Scientific and technical discoveries of the 18th century. Scientific discoveries, inventions of the 18th century by Lion Feuchtwanger

In 1951 Lion Feuchtwanger described scientific achievements late 18th century:

“Over this five-year period, people have mastered a new large piece of their planet. The United States of America tried to attract immigrants and for this purpose established offices and societies that sold land on preferential terms - at a dollar an acre - and provided long-term credit. In the same five years Alexander von Humboldt undertook for scientific purposes a long journey through the Central and South America, as a result of which his "Cosmos" appeared and the world became more accessible for understanding and development.

In this five-year period all over the world, and above all in Europe, there have been many major political upheavals. The old monarchies collapsed, and new state formations arose in their place, larger private republics. Many spiritual domains have undergone secularization. The Pope was taken as a prisoner to France, and the Doge of Venice was betrothed to the sea for the last time. The French Republic won many battles on land, England many battles at sea; England, moreover, had completed her conquest of India. By the end of the century, England had entered into an alliance with almost all of Europe in order to prevent the further victorious march of the French Republic and the spread of advanced ideas.

In total, for the entire previous century, there were fewer wars and violence in the world than in this last five years, and in the same five years the German philosopher Immanuel Kant wrote his work "On Eternal Peace".

In private life, the military leaders of the divided world did not pay attention to the gossip of the mob and newspapers. In this five year Napoleon Bonaparte married Josephine Beauharnais, and Admiral Horace Nelson recognized and fell in love with Emma Hamilton.

In this five-year period, people threw off their former, heavy and solemn attire, and the line between the dress of the privileged and the lower class was erased. In France, influenced by the artist Jacques-Louis David simple clothes imitating ancient chitons - la merveilleuse - came into fashion; men began to wear long pants - pantaloons, and this suit quickly spread throughout Europe.

In this five-year period, in the Egyptian city of Rosetta, the Arab Reshid, a stone covered with inscriptions was found, which made it possible Champollion decipher the hieroglyphs. Antoine Condorcet laid the foundation for the collectivist-materialist philosophy of history. Pierre-Simon Laplace scientifically explained the origin of the planets. But a person who did not recognize that the world, as the Bible teaches, was created in six days - from September 28 to October 3, 3988 before Christmas Christ's, - such a person could not hold a public office either in the Spanish kingdom or in the Habsburg monarchy.

In this five year Goethe wrote in the "Venetian epigrams" that the most hated things in the world to him were "four: the smell of tobacco, bedbugs, garlic and the cross." And Thomas Paine worked on the textbook of rationalism, The Age of Reason. At the same time Schleiermacher wrote his book "Speeches on religion to educated people who despise it", Novalis- his Theodicy, and the French poet Chateaubriand became an adherent of romanticized Catholicism. The book "The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" Edward Gibbon with wit and cold irony portrayed the emergence of Christianity as a return to barbarism, was proclaimed the most significant historical work; but no less successful was the Apology, a book in which Bishop Richard Watson tried to object in restrained and elegant terms Gibbon and Payne.

In this five-year period, significant physical, chemical and biological discoveries were made, important discoveries were established and proved. sociological principles, but the discoverers and heralds of the new were met with hostility, ridiculed, thrown into prison; new scientific remedies were tested, but the clergy and healers cast out demons from sick people and healed with prayers and amulets.

Philosophizing statesmen and greedy businessmen, silent scientists and noisy market charlatans, power-hungry priests and serfs, artists responsive to everything beautiful, and stupid, bloodthirsty landsknechts - all lived together in a limited space, pushed, pushed each other, both smart and stupid, and those whose brains were hardly more developed than those of primitive man, and those whose brains generated thoughts that will become available to the majority only after another ice age; those who were marked by the Muses and receptive to everything beautiful, and those who were not touched by art embodied in word, sound or stone; energetic and active, inert and lazy - they all breathed the same air, touched each other, were in constant, close proximity. They loved and hated, waged wars, concluded treaties, broke them, waged new wars, concluded new treaties, tortured, burned, shredded their own kind, united and gave birth to children and only rarely understood each other.

A few smart, gifted people strived forward; a huge mass of the rest pulled back, poisoned them, fettered, killed, tried in every way to get rid of them. And, in spite of everything, these few gifted ones went forward, albeit with inconspicuous steps, resorting to all sorts of tricks, agreeing to all sorts of sacrifices, and they dragged the whole mass behind them and at least a little pulled forward.

Limited ambitious people, taking advantage of the inertia and stupidity of the majority, tried to preserve obsolete institutions. But the fresh air of the French Revolution blew over the world, and Napoleon, which ended the revolution, was preparing to put an end to what had already become unviable.

And no longer an idle sound -
Became an effective force
radiant idea
Brotherhood, equality, freedom.
Let it be sometimes inconspicuous,
Young and inconspicuous
But she, this idea,
Paving your way,
Became a tangible Fact, a vital law,
And by the end of five years,
To the very end of the century,
The world just got a little bigger
Mind, whose it was At its beginning.

Lion Feuchtwanger, Goya, or the Hard Path of Knowledge / Collected Works in 12 volumes, Volume 10, M., “ Fiction", 1967, p. 407-411.

Scientists of the 19th century are the creators of great innovations, discoveries and inventions. The 19th century gave us a lot famous people who completely changed the world. The 19th century brought us a technological revolution, electrification and great advances in medicine. Below is a list of some of the most important inventors and their inventions that made a huge impact on humanity that we enjoy even today.

Nikola Tesla - alternating current, electric motor, radio technology, remote control

If you start to explore the legacy of Nikola Tesla, then you can understand that he was one of the greatest inventors of the 19th and early 20th centuries and rightfully deserves the first place on this list. He was born on July 10, 1856, in Smiljan, Austrian Empire, in the family of the Serbian priest Milutin Tesla Orthodox Church. The father, as a Serbian Orthodox priest, initially instilled Nikola's interest in science. He was well versed in the mechanical devices of the time.

Nikola Tesla received a gymnasium education and later entered the Polytechnic University in Graz, Austria. He dropped out of school and went to Budapest, where he worked for a telegraph company and then became the chief electrician in Budapest at the automatic telephone exchange. In 1884 he began working for Edison, where he received a reward of $50,000 for engine improvements. Tesla then set up his own laboratory where he could experiment. He discovered the electron, x-rays, the rotating magnetic field, electrical resonance, cosmic radio waves and invented the wireless remote control, radio technology, the electric motor and many other things that changed the world.

Today he is the most famous scientist of the 19th century for his contributions to the construction of the Niagara Falls power plant and for his discovery and application of alternating current, which became the standard and is still used today. He died on January 7, 1943, in New York, USA.

The Industrial Revolution—an innovative period of the mid-18th–19th centuries—transferred people from a predominantly agrarian existence to a relatively urban lifestyle. And although we call this era "revolution", its name is somewhat misleading. This movement, which originated in the UK, was not a sudden explosion of achievement, but a series of successive breakthroughs that built on or fed off one another.

In the same way that dot-coms were an integral part of the 1990s, it was precisely what made this era unique. Without all these brilliant minds, many of the important goods and services we use today would simply not exist. Whether the inventor was a simple theoretical dreamer or a relentless creator of important things, this revolution has changed the lives of many people (including us).

For many of us, the phrase "put your calculators aside for the exam" will always cause anxiety, but such exams without calculators clearly demonstrate what Charles Babbage's life was like. The English inventor and mathematician was born in 1791, over time, his task was to study mathematical tables looking for mistakes. Such tables were typically used in astronomy, banking, and engineering, and because they were handwritten, they often contained errors. Babbage conceived the idea of ​​creating a calculator and eventually developed several models.

Of course, Babbage could not have modern computer components like transistors, so his computers were purely mechanical. They were surprisingly large, complex and difficult to build (none of Babbage's machines appeared during his lifetime). For example, difference engine "number one" could solve polynomials, but its design consisted of 25,000 separate parts with a total weight of 15 tons. Difference Engine "number two" was developed between 1847 and 1849 and was more elegant, along with comparable power and one third of the weight.

There was another construct that earned Babbage the title of father of modern computing, according to some people. In 1834, Babbage decided to create a machine that could be programmed. Like modern computers, Babbage's machine could store data for later use in other calculations and perform logical if-then operations. Babbage didn't do much with the design of the Analytical Engine, as he did with the Difference Engines, but to appreciate the grandeur of the former, one must know that it was so massive that it needed a steam engine to run.

Pneumatic tire

Like many inventions of this era, the pneumatic tire "stood on the shoulders of giants", entering a new wave of inventions. Thus, although John Dunlop is often credited with the invention of this important thing, before him, in 1839, Charles Goodyear patented the process of vulcanizing rubber.

Before Goodyear's experiments, rubber was a very new product with a relatively small range of applications, but this, due to its properties, changed very quickly. Vulcanization, in which rubber was hardened with sulfur and lead, created a stronger material suitable for the manufacturing process.

While rubber technology advanced rapidly, other related inventions of the Industrial Revolution developed much more slowly. Despite such advances as pedals and steerable wheels, bicycles remained more of a curiosity than a practical mode of transport for most of the 19th century, as they were bulky, their frames were heavy, and their wheels were rigid and difficult to maneuver.

Dunlop, a veterinarian by profession, noticed all these shortcomings when he watched his son struggle with the tricycle and decided to fix them. First he tried to wrap a garden hose in a ring and wrap it in liquid rubber. This option turned out to be significantly superior to existing tires made of leather and reinforced rubber. Very soon, Dunlop started making bicycle tires with the help of W. Edlin and Co., which later became the Dunlop Rubber Company. She quickly took over the market and greatly increased the production of bicycles. Shortly thereafter, the Dunlop Rubber Company began manufacturing rubber tires for another product of the Industrial Revolution, the automobile.

As with rubber, practical applications next paragraph long time was not obvious.

Inventions like the light bulb take up so many pages in the history book, but we're sure any practicing surgeon would call anesthesia the best product of the Industrial Revolution. Before its invention, the correction of any ailment was perhaps more painful than the ailment itself. One of the biggest problems associated with removing a tooth or limb was keeping the patient relaxed, often with the help of alcohol and opium. Today, of course, we can all thank anesthesia for the fact that few of us can remember the pain of surgery in general.

Nitrous oxide and ether were discovered in the early 1800s, but neither found much success. practical application except for useless stupefaction. Nitrous oxide was generally better known as laughing gas and was used to entertain audiences. During one such demonstration, young dentist Horace Wells saw someone inhale gas and injure his leg. When the man returned to his seat, Wells asked if the victim had been hurt and was told no. After that, the dentist decided to use laughing gas in his work, and volunteered to be the first test subject himself. The next day, Wells and Gardner Colton, the show's organizer, had already tested laughing gas in Wells' office. The gas worked great.

Shortly thereafter, ether was also tested as an anesthetic for long-term operations, although who really was behind the attraction of this remedy is not known for certain.

Many world-changing inventions emerged during the Industrial Revolution. The camera was not one of them. In fact, the forerunner of the camera, known as the camera obscura, dates back to the late 1500s.

However, saving camera shots was a problem for a long time, especially if you didn't have time to draw them. Then came Nicephore Niepce. In the 1820s, a Frenchman came up with the idea of ​​overlaying coated paper filled with light-sensitive chemicals onto an image projected by a camera obscura. Eight hours later, the world's first photograph appeared.

Realizing that eight hours was too long to pose in family portrait mode, Niepce joined forces with Louis Daguerre to improve his design, and it was Daguerre who continued Niepce's work after his death in 1833. The so-called daggerotype first aroused enthusiasm in the French Parliament, and then throughout the world. However, although the daguerreotype could produce very detailed images, they could not be replicated.

Daguerre's contemporary, William Henry Fox Talbot, also worked to improve photographic images in the 1830s and made the first negative through which light could shine on photographic paper and create a positive. Similar advances began to quickly find a place, and gradually the cameras were even able to capture moving objects, and the exposure time was reduced. A photo of a horse taken in 1877 put an end to the long-standing debate about whether all four of a horse's legs are off the ground during a gallop (yes). So the next time you take out your smartphone to take a picture, think for a second about the centuries of innovation that made that picture possible.

Phonograph

Nothing can fully replicate the experience of playing live with your favorite band. Not so long ago, live performances were generally the only way to listen to music. Thomas Edison changed this forever by developing a method for transcribing telegraph messages, which led him to the idea of ​​the phonograph. The idea is simple but beautiful: a recording needle extrudes grooves corresponding to the sound waves of music or speech into a rotating tin-plated cylinder, and another needle reproduces the original sound based on these grooves.

In contrast to Babbage and his decades of trying to see his designs come to fruition, Edison had his mechanic, John Cruesi, build the machine, and within 30 hours had a working prototype in his hands. But Edison didn't stop there. His first tin cylinders could only play music a few times, so Edison later replaced the tin with wax. By that time, the Edison phonograph was no longer the only one on the market, and over time, people began to abandon the Edison cylinders. The basic mechanism has been preserved and is used to this day. Not bad for a random invention.

steam engine

As we are fascinated by the roar of V8 engines and high-speed jets today, once upon a time, steam technology was incredible. In addition, it played a gigantic role in supporting the industrial revolution. Before this era, people used horses and carriages to get around, and the practice of mining in mines was very laborious and inefficient.

James Watt, a Scottish engineer, did not develop a steam engine, but he managed to make a more efficient version of one in the 1760s by adding a separate condenser. This changed the mining industry forever.

Initially, some inventors used a steam engine to pump and remove water from mines, which gave improved access to resources. As these engines gained popularity, engineers wondered how they could be improved. Watt's version of the steam engine didn't need to be cooled after every blow that came with mining at the time.

Others wondered: what if, instead of transporting raw materials, goods and people on a horse, use a steam-powered car? These thoughts inspired inventors to explore the potential of steam engines outside of the mining world. Watt's modification of the steam engine led to other developments in the Industrial Revolution, including the first steam locomotives and steam-powered ships.

The following invention is perhaps less well known, but is of definite importance.

Conservation

Open the kitchen cabinet and you will definitely find at least one useful invention of the industrial revolution. The same period that gave us the steam engine changed the way we store food.

After the spread of Great Britain to other parts of the world, inventions began to fuel the Industrial Revolution at a constant rate. For example, such a case occurred with a French chef and innovator named Nicolas Appert. Looking for ways to preserve food without losing flavor or freshness, Apper regularly experimented with containerized food storage. In the end, he came to the conclusion that the storage of food, coupled with drying or salt, does not lead to an improvement in palatability, but quite the opposite.

Upper thought that storing food in containers would be especially helpful for seafarers suffering from malnutrition at sea. The Frenchman worked on a boiling technique that involved placing food in a jar, sealing it, and then boiling it in water to create a vacuum seal. Apper achieved his goal by developing a special canning autoclave in the early 1800s. The basic concept has survived to this day.

Before the advent of smartphones and laptops, people still used the industrial revolution technology of the telegraph, albeit to a much lesser degree than before.

Through the electrical system of networks, the telegraph could transmit messages from one place to another over long distances. The recipient of the message had to interpret the markings produced by the machine in Morse code.

The first message was sent in 1844 by Samuel Morse, the inventor of the telegraph, and it accurately conveys his excitement. He transmitted "What is the Lord doing?" with the help of his new system, hinting that he discovered something large. And so it was. The Morse telegraph allowed people to communicate almost instantly over long distances.

Information transmitted via telegraph lines also greatly contributed to the development of the media and allowed governments to exchange information more quickly. The development of the telegraph even spawned the first news service, the Associated Press. After all, Morse's invention connected America to Europe - and it was very important at that time.

Spinning wheel "Jenny"

Whether it's socks or any of the fashionable items of clothing, it was the advances in the textile industry during the industrial revolution that made these things possible for the masses.

The Jenny spinning wheel, or Hargreaves spinning machine, contributed greatly to the development of this process. After the raw materials - cotton or wool - are collected, they need to be made into yarn, and often this work is very painstaking for people.

James Hargreaves solved this issue. Taking on a challenge from Britain's Royal Society of Arts, Hargreaves designed a device that far exceeded the competition's requirement to weave at least six yarns at a time. Hargreaves built a machine that gave out eight streams simultaneously, which dramatically increased the efficiency of this activity.

The device consisted of a spinning wheel that controlled the flow of material. At one end of the device was a rotating material, and at the other the threads were collected into yarn from under the hand wheel.

Roads and mines

Creating the infrastructure to support the Industrial Revolution was not easy. The demand for metals, including iron, spurred the industry to come up with more effective methods extraction and transportation of raw materials.

For several decades, iron companies have been supplying large quantities of iron to factories and manufacturing companies. To obtain cheap metal, mining companies supplied more cast iron than wrought iron. In addition, people began to use metallurgy or simply explore physical properties materials in industrial settings.

The massive mining of iron allowed other inventions of the Industrial Revolution to be mechanized. Without the metallurgical industry, they would not have developed railways, steam locomotives, there could be a stagnation in the development of transport and other industries.

Some inventions become obsolete, but some of them are so good that it only needs to be slightly modified.

1709: Piano
This musical instrument was invented by the Italian harpsichord maker Bartolomeo Cristofori, who from 1698 worked on the creation of a hammer mechanism for the harpsichord (the official date is about 1709). In 1711, the mechanism was described in detail by Scipio Maffei in the Venetian journal Giornale dei letterati d'Italia. The instrument was called "harpsichord with a quiet and loud sound" - pianoforte - and later the name of the piano was fixed.

1714: Mercury thermometer
It was Fahrenheit who gave the modern form to the thermometer and described his method of preparation in 1723. Initially, Fahrenheit filled his tubes with alcohol and only then switched to mercury. He set the zero of his scale at the temperature of a mixture of snow with ammonia or table salt, at the temperature of the "beginning of freezing of water" he showed 32 °, and the body temperature of a healthy person in the mouth or under the arm was 96 °.

1752: Lightning rod
It is believed that the lightning rod was invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1752, although there is evidence of the existence of structures with lightning rods before this date (for example, the Nevyansk tower, as well as Jacques Rom's kites).

1775: Combat submarine
The Turtle is the first combat submarine built in Connecticut in 1775. school teacher David Bushnell. The main purpose of the "Turtle" is the destruction of enemy ships by attaching to them explosive within the harbour.

1776: Stopwatch
References to the first "real" stopwatches appear in late XVII- early 18th century. Notably, mechanical stopwatches are still in use today.

1777: Circular saw
The inventors of the circular saw can be attributed to the Englishman Samuel Miller from Southampton, who received a patent in 1777 for a sawmill windmill. However, his application only mentions the shape of the saw, probably not his invention. It is widely believed that the circular saw was invented in the Netherlands in the 16th century, but no confirmation or evidence has been found.

1784: Bifocal lens
The first mention of bifocal lenses is attributed to Benjamin Franklin (1784), when he told his friend in a letter that he had come up with glasses in which one could perfectly see objects both near and at a distance.
Benjamin Franklin took two pairs of glasses, one for farsightedness and the other for nearsightedness, and cut the lenses of these glasses in half, then inserted them into the frame: half lenses for myopia on top, and halves for farsightedness on the bottom, so the first bifocals appeared.

1795: Canned food
Apper conducted experiments for a very long time that would allow food to be preserved in an edible state. It is believed that it was in 1795 that Nicolas Appert invented food preservation. Apper's invention replaced the usual methods of food storage in those years - drying and salting. Only in 1809, Appert, after conducting several experiments, sent a letter to the Minister of the Interior of France, in which he proposed a new method - canning. In 1810, Nicolas Appert received an award for the invention personally from the hands of Napoleon Bonaparte.

7th grade student

secondary school No. 8 named after A.G. Lomakin

Butenkov Mikhail

“The Development of Science and Technology in Russia in the First Half of the 18th Century”

Taganrog 2001

The beginning of the 18th century in Russia is associated with the reign of Emperor Peter I. In those years, the problem of training specialists in various fields became especially acute: shipbuilders, sailors, engineers, cartographers, architects, and many others. This required the development of science and educational institutions.

Peter's transformations in Russia provided a solid basis both for the development of a number of technical schools, and for the Academy of Sciences founded in 1724 in St. Petersburg. The development of industry required geographical and geological surveys. It was at the beginning of the 18th century that coal reserves were discovered in the Donetsk and Kuznetsk basins, oil in the Volga region.

Geographical studies were carried out in the South of Russia, in the basins of the Caspian and Aral Seas, in Siberia and Far East(region of the Kuril Islands). At the same time, the expedition of Vitus Bering took place, discovering and exploring the strait between Asia and America.

In the field of new branches of science, Russian scientists paid great attention to the study of electrical and magnetic phenomena. So, in 1804, the Russian physicist V.V. Petrov published in St. Petersburg a fundamental work on electrification and electric machines, which was considered one of the largest studies of the early 18th century. Later, experiments and the theory of electrical phenomena were developed by academicians M.V. Lomonosov and G.V. Richmann, who died as a result of experiments with atmospheric electricity.

At the same time, an observatory was founded in Moscow, where they were engaged in both the manufacture of optical instruments, and the calculations of astronomical phenomena and the popularization of astronomical knowledge, for example, in connection with the prediction of upcoming solar eclipses. During the Middle Ages, noticeable astronomical phenomena such as the appearance of comets and solar eclipses served as the basis for various prejudices. In addition, astronomical observations are essential for navigation and timing, especially in long voyages In the open sea.

In order to collect and study rare natural phenomena, at the beginning of the 18th century, the first natural science museum in Russia, the Kunstkamera of Peter I, was founded in St. Petersburg. In addition, at about the same time, the Botanical Garden was founded on the outskirts of St. Petersburg, where scientists studying various plant species worked.

In connection with geographical discoveries books on astronomy and geography are published and the development of typography necessary for science and technology is promoted. Printing houses are opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg, working with a new, simplified (civilian) font instead of the Old Slavonic font used in church literature. For the development of mathematics important role the fact that the old designations for numbers were replaced by Arabic numerals, which are still used today, played. The general outlines of the letters of the new fonts were personally chosen by Peter I and are similar to those in which this text is printed.

In 1702, the printed newspaper Vedomosti began to appear in Russia for the first time. Initially, the newspaper was sold in Moscow, later it began to be printed in St. Petersburg.

For such things as the construction of buildings and fortresses as well as ships, mapping, etc. a system was needed to train people who are now called engineers and technicians with a practical education. For their training, the Moscow Navigation School was founded, located in the so-called Sukharev Tower, where, in addition to teaching facilities, there was also the first observatory in Russia. Graduates of this school would now be called professors and sent to other schools to train future masters of industrial and maritime affairs. Subsequently, the School was transferred to St. Petersburg, where it became the basis of the Russian Naval Academy, where many famous naval commanders studied. Similar "Navigation" schools were opened in the port cities of Russia - Revel (Tallinn), Astrakhan, as well as in Narva and Novgorod.

In 1707, the first Medical School in Russia was founded in Moscow, then the second school was founded in St. Petersburg.

In connection with extensive geographical surveys, schools were also opened in Moscow (now they would say - higher schools) studying the series foreign languages, especially the languages ​​of Russia's eastern neighbors, which was necessary for the training of diplomats and travelers to these states.

During the reign of Peter I, in addition to the listed higher educational and scientific institutions, more than 40 general education and technical schools were founded in various cities of Russia. They taught literacy and arithmetic, as well as the basics of military and naval affairs (in special garrison schools).

In addition to students of Russian higher and technical schools, at the beginning of the 18th century it was widely accepted to send the children of nobles and statesmen to study at European universities and schools (naval, artillery, architectural, and so on).

The beginning of the XVIII century in Europe and in Russia was the time of the greatest development of hydropower. The main source of energy for the developing industry could no longer be the power of man or animals, as well as the changing wind. At that time, designs were developed for efficiently operating water wheels, including top-loading ones with a high efficiency, as well as reversible ones, i.e. to change the direction of rotation. If in the beginning the energy of water was used only in those places where natural conditions give a steep drop in the horizon, then during the heyday of hydropower, they learned how to build hydraulic structures (dams, canals, etc.), allowing you to build water wheels in any area, including the plains.

On the basis of energy sources associated with water wheels, large manufactories arose with a wide use of transmission mechanisms for driving technical devices - hammers in metallurgy, machine tools in metallurgy and textile production, etc., as well as the so-called "saw mills" for cutting and forest processing. This technique was especially developed in the Urals, where large reserves of minerals, and especially iron, were discovered. Its processing (forging, turning, drilling) required a large amount of energy. Under the leadership of the energetic merchants Demidovs in the Urals, where the mountainous terrain made it especially easy to build hydropower installations, large metallurgical and other factories were built with a large number of machine tools driven by belt drives from large water wheels. The first experiments on the development of steam power plants were also carried out there, which by the end of the 18th century had largely replaced water wheels.

In the field of transport technology, systems for the transportation of goods by water, both with the help of cargo ships and with the help of towed barges of large carrying capacity, were widely developed, for which channels were laid and locks were created, especially in the northern part of Russia, rich in water. Many projects of such structures were created under the leadership of Peter I, including the project of a canal between the Volga and the Don, which was subsequently built in the 20th century.

Significant progress in the first half of the 18th century was achieved by the art of fortification associated with the construction of fortresses and the structures necessary for them, such as towers, bridges, roads, water sources, etc. These structures were necessary in connection with the policy of Peter, expanding the borders Russian Empire and based on the developed lands garrisons and fortresses, for example, in the area of ​​Cape Taganrog, and later during the construction of St. Petersburg and the military points surrounding it.

In the era of Peter the Great, the types of science and technology associated with the military spheres also received significant development. This is the theory of firing from guns, the development of new designs of firearms, mine and sapper business, etc.

In particular, Peter I himself studied these applied disciplines in Austria and received an artillery diploma with honors. During his visit to England, he was personally interested in the work of the Academy of Sciences, the Mint, royal shipyards, etc., about the work of which he corresponded with Isaac Newton, who at that time was in charge of the Mint in London and developed new projects for high-speed ships for shipyards in England.

Around the same time, the British Academy of Sciences admitted one of Peter's associates, A.D. Menshikov, while the academicians were not stopped by the fact that the new academician never learned to write and read.

The most famous inventions of the 18th century

The 18th century gave humanity many remarkable inventions, including the pianoforte, the piston steam engine, and the alcohol thermometer. Many of the products created then are still used today.

The most popular inventions of the 18th century

Until now, when tuning many musical instruments, a tuning fork is used. This product was invented just in the XVIII century.

Its creator was John Shore, court trumpeter to the Queen of Great Britain. This invention was widely used not only by musicians, but also by singers. The tuning fork invented by Shore made it possible to achieve 420 vibrations per minute, and the sound it emitted was equated to the note la. Sparkling water, which is so loved by hundreds of thousands of people around the world, was invented in the 18th century. Before, water from special mineral springs was popular, but its transportation and storage were expensive, so scientists worked on developing a way to artificially carbonate water right at the factories. The result was achieved by Joseph Priestley, a chemist from England. The first production of carbonated water on an industrial scale was started by Jacob Schwepp. The first combat submarine, called the “turtle”, also appeared in the 18th century. Its inventor was David Bushnell, one of the teachers at Yale University. Several attempts to use the "turtle" to attack enemy ships failed miserably, but in the future, the developers significantly improved this invention.

Other interesting inventions of the XVIII century

The navigational tool that replaced the astrolabe in the 18th century - the sextant - was invented by two people at once, working independently of each other. We are talking about John Hadley, a mathematician from England, and Thomas Gadfrey, an American inventor. The sextant greatly simplified the process of determining coordinates while traveling. Another remarkable invention of the 18th century was made by Pieter van Muschenbroek and Coneus, his student. We are talking about a Leyden jar - an electrical capacitor. This invention greatly simplified the process of studying electricity and the level of conductivity of various materials. In addition, thanks to him, the first artificial electric spark was obtained. Now Leiden banks are rarely used, and then mainly for demonstrations, but do not forget that this invention allowed scientists to make many very useful discoveries. The 18th century was good time for flights. In this era, the Montgolfier brothers created the first Balloon, filled with hot air, and Jacques Charles is a similar apparatus, but already filled with hydrogen. In addition, it was in this century that the first parachute appeared. Its inventor was Louis-Sebastian Lenormand.

The 18th century (1700s) saw the first industrial revolution. The production of steam engines began, which replaced the work of animals. The 18th century was marked by inventions and machinery that replaced manual labor.

The 18th century also became part of the Age of Enlightenment, historical period, which is characterized by a transition from traditional religious sources power to science and rational thought.

As a result, the Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century led to the American Revolutionary War and the French Revolution. During this period, capitalism developed and more and more printed materials were distributed.

List of inventions and discoveries made in the 18th century

1701 - Jethro Tull invents the seeder.

1709 - Bartolomeo Cristofori invents the piano.

1711 - Englishman John Shore creates a tuning fork.

1712 - Thomas Newcomen patents the atmospheric steam engine.

1717 - Edmond Halley invents the diving bell.

1722 - Frenchman S. Hopfer patents a fire extinguisher.

1724 - Gabriel Fahrenheit invents the first mercury thermometer.

1733 - John Kay invents the flying shuttle.

1745 - E.G. von Kleist creates the Leyden jar, the first electrical capacitor.

1752 - Benjamin Franklin invents the lightning rod.

April 15, 1755 - Samuel Johnson publishes first dictionary in English after nine years of its composition. In the preface, Samuel Johnson wrote: "I am not so confused in lexicography as to forget that words are the daughters of the earth, and things are the sons of heaven."

1757 - John Campbell invents the sextant.

1758 - Dolland invents chromatic lenses.

1761 - Englishman John Harrison creates a nautical clock or marine chronometer to measure longitude.

1764 - James Hargreaves invents the spinning machine.

1767 - Joseph Priestley invents soda water.

1768 - Richard Arkwright patents the spinning machine.

1769 - James Watt creates an improved steam engine.

1774 - Georges Louis Lesage patents the electric telegraph.

1775 - Alexander Cummings invents the flush toilet. Jacques Perrier invents the steamboat.

1776 - David Bushnell designs a submarine.

1779 - Samuel Crompton invents the textile machine.

1780 - Benjamin Franklin creates bifocals. Gervinus invents the circular saw.

1783 - Louis Sebastian demonstrates the first parachute. Benjamin Hanks patents a watch with automatic winding. The Montgolfier brothers invent the hot air balloon.

Englishman Henry Court creates a steel roller for steel production.

1784 - Andrew Meikle invents the threshing machine. Joseph Brahma invents the fuse.

1785 - Edmund Cartwright invents the loom. Claude Berthollet creates chemical bleaching. Carl-August Coulomb invents the torsion balance. Jean Pierre Blanchard creates a parachute fit for use.

1786 - John Fitch builds a steamboat.

1789 - The guillotine is invented.

1790 - The United States issues its first patent to William Pollard of Philadelphia for a cotton spinning machine.

1791 - John Barber invents the gas turbine. The first bicycle appears in Scotland.

1792 - William Murdoch invents gas lighting. The first ambulance arrives.

1794 - Eli Whitney patents the cotton gin. Welshman Philip Vaughan invents ball bearings.

1795 - François Appert invents the food container.

1796 - Edward Jenner discovers smallpox vaccination.

1797 - Wittmore patents the carding machine. British inventor Henry Maudsley creates the first precision lathe.

1798 - The first soft drink is created. Alois Senefelder invents lithography.

1799 - Alessandro Volta invents the battery. Louis Robert designs a long wire paper machine for the production of paper sheets.

Lecture Search

The development of science and technology in the 18th century

The reforms of Peter I and especially the process of Europeanization of culture, which led, among other things, to acquaintance with the achievements of European science, establishing contact with its leading figures, had a huge impact on the formation and development of Russian science and technology. The result of this process was the creation in 1724-25. Imperial Academy of Sciences and Arts, which meant the organizational design of Russian science. Given the virtual absence of Russian scientists at that time, a large number of European scientists were invited to the Russian Academy, who played a large role in the development of Russian science. Of particular note are the Swiss mathematician and logician L. Euler, the Italian physicist A. Bernoulli, the German physicist and chemist G. Kraft, the geographer D. Messerschmidt, the historian and archivist G. Miller. The Academy regularly published collections of scientific papers, published, though irregularly, the journal of the Academy of Sciences. At the same time, the activities of scientists were fully funded by the state. All this contributed to the gradual formation of domestic scientific personnel, a significant gap in the scientific field from Europe (almost 600 years) was overcome in less than half a century.

Development natural sciences in Russia were associated, first of all, with the activities of the outstanding scientist and encyclopedist M.V. Lomonosov (1711 - 1765), who made discoveries in the field of physics, chemistry, astronomy (the law of conservation of energy, the molecular theory of the structure of matter, the "ethereal" theory of atmospheric electricity). The scientist proposed the design of a fast telescope, improved Newton's telescope, discovered the atmosphere of Venus, observing in May 1761 the passage of Venus across the solar disk. Scientific interests of M.V. Lomonosov extended to the sphere of the humanities, he formulated the anti-Norman theory of the origin Old Russian state. His literary abilities (he wrote poetry) also make one admire (“Ode on the Capture of Khotin”, etc.).

The development of the mining industry in Russia influenced the formation geology and mineralogy. V. Tatishchev and G. Genin compiled detailed descriptions minerals found on the territory of Russia (especially in the Urals and Siberia).

Continued development geographical knowledge. In 1725-27. the 1st Kamchatka expedition of V. Goering and A. Chirikov took place, during which the strait between Asia and America was discovered. During the 2nd Kamchatka expedition (1733-43), under the leadership of A. Chirikov, the development of Alaska began. As a result of these expeditions, S. Krasheninnikov compiled a “Description of the Kamchatka Land” with detailed maps of this region. It should also be noted the geographical expeditions of Messerschmidt to Siberia (1716-23), I. Falk to the Altai, Kh. Berdanes to the Kyrgyz steppes, V. Zuev to the Southern Black Sea region (1740-50s). All of them had a pan-European scientific significance.

Development humanitarian Sciences in the first half of the 18th century. It should be noted, first of all, the activities of G. Miller and V. Tatishchev in collecting annals and other archival sources. The publishing process has begun. At the same time, the first scientific work on national history analytical character P. Shafirov (“History Soviet war”), V. Tatishcheva (“History Ancient Russia”), G. Miller (articles on ancient Russian history). In addition, in the process of studying ancient chronicles, G. Miller formulated the Norman theory of the origin of the Old Russian state. M.V. made a reasoned criticism of it. Lomonosov, who formulated the anti-Norman theory.

Among the achievements of this period is the formation of a system secular education. The construction of the fleet, the regular army, the development of industry, the development of natural resources required qualified specialists. The Russian state needed infantry and naval officers, administrators, artisans, miners, breeders, merchants. In particular, with the opening in 1700 in Moscow in the Sukharev tower of the "navigation" school, the formation of technical education. A network of “numbered” schools arose (these are the lowest provincial mathematical schools). Founded back in 1687, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy turned into an all-Russian center for training personnel for the needs of the state and the church, since 1701 it became the Slavic-Latin Academy.

A system of military education began to take shape, in particular, a unified system of education was established in the army and navy, military educational institutions were opened (navigation, artillery, engineering schools). For the training of officers, special schools and the Naval Academy were created.

In the development of science and education of the second half of XVIII v. a significant contribution was made by the liberal educational initiatives of Catherine II, in particular the creation of an all-Russian state education system. Along with closed class educational institutions (Orphanages in Moscow and St. Petersburg, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens with a department for girls commercial school in Moscow, cadet corps) during the school reform of 1782-86. two-year general education small public schools were established in county districts and four-year main public schools in provincial towns. In the newly created schools, uniform start and end dates were introduced, a classroom lesson system was developed, methods of teaching disciplines and educational literature were developed, unified educational plans. New schools, together with closed gentry buildings, noble boarding schools and gymnasiums at Moscow University, formed the structure of secondary education in Russia. By the end of the XVIII century in Russia there were about 550 educational institutions with a total number of 60-70 thousand students, not counting home education.

At the same time, education in Russia, like all other spheres of the country's life, basically had a class character. Most of The population was not affected by the reform. In addition, the educational efforts of the Empress in the field of public education"sabotaged" both by local orders of public charity, which were supposed to find funds for their maintenance, and by the population itself. The parents of the students of the "main schools" (these were the children of the townspeople, merchants and soldiers) did not consider it necessary to bring their children to the end of the course, and the senior classes were almost empty. In small towns, the activities of schools depended on the generosity of local city councils. At first, quite a few small schools were opened, but soon thoughts began to be weighed down by the maintenance of schools - the number of schools began to decrease.

In the period under review (the second half of the 18th century), Russian science was finally taking shape, which was largely facilitated by the activities of the Russian Academy of Sciences and especially the opening in 1755 of Moscow University, which soon became the main scientific center of the country. A significant role in the opening of the university was played by the activities of M.V. Lomonosov. His students and colleagues (academicians) ─ astronomer S.Ya. Rumovsky, mathematician M.E. Golovin, geographers and ethnographers S.P. Krasheninnikov and I.I. Lepekhin, physicist G.V. Richman and others ─ enriched not only domestic but also world science with remarkable discoveries.

The development of science and the formation of scientific centers, the emergence of new directions in research activities scientists, in many respects, was associated with the support of the state. The state financed the activities of the Academy of Sciences, scientific expeditions, internships of Russian scientists abroad, graduation educational literature. For example, Catherine II provided significant assistance to Academician P.S. Palasu (1741-1811) in the publication of a comparative dictionary "of all languages ​​​​and dialects" in 1789. The Empress was not satisfied with the first edition and two years later 4 volumes were published, significantly revised and supplemented.

Among the outstanding achievements in the field of natural sciences in Russia in the period under review were the studies of the physicist V.V. Petrov (1761-1834), in particular, his discovery of the phenomenon of a voltaic arc (the first electrical phenomenon to be applied in practice). V. V. Petrov also carried out research on the chemical effect of current, electrical phenomena in gases, electrical conductivity and luminescence.

Physicist and mathematician S. Kotelnikov (1723-1806) studied the problems of balance and movement of bodies, introduced the concept of material strength. Between 1771 and 1797 he managed the Kunstkamera and collected the richest collection for the natural science museum.

Astronomical science was supplemented by the research of Academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences S. Rumovsky (1734-1812). He compiled the first consolidated catalog of astronomical points for Russia.

The appearance of the first in Russia “Mineralogical Dictionary” was due to the research of one of the students of M.V. Lomonosov Academician V. M. Severgin (1765-1826), who also developed domestic scientific terminology in chemistry, botany, and mineralogy. V.M. Severgin advocated the convergence of theory with practice, on his initiative, in 1804, the Technological Journal began to be published, in which works on science and technology were published not only by domestic but also foreign figures.

During this period, the foundations of Russian medicine were laid (N. Maksimovich ─ the founder of the Institute of Midwives, D.S. Samoylovich ─ a researcher of the plague and a developer of measures to combat its epidemic).

In the 60-70s. 18th century Academic expeditions were organized by P.S. Pallas, S.G. Gmelina, I.I. Lepekhin and others on the study of the nature and culture of the peoples of Russia, who left behind detailed descriptions of the Volga region, the Urals, and Siberia.

Along with the natural sciences, the humanities, which were formed under the clear influence of the ideology of the Enlightenment, received active development. In this regard, it is worth highlighting the activities of the Free economic society(1760-70s) to popularize economic knowledge. One of its most active participants A.T. Bolotov (1738-1833) conducted extensive research in the field of agronomy and political economy.

V historical science in addition to collecting sources and publishing them (many chronicles were published for the first time, as well as Russkaya Pravda), the first attempts are being made to create a generalizing work on Russian history(works by V.N. Tatishchev, I.N. Boltin, M.M. Shcherbatov). Many of their developments were subsequently used by N.M. Karamzin when writing the History of the Russian State.

Since the 1770s in Russia begins to form legal science associated with the name of the first Russian professor of law at Moscow University, S. Desnitsky, who was under the influence of the legal doctrines of the French Enlighteners.

In the 1780s-90s. political science knowledge is also being formed, three main directions of socio-political thought are emerging: liberal (expressed in the works of Chancellor N.I. Panin, his secretary and playwright D.I. Fonvizin, N.I. Novikov, one of the leaders of Russian Freemasons, philosophy of the Enlightenment, the publisher of about 1/3 of all Russian books in the 1780s), conservative (expressed in the works of M.M. democratic (the works of A.N. Radishchev, primarily “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” (1790) and the ode “Liberty”.).

In this way , in the second half of the XVIII century. Russian science finally took shape, Moscow University became the main scientific center. The evolution of scientific thought took place in line with general European trends under the influence of rationalism and the philosophy of the Enlightenment. Many studies and discoveries in the field of natural science laid the foundation for future discoveries.

The encyclopedic nature of the activities of the majority of Russian scientists also attracts attention. There is a convergence of science with practice, which, in particular, was expressed in the creation of the Dictionary of P.S. Pallas.

At the same time, from the side of the ruling system, science was considered as an integral element of Western, European culture, required element Europeanization of the country, something that is not ashamed to demonstrate to Europe. Many scientific discoveries simply turned out to be unclaimed by time. So, the electrometer invented by V. Richmann ─ the first device used for quantitative measurements of electrical quantities, became known only after his tragic death Richmann, the description of the device appeared in English magazines. Proposed by M.V. Lomonosov (different from Franklin) method of protecting buildings from lightning remained only in his report.

©2015-2018 poisk-ru.ru
All rights belong to their authors. This site does not claim authorship, but provides free use.
Copyright Violation and Personal Data Violation