery of Vladimir. In our opinion, the second option looks more convincing, and not only because the capital of North-Eastern Russia moved from Rostov to Vladimir.

In the Vladimir Rozhdestvensky monastery, according to many experts, the Trinity and Resurrection Chronicles were born, the bishop of this monastery Simon was one of the authors of a wonderful work of Old Russian literature "Kiev-Pechersk Patericon"- a collection of stories about the life and exploits of the first Russian monks.

It remains only to guess what the list from the ancient text was in the Laurentian Chronicle, how much was added to it that was not in the original text, and how many losses it suffered - vas each customer of the new chronicle strove to adapt it to their interests and discredit opponents, which was quite natural in the conditions of feudal fragmentation and princely hostility.

The most significant gap occurs in the years 898-922. The events of the Tale of Bygone Years were continued in this chronicle by the events of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus until 1305, but there are also omissions here: from 1263 to 1283 and from 1288 to 1294. And this despite the fact that the events in Russia before baptism were clearly repugnant to the monks of the newly brought religion.

Another well-known chronicle - Ipatievskaya - is named after the Ipatiev Monastery in Kostroma, where it was discovered by our remarkable historian N.M. Karamzin. It is significant that it was found again not far from Rostov, which, along with Kiev and Novgorod, is considered the largest center of ancient Russian chronicle writing. The Ipatiev Chronicle is younger than Laurentian Chronicle - written in the 20s of the 15th century and, in addition to the "Tale of Bygone Years", includes records of events in Kievan Rus and Galicia-Volyn Rus.

Another chronicle worth paying attention to is the Radziwill, which first belonged to the Lithuanian prince Radziwill, then entered the Königsberg library and under Peter the Great, finally, to Russia. It is a copy of the 15th century from an older copy of the 13th century and tells about the events of Russian history from the settlement of the Slavs to 1206. It belongs to the Vladimir-Suzdal chronicles, in spirit it is close to Lavrentievskaya, but much richer in design - it contains 617 illustrations.

They are called a valuable source "for the study of material culture, political symbolism and art of Ancient Russia." Moreover, some miniatures are very mysterious - they do not correspond to the text (!!!), however, according to the researchers, they are more consistent with historical reality.

On this basis, it was assumed that the illustrations of the Radziwill Chronicle were made from another, more reliable chronicle, not subject to corrections by scribes. But we will dwell on this mysterious circumstance.

Now about the chronology adopted in antiquity. Firstly, you need to remember that before New Year began on September 1 and March 1, and only under Peter the Great, from 1700, on January 1. Secondly, the chronology was conducted from the biblical creation of the world, which took place before the birth of Christ by 5507, 5508, 5509 years - depending on which year, March or September, this event occurred, and in what month: before March 1 or until September 1 ... The translation of the ancient chronology into the modern is a laborious task, therefore special tables were compiled, which are used by historians.

It is believed that chronicle weather records begin in the "Tale of Bygone Years" from 6360 from the creation of the world, that is, from 852 from the birth of Christ. Translated into modern language this message reads like this: “In the summer of 6360, when Michael began to reign, the Russian land began to be nicknamed. We found out about this because under this tsar Russia came to Constantinople, as it is written about it in the Greek annals. That is why, from now on, let's put the numbers down. "

Thus, the chronicler, in fact, established with this phrase the year of the formation of Russia, which in itself seems to be a very dubious stretch. Moreover, starting from this date, he names a number of other initial dates of the chronicle, including, in the record for 862, Rostov first mentions. But does the first chronicle date correspond to the truth? How did the chronicler come to her? Maybe he used some Byzantine chronicle in which this event is mentioned?

Indeed, the Byzantine chronicles recorded the campaign of Russia against Constantinople under the emperor Michael III, but the date of this event is not named. To deduce it, the Russian chronicler was not too lazy to give the following calculation: “From Adam to the flood of 2242, and from the flood to Abraham, 1000 and 82 years, and from Abraham to the exodus of Moses, 430 years, and from the exodus of Moses to David, 600 years and 1 year , and from David to the captivity of Jerusalem 448 years, and from the captivity to Alexander the Great 318 years, and from Alexander to the Nativity of Christ 333 years, from the Nativity of Christ to Constantine 318 years, from Constantine to the aforementioned Michael 542 years. "

It would seem that this calculation looks so solid that checking it is a waste of time. However, historians were not too lazy - they added up the figures named by the chronicler and got not 6360, but 6314! An error of forty-four years, as a result of which it turns out that Russia went to Byzantium in 806. But it is known that Michael the Third became emperor in 842. So rack your brains, where is the mistake: either in the mathematical calculation, or did they mean another, earlier campaign of Rus against Byzantium?

But in any case, it is clear that the Tale of Bygone Years cannot be used as a reliable source when describing the initial history of Rus. And it’s not just a clearly erroneous chronology. The Tale of Bygone Years has long deserved to be looked at critically. And some self-minded researchers are already working in this direction. So, in the journal "Rus" (No. 3-97) was published an essay by K. Vorotny "Who and when created the Tale of Bygone Years?" uncomfortable questions, provides information that casts doubt on its "generally recognized" reliability. Let's name just a few such examples ...

Why is there no information about the calling of the Varangians to Russia - such an important historical event - in the European chronicles, where this fact would be sure to draw attention to? NI Kostomarov also noted another mysterious fact: in none of the surviving chronicles there is a mention of the struggle between Russia and Lithuania in the twelfth century - but this is clearly stated in the "Lay of Igor's Regiment." Why did our chronicles keep silent? It is logical to assume that at one time they were significantly edited.

In this respect, the fate of VN Tatishchev's "History of Russia from Ancient Times" is very characteristic. There is a number of evidences that after the death of the historian, it was significantly corrected by one of the founders of the Norman theory, G.F. Miller, under strange circumstances the ancient chronicles used by Tatishchev disappeared.

Later, his drafts were found, which contain the following phrase:

"About the old Russian princes, Nestor the monk was not good at knowing." This phrase alone makes us look at the Tale of Bygone Years in a new way, which is the basis for most of the chronicles that have come down to us. Is everything in it genuine, reliable, was it not deliberately destroyed those chronicles that contradicted the Norman theory? The real history of Ancient Russia is still unknown to us, it has to be restored literally bit by bit.

Italian historian Mavro Orbini in his book " Slavic kingdom", Published back in 1601, wrote:

"The Slavic clan is older than the pyramids and is so numerous that it has inhabited half the world." This statement is in clear contradiction with the history of the Slavs, set forth in the "Tale of Bygone Years."

In the work on his book, Orbini used almost three hundred sources, of which we know no more than twenty - the rest disappeared, disappeared, or maybe they were deliberately destroyed as undermining the foundations of Norman theory and calling into question the "Tale of Bygone Years".

Among other sources he used, Orbini mentions the extant chronicle history Russia, written by the Russian historian of the thirteenth century Jeremiah. (!!!) Many other early chronicles and works of our initial literature have also disappeared, which would help to answer where the Russian land came from.

Several years ago, for the first time in Russia, was published historical research"Sacral Russia" by Yuri Petrovich Mirolyubov - Russian émigré historian who died in 1970. He was the first to notice "Isenbeck boards" with the text of the now famous Veles book. In his work, Mirolyubov cites the observation of another emigrant - General Kurenkov, who found the following phrase in one English chronicle: "Our land is great and abundant, but there is no dress in it ... And they went across the sea to the strangers." That is, an almost literal coincidence with the phrase from the "Tale of Bygone Years"!

YP Mirolyubov made a very convincing assumption that this phrase got into our chronicles during the reign of Vladimir Monomakh, who was married to the daughter of the last Anglo-Saxon king Harald, whose army was defeated by William the Conqueror.

This phrase from the English chronicle, through his wife, fell into his hands, as Mirolyubov believed, and was used by Vladimir Monomakh to substantiate his claims to the Grand Duke's throne. Court chronicler Sylvester respectively "Corrected" Russian chronicle, laying the foundation stone in the history of Norman theory. Since that time, perhaps, everything in Russian history that contradicted the "vocation of the Varangians" was destroyed, persecuted, hiding in inaccessible hiding places.

Now let us turn directly to the chronicle record for the year 862, in which it is reported about the "vocation of the Varangians" and for the first time Rostov is mentioned, which in itself seems significant to us:

“In the summer of 6370. They drove the Varangians across the sea, and did not give them tribute, and began to dominate themselves. And there was no truth among them, and generation after generation rose up, and there was strife among them, and they began to fight with themselves. And they said to themselves: "Let us look for a prince who would rule over us and judge by right." And they went across the sea to the Varangians, to Russia. Those Varangians were called Rus in the same way as others are called Swedes, and some Normans and Angles, and still other Gotlandians - this is how these were called. The Chud, the Slavs, the Krivichi and the whole of Russia said: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no order in it. Come to reign and rule over us. "

It was from this record that the Norman theory of the origin of Russia sprouted, humiliating the dignity of the Russian people. But let's read it carefully. After all, it turns out an absurdity: the Novgorodians drove the Varangians across the sea, did not give them tribute - and immediately turn to them with a request to own them!

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Far Eastern State Academy of Arts

Department of Humanities

Chronicle in Russia

Performed:

Vera Nikulina

Vladivostok, 2012

Each person is concerned about the history of his people, its origins. The history of Russia is one of the richest stories in the world. "How did it start?" "Where are the origins?" are the most intriguing and vital questions for many of us. There are, of course, many answers, but the chronicle is a document of history that has survived to this day and has a complete narrative about our origins.

So, the chronicle became the topic that interested me.

In order to delve deeper into the study of this topic, I set a goal: to realize and be able to explain from the point of view of banal erudition what the chronicle is and its significance in the history of the Russian people.

To achieve the goal, I also formulated tasks:

Find and define the word "chronicle";

Explore and Consider historical meaning annals;

Explain the term "subjectivity" of the chronicle;

Consider aspects of changes in the chronicle from the X-XV centuries;

Find the argumentation for the comparison “Chronicle vs. Bible (Orthodox) ".

I also studied the literature of Moiseeva L.A., Buganov V.I., Danilevsky I.N., Eremina I.P., Likhachev D.S. These works are the richest source of information about the chronicle writing in Ancient Russia and the main support of my work.

I have also watched films about the formation of chronicle writing in Russia: the film "Chronicle of Nestor" 2006 by the Air Force Moscow and the film "Believe the chronicle. Princess she-wolf "1982 Lenfilm.

Chronicles - historical works of the XI-XVII centuries, in which the narration was carried out over the years. The story about the events of each year in the annals usually began with the words: "in the summer" - hence the name - chronicle. The words "chronicle" and "chronicler" are equivalent, but the compiler of such a work could also be called a chronicler. Usually, the chronicle set out Russian history from its beginning, sometimes the chronicles were opened biblical story and continued with antique, Byzantine and Russian. The chronicles played an important role in the ideological substantiation of the princely power in Ancient Rus and in the propaganda of the unity of the Russian lands. The chronicles contain significant material about the origin of the Eastern Slavs, about their state power, about the political relations of the Eastern Slavs among themselves and with other peoples and countries.

A characteristic feature of the chronicle is the faith of the chroniclers in the intervention of divine forces. New chronicles were usually compiled as collections of previous chronicles and various materials (historical stories, lives, epistles, etc.) and were concluded with records of contemporary events for the chronicler. Literary works at the same time they were used in the annals as sources. Traditions, epics, treaties, legislative acts, documents of the princely and church archives were also woven by the chronicler into the fabric of the narrative.

Rewriting the materials included in the chronicle, he strove to create a single narrative, subordinating it historical concept, corresponding to the interests of that political center where he wrote (the prince's court, the chancellery of the metropolitan, bishop, monastery, hut, etc.).

However, along with the official ideology, the annals reflected the views of their direct compilers.

The chronicles testify to the high patriotic consciousness of the Russian people in the 11th-17th centuries.

Great importance was attached to the compilation of the chronicles; they were consulted in political disputes, during diplomatic negotiations.

The mastery of historical narration has reached a high level of perfection in them.

At least 1500 lists of chronicles have survived. Many works of Old Russian literature have been preserved in their composition: "The Teaching" of Vladimir Monomakh, "The Legend of the Mamayev Massacre", "Walking Beyond the Three Seas" by Afanasy Nikitin, and others.

Ancient chronicles of the XI-XII centuries. survived only in later copies. The oldest list of chronicles with a date is the short chronicler of the Patriarch of Constantinople. Nikifor, supplemented by Russian articles up to 1278, contained in the Novgorod helmsman 1280.

The most famous of the earliest chronicle compilations that has come down to our time is "The Tale of Bygone Years". Its creator is considered Nestor - a monk of the Pechersk monastery in Kiev, who wrote his work approx. 1113.

In Kiev in the XII century. chronicle writing was carried out in the Kiev-Pechersky and Vydubitsky Mikhailovsky monasteries, as well as at the prince's court. Galicia-Volyn chronicle in the XII century. concentrated at the courts of the Galicia-Volyn princes and bishops. The South Russian chronicle was preserved in the Ipatiev Chronicle, which consists of the "Tale of Bygone Years", continued mainly by the Kiev news (ending 1200), and the Galicia-Volyn Chronicle (ending 1289-92).

In the Vladimir-Suzdal land, the main centers of chronicle writing were Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov and Pereyaslavl. A monument to this chronicle is the Laurentian Chronicle, which begins with the "Tale of Bygone Years" continued by the Vladimir-Suzdal news until 1305, as well as the Chronicler of Pereyaslavl-Suzdal (published in 1851) and the Radziwill Chronicle, decorated with a large number of drawings. Chronicle writing was greatly developed in Novgorod at the court of the archbishop, at monasteries and churches. The Mongol-Tatar invasion caused a temporary decline in the annals. In the XIV-XV centuries. it develops again. The largest centers of chronicle writing were Novgorod, Pskov, Rostov, Tver, Moscow. Ch. events of local importance (the birth and death of princes, elections of mayors and thousand in Novgorod and Pskov, military campaigns, battles, etc.), church events (the establishment and death of bishops, abbots of monasteries, the construction of churches, etc.), crop failure and famine , epidemics, remarkable natural phenomena, etc. Events that go beyond local interests are poorly reflected in such annals. Novgorod Chronicle XII-XV centuries. most fully represented by the Novgorod First Chronicle of the older and younger versions. The older, or earlier, edition has been preserved in the only Synodal parchment (harate) copy of the 13th-14th centuries; the younger edition reached the 15th century lists.

In Pskov, chronicle writing was associated with the mayor and the state chancellery at the Trinity Cathedral.

In Tver, chronicle writing developed at the court of Tver princes and bishops. The Tver collection and the Rogozhsky chronicler give an idea of it.

In Rostov, chronicle writing was conducted at the court of bishops, and the chronicles created in Rostov are reflected in a number of vaults, including in the Ermolinskaya chronicle of the end of the 15th century. New phenomena in the annals are noted in the 15th century. Russian state with the center in Moscow.

The policy of the Moscow leaders. princes found its reflection in the all-Russian annalistic vaults. The Trinity Chronicle of N.N. XV century. (disappeared in a fire in 1812) and the Simeon Chronicle in the list of the 16th century. The Trinity Chronicle ends in 1409. To compile it, various sources were involved: Novgorod, Tver, Pskov, Smolensk, etc.

The origin and political orientation of this chronicle are emphasized by the predominance of Moscow news and the general favorable assessment of the activities of the Moscow princes and metropolitans.

The all-Russian annals compiled in Smolensk in the late 15th century was the so-called: Chronicle of Abraham; Another set is the Suzdal Chronicle (late 15th century). The annalistic collection, based on the rich Novgorodian writing, "Sophia Vremennik", appeared in Novgorod. A large collection of chronicles appeared in Moscow in the late 15th - early 20th century. XVI centuries. Especially famous is the Resurrection Chronicle, ending in 1541 (the compilation of the main part of the chronicle dates back to 1534-37). It includes many official records. The same official records were included in the extensive Lviv Chronicle, which included "The Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom of the Tsar and Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich," until 1560. At the court of Ivan the Terrible in the 1540s-60s, the Facial Chronicle Code was created, that is, chronicle, including figures corresponding to the text. The first 3 volumes of the Obverse Collection are devoted to world history (based on the Chronograph and other works), the next 7 volumes - Russian history from 1114 to 1567. The last volume of the Obverse Collection, dedicated to the reign of Ivan the Terrible, was called the Royal Book.

The text of the Observatory is based on the earlier Nikon Chronicle, which was a huge compilation of various chronicles, stories, lives, etc.

In the XVI century. chronicle writing continued to develop not only in Moscow, but also in other cities. The most famous is the Vologda-Perm Chronicle. Chronicles were also kept in Novgorod and Pskov, in the Pechersky Monastery near Pskov.

In the XVI century. new types of historical narration appeared, already departing from the annalistic form - "The book of the power of the royal genealogy" and "The history of the Kazan kingdom". In the XVII century. there was a gradual withering away of the chronicle form of narration. At this time, local chronicles appeared, of which the Siberian chronicles are the most interesting. The beginning of their compilation refers to the 1st floor. XVII century Of these, the Stroganov Chronicle and the Esipov Chronicle are better known. In the end of the XVII century. the Tobolsk son of boyar S.U. Remezov compiled "Siberian History". In the XVII century. chronicles are included in the composition of the books of power and chronographs. The word "chronicle" continues to be used by tradition, even for such works that faintly resemble the Chronicles of the previous time. Such is the New Chronicler, who tells about the events of the end of the XVI - n. XVII centuries. (Polish-Swedish intervention and peasant war), and Chronicle of Many Rebellions. M.N. Tikhomirov. Orthodox worldview in the Russian chronicle tradition "Russian history amazes with its extraordinary consciousness and logical course of phenomena," wrote K.S. Aksakov more than 120 years ago. We often forget about this awareness, unwittingly blaspheming our ancestors, subjecting their high spirituality to our poverty. Meanwhile, history has brought to us numerous evidences of their harmonious worldview.

Among such testimonies, the chronicles are distinguished by a special historical completeness. In the development of Russian annals, it is customary to distinguish between three periods: the most ancient, regional and general Russian. Despite all the peculiarities of the Russian chronicle traditions, be it "The Tale of Bygone Years" in the edition of the Monk Nestor the Chronicler, the Novgorod chronicles with their laconicism and dryness of language, or Moscow annalistic vaults- there is no doubt about the common ideological basis that determines their views. Orthodoxy gave the people a firm sense of the community of their historical destiny even in the most difficult times of specific strife and Tatar rule. At the base of the Russian chronicles lies the famous "Tale of Bygone Years" - "there is the Russian land, who in Kiev began the first princes and where the Russian land began to eat." Having more than one edition, "The Tale" formed the basis of various local chronicles. As a separate monument, it has not survived, reaching us as part of the later chronicle vaults - Lavrentievsky (XIV century) and Ipatievsky (XV century). The story is an all-Russian annalistic compilation, compiled by 1113 in Kiev on the basis of the annalistic compilations of the 11th century. and other sources - presumably of Greek origin. Venerable Nestor the chronicler, the holy ascetic of Kiev-Pechersk, completed the work a year before his death. The chronicle was continued by another holy monk, St. Sylvester, abbot of the Vydubitsky Mikhailovsky monastery in Kiev. The Holy Church celebrates their memory, respectively, on October 27 and January 2 according to Art. Art. The "Tale" clearly shows the desire to give, if possible, comprehensive concepts about the course of world history. It begins with a biblical account of the creation of the world. Having thus declared his commitment to a Christian understanding of life, the author proceeds to the history of the Russian people. After the Babylonian pandemonium, when the peoples were divided, the Slavs stood out in the Japhethian tribe, and the Russian people among the Slavic tribes. Like everything in the created world, the course of Russian history is accomplished according to the will of God, the princes are the instruments of His will, virtue follows retribution, sins are the punishment of the Lord: glory, pestilence, cowardly, invasion of aliens. The details of everyday life do not interest the author of the chronicle. His thought soars above vain cares, with love dwelling on the deeds of the holy ascetics, the valor of Russian princes, the struggle against foreign tribesmen-infidels. But all this attracts the attention of the chronicler not in its bare historical "given", but as evidence of God's care for Russia.

In this series, the message about the visit to the Russian land of St. ap. Andrew the First-Called, who predicted the greatness of Kiev and the future flourishing of Orthodoxy in Russia. The factual reliability of this story is not verifiable, but its inner meaning is undeniable.

Russian Orthodoxy and the Russian people acquire the "first-called" apostolic dignity and purity of faith, which were subsequently confirmed by the equal-to-the-apostolic dignity of Saints Methodius and Cyril, the enlighteners of the Slavs, and the holy noble Prince Vladimir the Baptist. The message of the chronicle emphasizes the nature of the Baptism of Russia, tacitly assuming for it the corresponding religious duties, the duty of Orthodox church obedience. The author notes the voluntary nature of accepting the ministry. This is served by the famous story about the choice of faiths, when "Volodymer called his own bolyars and oldtsi grad". The chronicle does not cite any circumstances constraining the freedom of choice. "If you want to experience it much," the "bolyars and elders" say to Vladimir, "when you send, test someone ... service and how it serves God." The desire for a godly life, the desire to find the wrong path to God is the only motive for Vladimir. The story of the ambassadors who returned after the test of faith is extremely revealing. Muslims are rejected because "there is no joy in them, but sorrow", Catholics - because they have "no beauty in sight of anyone." This is, of course, not about worldly "fun" - Muslims have it no less than anyone else, and not about everyday "sadness". It is about a living religious experience received by ambassadors. They were looking for that joy, about which the Psalmist speaks: "Listen to the voice of my prayer, my King and my God ... And may all who trust in You rejoice forever; and you will dwell in them, and those who love Your name will boast in You." ...

This is the joy and joy of a God-pleasing life - quiet, familiar to every sincerely believing Orthodox person from a touching personal experience that cannot be explained in words. And among the Catholics, the ambassadors were amazed not by the lack of material beauty - although the beauty and splendor of the Catholic divine service can not be compared with the Orthodox. A healthy religious instinct unmistakably determined the inferiority of Catholicism, which cut itself off from the conciliar totality of the Church, from her blessed plenitude. "Behold what is good, or what is red, but the hedgehog of the life of the brethren together," testifies Holy Bible... The lack of this beauty was felt by the well-meaning ambassadors. The more striking for them was the contrast from the presence at the liturgy in the Cathedral of St. Sophia in Constantinople: "When they came to the Greeks and Vedosha, they serve their God." The service so amazed the Russians that they repeat in confusion: "And we do not know whether we were in heaven or on earth - for there is no such beauty on earth - only we know for sure that God is there with people ... And not we can forget the beauty of that one. " Their hearts seeking religious consolation received it in an unexpected fullness and compelling certainty. The outcome of the case was decided not by external economic considerations (the validity of which is highly doubtful), but by living religious experience, the abundant presence of which is confirmed by the entire subsequent history of the Russian people. A fairly complete picture of the views of contemporaries on the course of Russian life is given by the Laurentian Code. Here, for example, is a picture of the campaign of the Russian princes against the Polovtsians in 1184: "In the same summer, put God in the heart of a Russian prince, and all the Russian princes went to the Polovtsi." In the 70s of the XII century. the onslaught of the Polovtsians on the borders of the Russian principalities is increasing. The Russians are undertaking a series of retaliatory campaigns. Several local defeats of the Polovtsian troops followed, the result of which was their unification under the rule of one khan - Konchak. The military organization of the Polovtsians gains uniformity and harmony, armament is improved, throwing machines and "Greek fire" appear: Russia is face to face with the united strong army of the enemy. The Polovtsi, seeing their superiority, take successful circumstances as a sign of God's favor. "Behold, God has given away there are Russian princes and their regiments are in our hands." But God's providence is not related to considerations human wisdom: "the unreasonable gentiles are not leading," as if there is no courage, nor there are thoughts against God, "the chronicler complains. In the battle that has begun, the "runaway" Polovtsy "drive away with the wrath of God and the Holy Mother of God." The victory of the Russians is not the result of their own care: "The Lord made great salvation for our princes and their howls over our enemies. She was defeated by a foreigner" with God's help under the Protection of the Most Holy Theotokos, covering the God-loving Russian army with His care. And the Russians themselves are well aware of this: "And speaking Vladimir: this day like the Lord create, let us rejoice and rejoice in it. As the Lord delivered us from our enemies and conquered our enemies under our nose." And the Russian troops returned home after the victory, "glorifying God and the Holy Mother of God, the quick intercessor of the Christian clan." It is hardly possible to more fully and clearly express the view of Russian history as an area of the all-encompassing action of the Providence of God.

At the same time, the chronicler, as a church man, remained far from primitive fatalism. Acting in a defining way in history, the Providence of God at the same time does not suppress or limit the freedom of personal choice, which lies at the basis of a person's responsibility for his deeds and actions. The historical material against which the concept of the religious and moral conditionality of Russian life is asserted is in the annals of events associated with the changeable military happiness. The next year, after a successful campaign against the Polovtsy, committed by the combined forces of the princes, Igor Svyatoslavich, Prince of Novgorod-Seversky, organizes an unsuccessful independent raid. The famous "Lay of Igor's Campaign" gives an exceptional beauty and lyricism description of this campaign. Two stories have been preserved in the annals of Igor Svyatoslavich's campaign. One, more extensive and detailed, is in the Ipatiev Vault. Another, shorter - in Lavrentievsky. But even his succinct narration quite vividly reflects the chronicler's view of the freedom of human will as a force that determines the course of history on a par with the unthinkable Providence of God. This time, "our victories by the wrath of God," which found the Russian troops "for our sin." Aware of the failure of the campaign as a natural result of deviation from their religious duty, "sighing and lamentation spread" among the Russian soldiers, who recalled, but in the words of the chronicler, the words of the prophet Isaiah: "Lord, remember Ty in sorrow."

Sincere repentance was soon accepted by the merciful God, and "on small days, hurry up Prince Igor from the Polovtsian" - that is, from the captivity of the Polovtsian - "God will not leave the righteous in the hands of sinners, the eyes of the Lord on those who fear Him (look), and His ears in their prayer (they are well-obedient to their prayers). " "Behold, this sin has been done for our sake," the chronicler sums up, "but our sins and untruths have multiplied."

God admonishes those who sin with punishments, the virtuous, conscious of their duty and fulfilling it - he has mercy and keeps. God does not compel anyone: a person himself determines his fate, the people himself determines their history - this is how you can summarize the views of the chronicle. It remains only to be reverently amazed at the purity and freshness of the Orthodox worldview of the chroniclers and their heroes, looking at the world with childish faith, about which the Lord said: “I will praise Thee, Father, Lord of heaven and earth, that You have hidden this from the wise and reasonable and revealed to babies; Father, for such was Thy good pleasure "(Luke 10:21). Developing and complementing each other, Russian chroniclers strove to create an integral and consistent picture of their native history. In its entirety, this aspiration was reflected in the Moscow chronicle tradition, as it were, crowning the efforts of many generations of chroniclers. "The Great Russian Chronicler", the Trinity Chronicle, written under Metropolitan Cyprian, the collection of 1448 and other chronicles, which more and more came under the name of "all-Russian", despite the fact that they retained local characteristics, and were often written not in Moscow, represent as it were, the steps along which Russian self-awareness ascended to the comprehension of the unity of the religious fate of the people. Mid-16th century became the era of the greatest church-state triumph in Russia. The primordial Russian lands were brought together, the Kazan and Astrakhan kingdoms were annexed, the way to the east was opened - to Siberia and Central Asia. The next step was the opening of the western gate of the state - through Livonia.

All Russian life passed under the sign of reverent churchliness and inner religious concentration. It is not surprising, therefore, that it was during the reign of John IV Vasilyevich that a grandiose annalistic collection was created, reflecting a new understanding of Russian fate and its innermost meaning.

He described the entire history of mankind in the form of a succession of great kingdoms. In accordance with the importance attached to the completion of the work so important for the national identity, the annalistic collection received the most luxurious design. Its 10 volumes were written on the finest paper specially purchased from the royal stocks in France. The text was adorned with 15,000 skillfully executed miniatures depicting history "in faces", for which the collection received the name "Obverse vault". The last, tenth, volume of the collection was devoted to the reign of John Vasilyevich, covering the events from 1535 to 1567. When this last volume(known in science as " Synodal List"since it belonged to the library of the Holy Synod) was basically ready, it underwent significant editorial revisions. Someone's hand made numerous additions, insertions and corrections right on the illustrated sheets. On a new, purely rewritten copy, which entered science under the name" The Tsarist Book ", the same hand again made many new additions and amendments. It seems that the editor of the" Litsevoy Svod "was John IV himself, consciously and purposefully working to complete the" Russian ideology ".

Another collection of chronicles, which was supposed to create a coherent concept of Russian life on a par with the Litsevoy Svom, was the Book of Degrees. This enormous work was based on the idea that the entire Russian history from the time of the Baptism of Rus to the reign of Ivan the Terrible should appear in the form of seventeen degrees (chapters), each of which corresponds to the reign of one or another prince. Summarizing the main ideas of these vast chronicles, we can say that they boil down to two most important statements, which were destined to determine the course of all Russian life for centuries:

1. It is pleasing to God to entrust the preservation of the truths of Revelation, necessary for the salvation of people, to individual nations and kingdoms, chosen by Himself for reasons unknown to human reason. In Old Testament times, such a ministry was entrusted to Israel. In New Testament history, it was successively entrusted to three kingdoms. Initially, Rome, the capital of the world in the times of early Christianity, took over the ministry. Having fallen away into the heresy of Latinism, he was removed from the ministry successively bestowed on Orthodox Constantinople - the "second Rome" of the Middle Ages. Having encroached on the purity of the preserved faith due to selfish political calculations, by agreeing to union with heretics-Catholics (at the Florentine Council in 1439), Byzantium lost the gift of service, which passed to the "third Rome" of the last times - to Moscow, the capital of the Russian Orthodox kingdom. The Russian people are determined to preserve the truths of Orthodoxy "until the end of the century" - the second and glorious Coming of our Lord Jesus Christ. This is the meaning of his existence, this must be subordinated to all his aspirations and forces;

2. The service assumed by the Russian people requires an appropriate organization of the Church, society and state. The God-established form of existence of the Orthodox people is autocracy. The Tsar is the Anointed of God. He is not limited in his autocratic power by anything other than fulfilling the duties of a common service to all. The Gospel is the "constitution" of autocracy. The Orthodox Tsar is the personification of God's chosenness and God-bearing of the whole people, his prayer chairman and guardian angel.

The most famous chronicles ...

The Tale of Bygone Years - It is customary to associate the beginning of the Old Russian chronicle with a stable general text, which begins the overwhelming majority of the chronicles that have survived to our time. The text of the "Tale of Bygone Years" covers a long period - from ancient times to the beginning of the second decade of the 12th century. This is one of the most ancient annals, the text of which was preserved by the annalistic tradition. In different chronicles, the text of the Tale reaches different years: until 1110 (Lavrentievsky and related copies) or until 1118 (Ipatievsky and similar lists). This is usually associated with repeated editing of the Tale. The Chronicle, which is commonly called the Tale of Bygone Years, was created in 1112 by Nestor - presumably the author of two well-known hagiographic works - the Readings about Boris and Gleb and the Life of Theodosius of the Caves.

Chronicle codes preceding the Tale of Bygone Years: the Novgorod I Chronicle contains the text of the Chronicle Code, which preceded the Tale of Bygone Years. The tale of bygone years was preceded by a set that was proposed to be called the Primary. Based on the content and nature of the presentation of the chronicle, it was proposed to date it to 1096-1099. It was he who formed the basis of the Novgorod I Chronicle. Further study of the Primary Code, however, showed that it was based on some kind of work of a chronicle nature. From this we can conclude that the Primary Code was based on some kind of chronicle compiled between 977 and 1044. The most likely in this interval is considered to be 1037, under which the Tale contains praise to Prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich. The researcher suggested calling this hypothetical chronicle work the Most Ancient Code. The narrative in it had not yet been broken down into years and had a plot. The annual dates were introduced into it by the Kiev-Pechersk monk Nikoi the Great in the 70s of the 11th century. chronicle narration old Russian

Internal structure: "The Tale of Bygone Years" consists of an undated "introduction" and annual articles of varying volume, content and origin. These articles may be of the nature:

1) brief factual notes about a particular event;

2) an independent novel;

3) parts of a single narrative, spread over different years when timing the original text that did not have a weather grid;

4) "annual" articles of a complex composition.

The Lviv Chronicle is a collection of chronicles covering events from ancient times to 1560. Named after the publisher N.А. Lvov, who issued it in 1792. The chronicle is based on a set similar to the 2nd Sophia Chronicle (in part from the end of the XIV century to 1318) and the Ermola Chronicle. In the Lvov Chronicle there are some original Rostov-Suzdal news), the origin of which may be associated with one of the Rostov editions of the all-Russian metropolitan vaults.

The obverse annalistic vault is the annalistic vault of the 2nd floor. XVI century The creation of the vault lasted more than 3 decades with interruptions. It can be divided into 3 parts: 3 volumes of a chronograph containing a presentation of world history from the creation of the world to the 10th century, the chronicle of the "old years" (1114-1533) and the chronicle of the "new years" (1533-1567). V different time eminent statesmen (members of the Chosen Rada, Metropolitan Macarius, okolnichy A.F.Adashev, priest Sylvester, clerk I.M. Viskovaty, etc.) supervised the creation of the code. In 1570, work on the vault was discontinued.

The Laurentian Chronicle is a parchment manuscript containing a copy of the annalistic collection of 1305. The text begins with the "Tale of Bygone Years" and is brought up to the beginning of the XIV century. The manuscript lacks news for 898-922, 1263-1283 and 1288-1294. The vault 1305 was the grand ducal vault of Vladimir, compiled during the period when the prince of Tver was the great prince of vladimir. Mikhail Yaroslavich. It was based on the 1281 vault, supplemented with 1282 annalistic news. The manuscript was written by the monk Lavrenty at the Annunciation Monastery in Nizhny Novgorod or at the Vladimir Rozhdestvensky Monastery.

The chronicler of Pereyaslavl-Suzdal is a chronicle monument preserved in one manuscript of the 15th century. under the title "Chronicler of the Russian Tsars". The beginning of the Chronicler (before 907) is found in another list of the 15th century. But the Chronicler of Pereyaslavl-Suzdal itself covers the events of 1138-1214. The chronicle was compiled in 1216-1219 and is one of the oldest surviving ones. The Chronicler is based on the Vladimir Chronicle Code early XIII century, close to the Radziwill Chronicle. This code was revised in Pereslavl-Zalessky with the involvement of local and some other news.

The Chronicle of Abraham is an all-Russian annalistic collection; compiled in Smolensk at the end of the 15th century. It got its name from the scribe Abraham, who copied (1495) at the behest of the Smolensk Bishop Joseph Soltan, a large collection, which included this chronicle. The immediate source of the Chronicle of Abraham was the Pskov vault, which united the news of various chronicles (Novgorod 4th, Novgorod 5th, etc.). In the Chronicle of Abraham, the most interesting articles are 1446-1469 and legal articles (including Russian Truth), combined with the Chronicle of Abraham.

Chronicle of Nestor - written in the 2nd half of the 11th - early 12th centuries. monk of the Kiev Cave (Pechersk) Monastery Nestor, a chronicle filled with the patriotic ideas of Russian unity. It is considered a valuable historical monument of medieval Russia.

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