How nature is protected. Nature protection and rational use of natural resources

Protection of Nature

Long ago, using plants and animals for their needs, people gradually began to notice that where there were in the past dense forests, they began to thin out, that the herds of wild game animals decreased, and some animals completely disappeared. The man also noticed that the deep rivers and springs began to grow shallow, and the fish are caught in the nets less and less. The birds left their usual nesting places, and their flocks thinned out. The network of ravines and gullies has noticeably increased, and destructive black storms and dry winds have become frequent guests. Loose sands approached the villages and covered their outskirts, often together with fields. Soil fertility decreased, and weeds appeared in the fields, oppressing crops and reducing the yield of cultivated plants.

Particularly strong changes have occurred around cities and emerging industrial centers... The air here became smoky and heavy from factory and factory chimneys. Near the mines, high waste heaps and dumps of waste rock appeared, as well as extensive dumps of various garbage and waste. The water in rivers and lakes has become polluted and undrinkable. Bogs and hummocks have appeared on the site of former meadows.

Only memory in the names of many villages, villages and individual tracts has been preserved about the former distribution of forests. So, on the territory of the European part of the USSR, you can often find many Borks and Borov, Dubkov and Berezovki, Lipovki and Lipok, where pine forests, oak forests and birch forests used to rustle, and there was also a linden. For example, near Leningrad there is a Pine Glade and the Sosnovka Park, but there are no pines in them for a long time, and they were replaced by thickets of alder or, at best, birch. There is an Aspen Grove near Leningrad, but without an aspen. Long ago, Berezovy Island disappeared, where multi-storey buildings now rise.

There are many places in Ukraine called Gai, but forests are not preserved everywhere. There is a Taiga station on the Trans-Siberian Railway, but the taiga vegetation has retreated from it for many kilometers.

The same can be said about the animal kingdom. There are Lebyazhye and Gusinye lakes, but swans and geese do not come to them everywhere. There are lakes Shchuchye and Okunevye, but they have not caught pike or perch for a long time. Losiniy Island and Losinoostrovskaya station have survived near Moscow, but moose are not found here as often as Muscovites remember.

And how many places with the names of Ravines and Ravines exist! Let us recall, for example, Sivtsev Vrazhek in Moscow or other Brazhki to the south-west of it. There are many places with the names Sukhoi Dol, Sukhodolye, Sukhoi Log, Sukhoi ford, Sukhaya or Dead Balka. There are quite a few villages that are sometimes called Wastelands, sometimes Bespilli or Zapolyi. Separate places with the eloquent names of Gary and Pozharischa, Pali and Palniki, as well as Penka and Penechka have also survived.

In all these names, the people have long noted the appearance of ravines, the disappearance of water, forest clearings, empty and unusable lands and conflagrations. All of them testify to how unceremoniously people treated nature, land and vegetation.

Similar changes in nature have taken place everywhere, in many countries of the world. V tropical countries instead of the former rich and peculiar forests, monotonous thickets of bamboo took their place. Many species of plants, previously widespread, were cut down and disappeared altogether. Vast savannas have appeared, overgrown with tough and thorny grass, where even thick-skinned buffaloes cannot always penetrate. The edges of the forests have become impenetrable jungle from the many vines and thickets of bushes. The hills and slopes of the mountains were covered with a dense network of cattle trails due to excessive grazing of domestic animals.

Over the past millennia, 2/3 of all forests on the globe have been cut down and burned. In historical time alone, over 500 million hectares have turned into deserts. Over the past century, 540 million hectares of forest have been cut down in America. The forests of Madagascar have disappeared on * / 10 of its territory. The once vast forests of the island of Cuba now occupy barely 8% of its land. The famous naturalist Alexander Humboldt has long said: "Forests precede man, deserts accompany him." People, F. Engels said, “never dreamed that by doing so they laid the foundation for the desolation of countries, depriving them ... of the centers of accumulation and preservation of moisture”.

The ever-accelerating rates of extinction of many species of flora and fauna are of great concern. According to far from complete data, over the past four centuries, mankind has lost 130 animal species, that is, an average of one species in three years. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 550 species of rare mammals and birds are on the verge of extinction, and up to 1000 species of animals are under threat of extermination.

The more often man began to face such impoverishment of the Earth, the deeper he began to learn the laws of nature, the more clearly he understood the danger of its further unfavorable changes.

Initially, people semi-consciously protected cultivated plots and individual plants from their neighbors. Then they began to think about some kind of patronage of nature as a source of food, and therefore life. There were rules governing the use of the wealth of nature. The ancient Egyptians, for example, believed that a person should not exterminate animals on their pastures and drive them out of "God's" lands. These actions were considered "sinful" and this was recorded in the "Book of the Dead", which contains the spells of the souls of the dead, presented to the judgment of the god Osiris.

In the famous Codex of the Babylonian king Hammurabi, who lived 17 centuries BC. e., rules were established for the protection of forests and their use, and ea illegal felling of a tree in someone else's garden was supposed to charge a certain and not small fee from the perpetrators.

In the middle ages in Western Europe sovereign feudal lords, interested in the preservation of game, issued bans on the use of hunting grounds. Violations were punished severely, up to the use of death penalty... For royal and royal hunts, forbidden and reserved lands appeared, specially protected.

In Russia, the regulation of hunting, for example, appeared during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, and it was recorded in the first written document - "Russian Truth".

During the heyday of the Lithuanian state, special codes of laws were created - the Lithuanian statutes, which played a positive role in the protection of nature. The statute took under the protection of swans, beavers, foxes and other animals. Stealing, killing, or destroying swan nests incurred a significant fine.

The preservation of forests was greatly facilitated by the cuttings, or cut forests, which were created along the southern border of the forest part of the Russian state. These notches were created to protect against nomads who raided Russia.

In slash forests, it was forbidden to cut trees for economic purposes on pain of severe punishment and even death. The main notches - Tula - were arranged under Ivan the Terrible, and they were corrected already under Mikhail Fedorovich. TO late XVII v. in connection with the advancement of the defensive line of the Russian state to the south, the grooves fell into disrepair, however, until the beginning of the 19th century. were protected as protected state forests. The Tula serifs have survived to this day, but the Kozelsk, Oryol, Ryazan and Kazan ones have not survived.

During the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676), many decrees were issued on hunting, its timing, prohibited zones, as well as violations of established rules, duties and punishments. The decree (1649) "On the conservation of the reserved forest in the Ryazan district" concerned not only hunting, but also the protection of the forest area.

If in pre-Petrine times the forest was cut down to obtain land for arable land, then under Peter I it began to be carefully guarded for shipbuilding. In 1701, Peter I announced a decree "On the uncleaning of forests for arable land along the rivers along which forests are driven to Moscow, and to clean them 30 miles higher." Two years later, oak, elm, elm, ash, elm and larch, as well as pine 12 vershoks (in diameter) were reserved. It was strictly forbidden to cut down forests with these species in a strip 50 versts from large rivers and 20 versts from small ones. Violation of the decree was charged up to 10 rubles per tree.

Peter T returned to the ban on cutting forests several times. He issued a number of decrees prohibiting the burning of forests, grazing goats and pigs in them, making timber (to reduce wood waste), and the tsar sent the so-called "knowledgeable people" to inspect the oak forests on the Volga. He banned the cutting of forests in Novgorod, Starorussky, Lutsk and Toropets districts.

In St. Petersburg, at the Admiralty Collegium, a Waldmeister Chancery was established, whose duties included monitoring the forests on the Volga, Sura, Kama, Oka, Dnieper, Western Dvina, Don, Lake Ladoga and Ilmen. For non-observance of the rules of protection, the right was given to fine the cutters, and to punish the violators by pulling out their nostrils and sending them to hard labor.

Peter I thought not only about the protection of forests, but also about planting them. He planted many trees personally, and on his initiative the Thorn Forest was planted in the Voronezh Region. Forest "expert" Fokel planted Lindulovskaya ship grove near St. Petersburg (near the village of Lindula), which to this day attracts the attention of visitors with huge larch trees, carefully numbered and protected to this day.

Peter I was interested not only in forests, but also in other useful plants. So, in 1702, the Apothecary Garden (now the Botanical Garden of Moscow University) was established in Moscow, and in 1714 - the Apothecary Garden in St. Petersburg, which became the predecessor of the Botanical Garden, and then the Botanical Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences. These pharmaceutical institutions were aimed at supplying the army and the population with medicinal raw materials, which were previously imported from abroad.

Widely understanding the need to preserve nature, Peter I was also interested in the preservation of fur-bearing animals, game and fish, "so that these trades develop." The predatory methods of hunting and fishing were prohibited. For illegal hunting, the "people of higher ranks" were charged 100 rubles, and the "lower ranks" were threatened with cruel, without mercy, punishment and exile to Azov "with their wives and children for eternal life."

Peter I took care of the preservation of the soil, and also paid much attention to protecting the banks of the canals from erosion and destruction. Peter I also envisaged the protection of water bodies, for which it was forbidden not only to cut wood on their banks, but also to cultivate it, "so that the rivers would not be littered with those chips and litter." It was also forbidden to take garbage into canals and rivers, as well as to dump ballast from ships, "in all harbors, rivers, roadsteads and marinas of the Russian state." For pollution of reservoirs with ballast, a fine was imposed "100 efimks for each shovel."

Mid XVIII and early XIX v. in Russia were marked by a significant weakening of the strictness of the protection of forests and, in part, animals. The previous rules were replaced by others and consigned to oblivion. The reserved ship forests were plundered, the protection of Belovezhskaya Pushcha was removed, and it itself became a place for the royal and grand ducal hunting. Catherine II distributed huge areas of land to her entourage, did not care about the forests, but on a whim she forbade "to catch nightingales in the vicinity of St. Petersburg and throughout Ingermanland." The landlords again began to cut forests for sowing grain crops and at the same time sell the cut down timber. V. I. Lenin called logging for sale the timber industry.

The harm done to forests, the vegetation cover in general and the animal world, which was the result of the predatory management of the developing capitalist economy, was gradually realized both in Russia and abroad. The best minds of scientists and public figures were concerned about the destruction of nature, and the most progressive specialists began to actively advocate for its protection. It has been proven that the predatory attitude towards nature entails such negative consequences that are difficult to predict. The realization that nature should not only be protected in its individual areas, but also properly use natural resources, came later. However, already at the end of the XIX century. the first reserves, sanctuaries and national parks appeared, which laid the foundation for nature protection.

One of the first reserves in Western Europe was the nature reserve in Ireland (1870), and after it reserves were organized in Iceland, Sweden and Switzerland. Reserves, natural parks and reserves appeared from the end of the 19th century near Singapore (1883), in South Africa, Australia, Canada and the USA, and at the very beginning of the XX century - in Burma, Central Africa, Argentina, Canada, USA and Australia.

The first protected area and natural zoo in Russia was the well-known Askania-Nova, formed in 1874 on the former estate of Falzfein. Later, a reserve arose on small islands. Baltic Sea(1910) and elsewhere.

All other currently operating protected areas were organized from 1918 to 1969 and in subsequent years both in the USSR and abroad.

In total, the total number of the largest reserves, national parks, protected areas and reserves in the world exceeded 720. In the USSR, there were 120 reserves and protected areas until 1963. For a short period of time, their number decreased, but then most of them were restored. Nowadays there are 86 protected areas, the number of which tends to increase.

In the first days after the October Socialist Revolution in Russia, many legislative measures were taken to protect nature and the correct use of its natural resources.

The first role in this important matter belongs to V.I. Lenin, who was keenly interested in preserving natural resources for the young Soviet state. All significant acts in this area were somehow associated with his name.

V.I.Lenin thought not only about the protection of nature, but also about the rational use of its resources, since he himself witnessed the pernicious influence of the capitalist economic system, when the people's wealth was plundered by various entrepreneurs who were striving only for personal gain and enrichment.

V. I. Lenin clearly expressed his thoughts on the rational use of natural resources on April 11, 1921 at a meeting of the communist faction of the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions. "In order to protect the sources of our raw materials," he said, "we must enforce and comply with scientific and technical rules."

The first decree "On Land", drawn up by Lenin himself, seized from frequent possession all the natural resources of the country and declared them the national property. In the "Basic Law on Forests", published in May 1918 and signed by V.I. Lenin and Ya. M. Sverdlov, a special task was set - to determine the norms of forest cover for each separate part of the Soviet state in order for local authorities to increase the area available forests. V.I.Lenin expressed concern for the forests in the decree on the forests of the Crimea, in which it was forbidden to grub up and turn into other lands the forests located on the slopes of the mountains, and, in addition, it was ordered to withdraw from circulation and return to the land authorities those plots of land on which the forest was cleared and uprooted without proper permission after 1917.

Without waiting for the stabilization of the economic situation in the country, V.I. At the same time, V.I.

The practice of so-called "loans from nature", that is, the excessive expenditure of its resources, was completely alien to V. I. Lenin. For example, he opposed the deforestation in Sokolniki (Moscow) for firewood, although at this time Moscow was experiencing fuel hunger. Thus, V.I. Lenin thought not only about the protection of nature, but also about its rational use, including the fact that nature should serve as a place of recreation for the population.

V. I. Lenin was the founder of the first reserves in the RSFSR. He signed a decree on the establishment of a large reserve AskaniaNova, which existed since 1874 in the form of a natural zoo. Thanks to Lenin (as mentioned above), the Astrakhan and Ilmensky (in the Urals) reserves arose. In particular, the use of the Ilmensky reserve for purely practical purposes was allowed only with the permission of the Council of People's Commissars. In 1921, Vladimir Ilyich signed a decree "On the Baikal State Reserves - Animal Farms", he was constantly interested in the course of their creation. In the same year, Lenin issued a decree "On the protection of natural monuments, gardens and parks."

Along with the basic principles of socialist land use, that is, an integrated approach to the use of natural resources and taking into account their multiple interrelationships and significance, Lenin also paid attention to individual issues. For example, the decree of the STiO (Council of Labor and Defense) "On the organization of collection and procurement of wild oilseeds and their use for processing in the oil industry" and the decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR "On the collection and culture of medicinal plants" contain provisions on the observance of certain rules for procurement of these natural products.

In the protection of nature, as in all human affairs, there are both large and small tasks. Understanding this perfectly well, V.I.

V.I. Lenin was closely interested in the rational use of meadows, the regulation of the use of hayfields and measures to improve the meadow economy. We learn about this, for example, from the decisions of the Council of People's Commissars.

V. I. Lenin's deeply thought-out thoughts and astonishing foresight in the protection and use of natural resources later served as the basis for the development of the entire system of those environmental protection measures that are now being implemented by the Soviet state.

Everyone knows that in 1960 the Law on Nature Protection of the RSFSR was adopted. According to his model, the corresponding laws were adopted in other republics of the USSR, as well as in certain territories and regions.

The issues of environmental protection and measures for its rational use were reflected in the Program of the CPSU, as well as the Directives of the 23rd Congress of the CPSU on the five-year plan for the development of the national economy of the USSR for 1966-1970.

Measures to improve the protection of natural resources and their use were considered even more clearly and broadly at the 24th Congress of the CPSU. In the Report of the Central Committee of the CPSU, made at the 24th Congress of the CPSU, General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU Leonid I. Brezhnev said:

“Taking measures to accelerate scientific and technological progress, it is necessary to do everything so that it is combined with the owner's attitude to natural resources, does not serve as a source of dangerous pollution of air and water, depletion of the land. The Party is raising its demands on planning, economic bodies and design organizations, on all our cadres for the design and construction of new and improvement of the work of existing enterprises from the point of view of environmental protection. Not only we, but also future generations should be able to enjoy all the benefits that the beautiful nature of our Motherland provides. We are ready to participate in collective international events for the protection of nature and the rational use of its resources. "

Finally, in 1972, at the fourth session of the USSR Supreme Soviet of the eighth convocation, measures were considered to further improve environmental protection and the rational use of natural resources, and a corresponding resolution was adopted.

All of these important documents emphasize the idea that natural resources are the most important component the material and technical base of communist construction, for the construction of communism is unthinkable without daily concern for the preservation and augmentation of natural resources. Therefore, nature conservation is the most important state task and the concern of the entire people. Experience shows that with an integrated approach to the use of natural resources, the intensive development of industry and agriculture should not lead to a catastrophic depletion of flora and fauna, if all the established rules are strictly observed.

Plants and vegetation cover as a whole are the most important part of the biosphere, that is, the sphere of life of plants, animals and humans. Transformation processes take place in the biosphere inorganic substance into organic, release of oxygen and ozone into the atmosphere, absorption from air and water carbon dioxide... Plants are an important part of the Earth's biological resources, used by humans and animals for a long time. The flora is a source of various natural raw materials, building materials, many chemicals, human food and feed for agricultural and wild animals and birds. Everywhere, in all zones and regions, useful plants are found - medicinal, food, decorative, etc. Of the 20 thousand species of higher plants that form the flora of the USSR, far from all have been studied. Wild flora of the USSR occupies most of the territory Soviet Union, and the share of cultivated plants - cereals, vegetables, fruits, melons and fodder - accounts for a relatively small part.

Although wild plants themselves renew themselves, nevertheless, as a result of human activity, many of them have reduced their distribution or are on the verge of destruction. Thus, the protection of natural flora is one of the most important tasks of our time. It is especially necessary to preserve forests as sources of timber, many food and feed products, habitats of useful animals and birds. Forests have water protection, water regulation (anti-erosion), soil protection and climatic importance. They serve as a place for people to rest and meet their cultural and aesthetic needs.

Besides forests, it is very important to conserve natural pastures for domestic and wild animals. It is known that pastures and hayfields provide up to 70% of feed - this base of animal husbandry.

The vegetation cover as a whole contains many other beneficial plants used in national economy(in industry), as well as in medicine. Procurers of plant raw materials should not use predatory methods of harvesting them, which impede the renewal of useful plants and cause destruction of the vegetation cover.

Nature protection also concerns the preservation of the most typical landscapes, picturesque corners of the recreation areas of workers and rare plants and animals with historical meaning... The entire set is also subject to protection. natural conditions, as well as forest park areas, air, rivers, lakes and other water sources, etc.

An important place among nature conservation measures is occupied by the creation of protected areas in the interests of existing and future generations of people.

The protection of nature and the rational use of its resources is a multifaceted task. It is important not only within the framework of one state, but for the entire globe as a whole. Especially harmful is the opinion that a person must “fight with nature” and “remake” it. Even F. Engels correctly said: “Let us not, however, delude ourselves too much with our victories over nature. For each such victory, she takes revenge on us. Each of these victories has, however, first of all the consequences that we expected, but second and third, they are completely different, unforeseen consequences, which very often destroys the meaning of the former. "

As it was shown above, the principles of rational use of natural resources are being developed all over the world. It is not without reason that many international organizations are closely interested in this matter and are trying to restore order on Earth in the interests of future generations of mankind. All these measures can be carried out most effectively in the USSR and other socialist countries, where the state is guarding nature protection.

"Nature protection" is a very capacious concept, which concerns not only vegetation, fauna, soil and water, but also the activities of people who build cities and industrial centers; cutting down forests and utilizing a variety of minerals; changing the course of rivers and their level; dumping industrial waste into the water and covering the ground with rock heaps; emitting harmful gases, soot from factories and plants into the atmosphere; using many chemicals in agriculture (herbicides, pesticides, arboricides and defolianil); littering the ground with wastes of plastic substances and construction waste, etc.

Protecting nature means knowing the laws of its development and interaction with humans. Going to the future, a person must conclude an alliance with nature and preserve it everywhere. First of all, it is necessary to protect the vegetation cover of the Earth - our green friend.

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Protection of Nature- a set of measures for the preservation, rational use and restoration of the Earth's natural resources, including the species diversity of flora and fauna, the wealth of the subsoil, the purity of the waters and the atmosphere.

The role of nature in the life of human society. For man, nature is a living environment and a source of existence. How biological species, a person needs a certain composition and 4 pressure of atmospheric air, pure natural water with salts dissolved in it, plants and animals, earth temperature. The optimal environment for humans is that natural state of nature, which is maintained by the normally proceeding processes of the circulation of substances and energy flows.

As a biological species, man by his life activity influences the natural environment no more than other living organisms. However, this influence is incomparable with the enormous influence that humanity has on nature through its work. The transforming influence of human society on nature is inevitable, it increases with the development of society, an increase in the number and mass of substances involved in economic circulation.
The changes introduced by man have now acquired such a large scale that they have turned into a threat of disruption of the balance existing in nature and an obstacle to the further development of productive forces. For a long time, people looked at nature as an inexhaustible source of material goods necessary for them. However, faced with the negative consequences of their impact on nature, they gradually came to the conviction of the need for its rational use and protection.
Nature protection is a system of scientifically grounded international, state and public measures aimed at rational use, reproduction and protection of natural resources, at protecting the natural environment from pollution and destruction in the interests of existing and future generations of people.

The main goal of nature conservation is to create favorable conditions for the life of present and future generations of people, the development of production, science and culture of all peoples inhabiting our planet.

Exhaustible and inexhaustible natural resources. Natural objects and phenomena that a person uses in the labor process are called natural resources. These include atmospheric air, water, soil, minerals, solar radiation, climate, vegetation, animal world... According to the degree of their depletion, they are divided into exhaustible and inexhaustible

Exhaustible resources, in turn, are subdivided into renewable and non-renewable. Non-renewable resources include those resources that are not revived or renewed hundreds of times slower than they are expended.
These include petroleum, coal, metal ores, and most other minerals. The reserves of these resources are limited, their protection is reduced to careful spending.
Renewable natural resources - soil, vegetation, wildlife, as well as mineral salts such as Glauber's and common salt, which are deposited in lakes and sea lagoons. These resources are constantly restored if the necessary conditions are preserved, and the rate of use does not exceed the rate of natural revival. Resources are restored at different rates: animals - several years, forests - 60 - 80 years, and soils that have lost fertility - over several millennia. Exceeding the rate of expenditure over the rate of reproduction leads to depletion and complete disappearance of the resource.
Inexhaustible resources include water, climate and space. The total reserves of water on the planet are inexhaustible. They are based on salt water.
The world's oceans, but they are still little used. In some areas, the waters of the seas and oceans are polluted with oil, wastes from household and industrial enterprises, the removal of fertilizers and pesticides from the fields, which worsens the living conditions for marine plants and animals. Fresh water, necessary for humans, is an exhaustible natural resource. The problem of fresh water is aggravated every year due to the shallowing of rivers and lakes, an increase in water consumption for irrigation and the needs of industry, pollution of water with industrial and household waste.

Careful use and strict protection of water resources is necessary.

Climatic resources - atmospheric air and wind energy - are inexhaustible, but with the development of industry and transport, the air began to be heavily polluted with smoke, dust, and exhaust gases. In large cities and industrial centers, air pollution is becoming hazardous to human health. The fight for the purity of the atmosphere has become an important environmental task.

Space resources include solar radiation, energy of sea tides. They are inexhaustible. However, in cities and industrial centers, solar radiation is greatly reduced due to the smoke and dustiness of the air. This negatively affects people's health.

Principles and rules of nature protection. The first principle boils down to the fact that all natural phenomena have multiple meanings for man and should be evaluated from different points of view. Each phenomenon must be approached taking into account the interests of different industries and the preservation of the restorative power of nature itself.

So, the forest is considered, first of all, as a source of timber and chemical raw materials, however, forests have a water-regulating, soil-protective, climate-forming value. The forest is important as a resting place for people. In these cases, the industrial significance of the forest is relegated to the background.

The river cannot serve only as a transport artery or as a place for the construction of hydroelectric power plants. The river should not be used as a place for the discharge of waste industrial waters. Rivers deliver nutrients to the seas that are essential for living organisms. Therefore, using the river only in the interests of one industry, as is often the case, is irrational.
It is necessary to use it comprehensively in the interests of various industries, health care, tourism, taking into account the preservation of the purity of the reservoir and the restoration of water reserves in it.
The second principle is the need for strict consideration of local conditions in the use and protection of natural resources. It is called the rule of regionality. This is especially true for the use of water and forest resources.
There are many places on Earth where there is now a shortage of fresh water. Excess water elsewhere does not improve the water predicament in arid regions. Where there are many forests and they are not developed, intensive felling is permissible, and in forest-steppe regions, in the central industrialized and densely populated areas In Russia, where there are few forests, forest resources must be spent very carefully, with constant concern for their renewal.
The rule of regionality also applies to the animal world. One and the same type of game animal in some areas needs strict protection, in others, with a high number, its intensive hunting is possible.
There is nothing more destructive than the intensive use of a resource where it is in short supply, based on the fact that elsewhere this resource is in abundance.
According to the regional rule, the treatment of one and the same natural resource in different regions should be different and depend on how this resource is currently represented in a given area.
The third principle, arising from the interconnection of objects and phenomena in nature, is that the protection of one object means at the same time the protection of other objects that are closely related to it.

Protection of a reservoir from pollution is the simultaneous protection of the fish that live in it. Maintaining the normal hydrological regime of the area with the help of forest vegetation is also the prevention of soil erosion.
The protection of insectivorous birds and red forest ants is the simultaneous protection of the forest from pests.

Relationships of the opposite nature often develop in nature, when the protection of one object harms another. For example, the protection of elk in some places leads to its overpopulation, and this causes significant damage to the forest due to damage to the undergrowth. Elephants, which inhabit these territories in abundance, bring significant harm to the vegetation of some African national parks. Therefore, the protection of each natural site must be correlated with the protection of other natural components.
Consequently, nature conservation must be comprehensive. It is not the sum of individual natural resources that should be protected, but natural complex(ecosystem), which includes various components connected by natural connections that have developed in the process of a long historical development.
The protection and use of nature are, at first glance, two oppositely directed actions of a person. However, there is no antagonistic contradiction between these actions. These are two sides of one and the same phenomenon - the relationship of man to nature. Therefore, the question that is sometimes asked - to protect or use nature - does not make sense. Nature must be used and protected. Without this, the progress of human society is impossible. Nature must be protected in the process of its rational use. A reasonable ratio of its use and protection is important, which is determined by the amount and distribution of resources, the economic conditions of the country, region, social traditions and culture of the population.
The basic principle of nature protection is protection in the process of its use.

Legal basis for nature protection. The rules and principles of nature protection are carried out by people when they have a legislative character.

The only body that can effectively and efficiently coordinate actions in the field of environmental protection is the state. Since the safety and health of people is undoubtedly more important than the profit of any enterprise, regardless of whether business leaders realize the benefits of using recycled materials or not, they must make every effort and do everything possible to protect the environment from the harmful effects of production activities. In this regard, the author considers it necessary to carry out brief analysis some regulations that regulate the activities of enterprises that pollute the environment.

The first and most important legislative one is the Constitution of the Russian Federation (1993).

Article 42 guarantees the right of a citizen of Russia to a favorable environment and reliable information about it. But a person is faced with the question of how he can really defend his specific constitutional right. There is no doubt that any actions of a group of people are always more effective than the actions of an individual person.

Article 30 of the Constitution states that everyone has the right to associate to protect their interests.

The Constitution also defines the forms of protection of the rights of citizens, which they can use.

Recently, society has been more actively responding to the actions and decisions of government bodies affecting environmental rights citizens. In this regard, rallies, demonstrations, pickets have become commonplace. Carrying out such events, it should be remembered that these actions are constitutional and they cannot be considered as a violation of public order, which was until recently. Actions represent a direct reaction of society to the actions and decisions of power structures that affect public interests. Therefore, defending your rights in this way, you need to know Article 31 of the Constitution, which says that citizens of the Russian Federation have the right to assemble peacefully, without weapons, to hold meetings, rallies, demonstrations, processions, pickets.

The Constitution also provides for another form of protection of citizens' rights - judicial. It is guaranteed by article 46:

Every citizen is guaranteed judicial protection of his rights and freedoms. Decisions and actions (or inaction) of state authorities, local self-government bodies, public associations and officials can be appealed in court.

The right to judicial protection is enshrined in a fundamental legislative act, therefore, a violation of this right is a violation of the Constitution.

In addition to the Constitution, it makes sense to dwell on the following laws.

The Law of the RSFSR "On Environmental Protection" (This Law was adopted on December 19, 1991, entered into force on March 3, 1992) Let us dwell on its main ones.

Section II "The Right of Citizens to a Healthy and Favorable Natural Environment" is of great importance.

The section begins with article 11. This article guarantees every citizen the right to health protection from adverse environmental impacts caused by economic or other activities, accidents, catastrophes, natural disasters. And it is very important that the article lists the measures by which this right is ensured.

Article 12 regulates the powers of citizens in the field of environmental protection. It sets out more specifically the basic rights of citizens, enshrined in the Constitution, in relation to the field of environmental protection.

Article 13 defines the terms of reference of public organizations. These powers coincide with the powers of citizens, however, it is necessary to pay attention to two additional very important points: public organizations have the right to demand the appointment of a state ecological expertise and recommend their representatives to participate in the state ecological expertise. And, finally, one more section of the Law, section V - "State ecological expertise". Let's consider the most important article of this section: article 36 - "Obligation of the state ecological expertise".

The Law "On Environmental Expertise" indicates that the establishment of compliance with environmental requirements is carried out not only in relation to economic activities, but in relation to any other.

It is also necessary to remember the principles of environmental expertise, enshrined in Article 3. The most important of them are: the presumption of the potential environmental hazard of any planned economic and other activity; and the principle previously enshrined in the Law "On Environmental Protection" and repeated in the Law "On Environmental Expertise" - the obligation to conduct a state ecological expertise before making a decision on the implementation of the object of the state ecological expertise.

1. On the territory of Russia there are more than 24 thousand enterprises that emit harmful substances into the atmosphere and water bodies. These substances are not captured or rendered harmless in technological processes. About 33% of emissions come from metallurgical enterprises, 29% - from energy, 7% - from chemical and 8% - coal industry... More than half of all air emissions are supplied by transport. The situation is especially difficult in cities with a high concentration of the population. In Russia allocated
55 cities where environmental pollution reaches very high levels.

2. The water quality of the main large rivers Russia is assessed as unsatisfactory. Due to the lack of treatment facilities and their unsatisfactory performance, technical backwardness, low capacity 82% Wastewater discharged by enterprises into rivers is not treated.
3. Over the past 50 years, more than
1 million hectares of arable land. More than 1/4 of agricultural land is subject to erosion. The processes of waterlogging of soils, overgrowing with shrubs and small forests have acquired a dangerous scope. A lot of land has been disturbed during the development of minerals, construction, road and other works.
About 1.2 million hectares of land need reclamation. Great damage to lands
Russia was inflicted by nuclear tests. At the Novaya Zemlya test sites (as of 1992), 118 surface and underground nuclear explosions were carried out, the consequences of which are unknown. As a result of the Chernobyl accident, the Bryansk, Tula, Oryol, Kaluga and Ryazan regions were contaminated with radioactive substances.
Land pollution from solid waste dumps, gas emissions, acid rain, pesticides and mineral fertilizers is growing. Testing for nitrates shows that one-sixth of the plant products produced in
Of the Russian Federation, contains them more than the norm.

4. The loss of non-renewable natural resources is great. During the extraction of minerals, about a third of the iron ore, 7.6% of the copper ore is lost; oil recovery from oil-bearing strata does not exceed 30%. Annually in the Russian
Federation generates 45 billion tons of waste from the extractive industry, of which
20 million tons are classified as non-utilized toxic substances. They are partially stored on the territory of enterprises, uncontrolledly discharged into the sewers, into beams and ravines, into landfills of solid domestic waste.

5. Basic principles of environmental protection (article 3, section
1 of the Law of the Russian Federation "On Environmental Protection").
In economic, managerial and other activities that have a negative impact on the state of the environment, government agencies, enterprises, institutions, organizations, citizens
Of the Russian Federation, foreign legal entities and citizens are obliged to be guided by the following basic principles:

The priority of protecting human life and health, creating favorable environmental conditions for the life, work and rest of the population;

Scientifically grounded combination of environmental and economic interests of society, providing real guarantees of human rights to a healthy and favorable natural environment;

Rational use of natural resources, taking into account the laws of nature, the capabilities of the natural environment, the need for the reproduction of natural resources, prevention of irreversible consequences for the environment and human health;

Compliance with the requirements of environmental legislation, the inevitability of the onset of responsibility for their violation;

Transparency in work and close communication with public organizations and the population in solving environmental problems;

State of the art and protection of the atmosphere

Changes in the composition and pollution of the atmosphere. Life on Earth is possible as long as it exists earthly atmosphere, a gas envelope that protects living organisms from the harmful effects of cosmic radiation and sharp temperature fluctuations. All aerobic organisms breathe atmospheric air. When they want to emphasize the importance, they say "as necessary as air." If a person can live without food for several weeks, without water - for several days, then death from suffocation occurs in 4-5 minutes.
The most important for all living organisms is the relatively constant composition of atmospheric air. It contains 78.3% nitrogen (Ng), oxygen
(0 ^) - 20.95%, carbon dioxide (CO ^) - 0.03%, argon (Ar) - 0.93% of the volume of dry air, a small amount of other inert gases. Water vapor makes up 3-4% of the total air volume.

The composition of the air is maintained due to constantly ongoing processes: the use of gases by living organisms and their release into the atmosphere.

V last years there is some change in the balance of nitrogen in the atmosphere due to the economic activities of people. Nitrogen fixation has increased, the inclusion of atmospheric nitrogen in complex chemical compounds in the production of nitrogen fertilizers. Its entry into the atmosphere decreases due to the disturbance of soil-forming processes in large areas, for example, in Western Siberia.

However, due to the huge amount of nitrogen in the atmosphere, the problem of its balance is not as serious as the balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide. It is known that about 3.5-4 billion years ago, the oxygen content in the atmosphere was a thousand times less than it is now, since there were no main oxygen producers - green plants.

A slight increase in CO ^ in the atmosphere has a positive effect on plant productivity. For example, the saturation of air with carbon dioxide is a thousand times less than now, since there were no main producers of oxygen - green plants.
The vital activity of living organisms is supported by the current ratio of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Natural processes of consumption of carbon dioxide and oxygen and their entry into the atmosphere are balanced.

With the development of industry and transport, oxygen is used for combustion processes. So, the combustion of different types of fuel now requires from 10 to
25% of the oxygen produced by green plants. The supply of oxygen to the atmosphere decreases due to the reduction in the areas of forests, savannas, steppes and an increase in desert territories. The number of oxygen producers in aquatic ecosystems is also decreasing due to pollution of rivers, lakes, seas and oceans. Scientists believe that in the next 150-180 years, the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere may be reduced by 1/3 compared to its current content.
An increase in oxygen consumption occurs simultaneously with an increase in the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Over the past 100 years, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by 10-15%, and by 2000 it may increase to 25%, i.e., from 0.0324% now to 0.04% by the end of the century.
A slight increase in CO ^ in the atmosphere has a positive effect on plant productivity. For example, the saturation of greenhouse air with carbon dioxide increases the productivity of vegetables by intensifying the processes of photosynthesis. However, the general increase in the CO content in the atmosphere leads to complex global phenomena. Carbon dioxide freely transmits short-wave solar radiation, but retains heat rays coming from the heated earth's surface. This phenomenon is called the greenhouse effect. It is believed that due to the greenhouse effect, the temperature of the Earth to
2000 will increase by 0.5-1 ° С. Additional heating of the lower atmosphere is provided by fuel combustion. This is especially noticeable on the territory of large cities, where the temperature of their central parts is 2-4 ° C higher than the average annual for this region. An increase in the average annual temperature of the lower atmosphere
The Earth can cause melting of the glaciers of Antarctica and Greenland, which will lead to an increase in the level of the World Ocean, flooding of low-lying continents, intensification of tectonic processes, and climate change.
The opposite effect is produced by dust and smoke in the atmosphere.
Mechanical particles reflect the sun's rays, increase the reflectivity (albedo) of the Earth, and reduce its heating. The predominance of these processes can lead to an increase in ice caps at the poles, a sharp cooling and the onset of an ice age.

Research on the Earth's heat balance is currently underway to find ways to control it.

Air pollution can be natural and artificial (or anthropogenic). Natural pollution of the atmosphere occurs during volcanic eruptions, weathering of rocks, dust storms, forest fires, and the release of salt crystals into the atmosphere. Normally, natural sources do not cause significant air pollution.

Sources of artificial pollution are industrial, transport and household emissions. The main supplier of pollution is industrial enterprises. They emit unburned fuel particles, dust, soot, and ash into the atmosphere. In industrial areas, more than 1 ton of dust particles falls per 1 km2 per day. Cement plants are powerful suppliers of the finest dust to the atmosphere.

The main chemical pollutant of the atmosphere is sulfur dioxide (SO), which is released during the combustion of coal, shale, oil, in the smelting of iron, copper, the production of sulfuric acid, etc. Sulfur dioxide is the cause of acid rain.
With a high concentration of sulfur dioxide, dust, smoke in humid quiet weather in industrial areas, 1 "x", or wet, smog appears - a poisonous fog, which sharply worsens the living conditions of people. In London, during such a smog due to an exacerbation of lung and heart disease from 5 to 9 December 1952, 4000 more people died than usual.

Under the influence of intense solar radiation, chemicals emitted into the atmosphere by industrial enterprises and transport can react with each other, forming highly toxic compounds. This type of smog is called photochemical.

V big cities and densely populated areas, the primacy in air pollution is shifting from industry to road transport... Carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons (including those with carcinogenic properties) enter the atmosphere with exhaust gases. Tetraethyl lead is added to some grades of gasoline as an antiknock agent, while fine particles of lead dust enter the atmosphere with exhaust gases. Most of the pollution comes from cars with poorly tuned engines and idling.
The most dangerous pollution of the atmosphere and the entire environment is radioactive. It poses a threat to the health and life of people, animals and plants, not only of living generations, but also of their descendants due to the appearance of numerous mutational deformities. The consequences of such a mutagenic effect on plants, animals and humans are still poorly studied and difficult to predict. In areas of moderate radioactive contamination, the number of people with leukemia is increasing.

Experimental explosions of atomic and hydrogen bombs serve as sources of radioactive contamination. Radioactive substances are released into the atmosphere during the manufacture of nuclear weapons, nuclear reactors of power plants, during the decontamination of radioactive waste, etc.

It has now become clear that there is no such small dose of ionizing radiation that would be safe.
Serious negative consequences for humans and other living organisms are caused by air pollution with chlorofluoromethanes, or freons. They are used in refrigeration plants, in the manufacture of semiconductors and aerosol cans. The leakage of freons leads to their appearance in the thin ozone layer in the stratosphere. During the decomposition of freons under the influence of ultraviolet rays, chlorine and fluorine are released, which interact with ozone. There is a danger that the layer of the ozone shield will drastically decrease and this will lead to an increase in the number of skin cancers due to the penetration of hard ultraviolet radiation on the earth. Thinning of the ozone screen, the appearance
"Ozone" holes are noted over the territories of Antarctica, Australia, South
America, some regions of Eurasia.

Measures for the protection of the atmosphere. For a long time, local air pollution was relatively quickly diluted with masses of clean air. Dust, smoke, gases were dispersed by air currents and fell on the ground with rain and snow, neutralized by reacting with natural compounds.

Today, the volume and rate of emissions exceed the capabilities of nature to dilute and neutralize them. Therefore, special measures are needed to eliminate hazardous air pollution. The main efforts are now aimed at preventing the emission of pollutants into the atmosphere. Dust collecting and gas cleaning equipment is installed at existing and new enterprises. Thus, about 3/4 of all emissions are delayed. The search for better ways to clean them continues.

Another important area is the creation and implementation of waste-free technologies, the construction of industrial complexes that use all the raw materials and any waste from enterprises. Waste-free technologies are valuable for their similarity to the processes taking place in the biosphere, where waste does not exist, since all biological waste is utilized by various parts of ecosystems. Examples of such technological processes are closed air and water cycles, which completely eliminate waste emissions into the environment.

Thanks to modern research, methods have been developed and introduced into practice that reduce and prevent pollution from vehicle exhaust gases. Pollution is partially reduced by installing filters and afterburners in car engines, excluding lead-containing additives, organizing a clear movement of vehicles on the streets, without frequent changes in engine operating modes. A cardinal solution to the problem of air pollution by road transport is the replacement of internal combustion engines with other ones.
Samples of gas turbine, rotary, solar and other engines have been created.

The most promising means of transportation are electric vehicles. Their modern models are still imperfect: they have a relatively low speed and short mileage without recharging, which does not allow them to compete with modern cars. To reduce the content of toxic substances in the exhaust gases of cars in some countries, they switch to other types of fuel instead of gasoline, for example, methane, alcohol.

Greening of cities and industrial centers is of great importance in the fight against air pollution. Plants enrich the air with oxygen. Up to 72% of airborne dust particles and up to 60% of sulfur dioxide settle on trees and bushes. Therefore, in city parks, squares, gardens, dust is ten times less than in open streets and squares.
Many types of trees and shrubs secrete phytoncides - biologically active substances that kill bacteria. Green plants regulate the microclimate of the city, absorb and reduce city noise.

General features of the legal regime of natural resources

The legal regime of natural resources is understood as a set of legal methods and measures for regulating public relations regarding land, subsoil, waters, and other natural resources as objects of ownership, use and protection.
The topics considered in the general part of the course on environmental law give a fairly complete idea of ​​the legal regulation of property relations for natural resources, as well as general legal measures to ensure their rational use and protection. They are analyzed within the framework of the main legal institutions of environmental law being formed in Russia. Such institutions are complex in nature, since they are governed by norms contained not only in legislation on environment, but also in acts of other branches of Russian legislation - administrative, civil, business and others.
The general features of legal regulation of property, use and protection of natural resources are considered taking into account the principle of universal interconnection and interdependence in nature, within the framework of an integrated approach to the regulation of relations, the object of which is the environment as a whole. Natural resource acts of legislation, regulating the relations of use and protection of "their" natural resources, provide that the requirements for the protection of other natural resources and the environment as a whole must be observed. This rule follows from Art. 36 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation on limiting the freedom to exercise the powers of the owner of natural resources. Thus, the achievement of the goals of the rational use and protection of natural resources can be ensured through the simultaneous and comprehensive regulation of the corresponding relations by many natural resource acts and acts of other branches of legislation.
When regulating the use of natural resources and their protection from harmful effects, the general requirements are related to:
the basics of regulation of the right to use natural resources, including the regulation of types of use of natural resources (general and special, taking into account the goals of nature use, etc.), legally significant principles of environmental management, subjects and objects of nature use, the grounds for the emergence, change and termination of the right to use natural resources;
information support for the use of natural resources and the protection of natural resources, regarding the rights to information on the state of natural resources, sources of legal information, accounting and reporting, cadastres of natural resources, monitoring of the environment and individual natural resources, etc .;
environmental regulation and standardization in terms of regulation of the quality of soils, water bodies, atmospheric air, standards for the use of natural resources and standards for maximum permissible impacts on land, atmospheric air, water;
assessing the impact of the planned activity on land resources, water, subsoil, plant resources, wildlife and the development of special measures for their use and protection, as well as the organization and conduct of state and public environmental expertise.
In other words, - ensuring compliance with environmental requirements in the preparation and adoption of environmentally significant economic and other decisions;
licensing and concluding contracts for the use of natural resources and the implementation of other environmentally significant activities;
environmental certification of natural objects, goods and services;
environmental audit;
implementation of economic measures to ensure rational use of natural resources and environmental protection, including the regulation of planning and financing of activities in this area, payments for environmental management, environmental insurance, measures of economic incentives;
environmental state, departmental, industrial and public control in the field of rational use and protection of lands, waters, subsoil and other environmental objects;
application of disciplinary, material, administrative, criminal and civil liability measures for violation of the rules for the use and protection of lands, waters, bowels, forests, atmospheric air, wildlife, environmental protection rules.
Some specific measures of regulation of the use and protection of certain natural resources were considered when characterizing one or another institution of environmental law. For example, in relation to environmental regulation or to the regulation of licensing and contracts for the right to use or lease natural resources.
Other specific legal action will be considered in this section, taking into account the fact that natural resources - land, water, atmospheric air, flora, objects of the animal world - each has its own special place in nature, its own ecological niche. They also perform specific functions in meeting human needs. All this predetermines the need for a differentiated approach to the legal regulation of the use of one or another natural resource and its protection, taking into account their specifics. Features also include the characteristics of the legal concept of a particular natural resource.

When assessing the legal regulation of the use and protection of lands, waters, bowels, forests, atmospheric air, wildlife, it is important to know both general requirements and some specific features.

Features of the legal regime of atmospheric air

The object of regulation within the framework of environmental law is not air in general, but atmospheric air. Law "On the protection of atmospheric air
- »does not regulate relations regarding the air of residential and industrial premises. Air contained in compressors, cylinders, etc. also does not belong to atmospheric air. The relationship with the air in the premises and in the tanks is regulated by sanitary, including civil, housing legislation. The criterion for distinguishing between atmospheric air and other air is the natural connection of the former with the natural environment.
Atmospheric air is one of the main vital elements of nature. First of all, it serves as an irreplaceable source of oxygen necessary for the existence of all life on Earth. When characterizing the special importance of air in a person's life, it is emphasized that a person can live without air for only a few minutes.
The atmospheric air and the atmosphere in general have many other ecologically and socially beneficial properties. It is a conductor of the Sun's energy, serves as a protection against harmful cosmic radiation, and forms the basis of climatic and weather conditions on Earth. In the economic activity of society, the atmosphere is intensively exploited as a transport communication. Finally, the atmosphere is a medium for removing gaseous and dusty waste from human activities.
A feature of the legal regime of atmospheric air is that, due to its physical properties, it cannot be an object of property rights, since the traditional powers of the owner are not applicable to it. It cannot be individualized in order to become an object of property rights.
Not being the owner of the atmospheric air located at a particular moment over the territory of the state, it has sovereign rights to it. These rights derive from the state's ownership of its natural environment. Any state within its airspace enjoys all the rights of territorial supremacy, state sovereignty, and the exclusive right to use the atmosphere. In accordance with the Air Code of the Russian Federation, the Russian Federation has full and exclusive sovereignty over the airspace of the Russian Federation. The airspace of the Russian Federation means the airspace over the territory of the Russian Federation, including the airspace over the internal waters and the territorial sea (Article 1).
What is the spatial scope of atmospheric air protection legislation? It is determined by the limits of Russia's state sovereignty over its airspace. Protection of atmospheric air must be ensured within the limits of the practically possible use of airspace or practical impact on the state of the atmosphere. To a certain extent, the scope of the legislation is determined by the possible altitude limit that aircraft or other flying devices reach. However, it is known that the harmful effect on the state of the ozone layer of the Earth occurs during the operation of ozone-depleting substances at objects located on the ground.
Like no other natural resource, atmospheric air, which “does not recognize” political boundaries, forms a globally uniform living environment.
If in relation to such natural objects as land, subsoil, water, fauna, the subject of legal regulation includes the regulation of use and protection, then regulation of the use of atmospheric air can be carried out only to the smallest extent. So, Art. 40 and 41 of the Law "On the protection of atmospheric air" provide for the regulation of the consumption of atmospheric air for industrial and other national economic needs. In the design of enterprises, structures and other facilities, as well as in the creation and improvement of technological processes and equipment, measures should be provided to ensure the minimum required consumption of atmospheric air for production needs. The consumption of air for industrial needs may be limited, suspended or prohibited by the authorities exercising state control over the protection of atmospheric air, in the event that this leads to changes in the state of atmospheric air that have a harmful effect on human health, flora and fauna.

Although in practice there are no special restrictions on air intake for technological needs, atmospheric air as a natural resource is exploited very intensively. For example, a modern jet liner, when flying from Europe to America, consumes as much oxygen in 8 hours of flight as 25 thousand hectares of forest can allocate during the same time. Air is a necessary element of production processes and other human economic activities.
Along with the Law of the RSFSR "On the Protection of Atmospheric Air", relations on the protection of atmospheric air are regulated by the Law "On Environmental Protection", the Federal Law "On Environmental Expertise" and other regulations.
Since in the process of anthropogenic activity chemical, physical and biological influences are exerted on the state of atmospheric air, the legislation regulates the corresponding relations for its protection. Moreover, such impacts on the state of the environment as physical (noise, electromagnetic fields) are regulated mainly within the framework of air protection law. The main legal means of protecting atmospheric air are standardization of the quality of atmospheric air, maximum permissible impacts from individual sources, regulation of the location of sources of harmful effects on the atmosphere, environmental expertise of projects of enterprises and other facilities, the operation of which is accompanied by atmospheric pollution, the permissive procedure for harmful effects on the state of atmospheric air ; As you can see, all this is aimed at preventing the degradation of the atmosphere under the influence of human activity.
The specific requirements of the legislation on the protection of atmospheric air include regulation of the impact on the weather and climate (Article 42 of the Law "On the Protection of Atmospheric Air"). Actions aimed at artificial changes in the state of the atmosphere and atmospheric phenomena for national economic purposes can be carried out only with the permission of specially authorized state bodies and only on condition that this does not lead to adverse effects on the weather and climate. Such impacts on the weather are carried out for agricultural and other socially significant purposes.
- for example, to prevent hail or rain, or, conversely, to stimulate precipitation.
Air protection legislation regulates all types of activities accompanied by harmful effects on the atmosphere, including:

Placement, design, construction and commissioning of new and reconstructed enterprises, structures and other facilities, improvement of existing and introduction of new technological processes and equipment and their operation;

Design, manufacture and operation of automobiles, aircraft, ships, other mobile vehicles and installations;

Placement and development of cities and other settlements;

Application of plant protection products, growth stimulants, mineral fertilizers and other preparations, the use of which is permitted in the national economy;

Extraction of minerals, blasting operations, placement and operation of waste heaps, dumps and dumps. The legislation provides for a number of prohibitive measures related to the protection of atmospheric air. In particular:

The production and operation of transport and other mobile vehicles and installations, in the emissions of which the content of pollutants exceeds the established standards, is not allowed;

It is not allowed to place industrial facilities in residential buildings, as well as equipment that is a source of increased noise and vibration;

It is prohibited to commission new and reconstructed enterprises, structures and other facilities that do not meet the requirements for the protection of atmospheric air. In practice, such prohibitions are not always observed. According to the available data, even newly commissioned enterprises, as a rule, do not comply with the established requirements. They operate on the basis of temporarily agreed standards for pollutant emissions, i.e. deliberate violation of the standards for maximum permissible concentrations of pollutants in the atmosphere is allowed.

Examples and additional information

The rapid growth of the world's population is called the population explosion. It is difficult to judge this phenomenon in Russia, where the population, since 1993, began to decline, and even in Western Europe, where it is growing very slowly, but it is well illustrated by the data of demographic statistics from China, African countries, Latin America, southern Asia, where the population is growing at a gigantic pace. At the beginning of the century, 1.5 billion people lived on Earth. In 1950, despite losses in two world wars, the population increased to 2.5 billion, and then began to increase annually by 70-100 million people. In 1993, the population of the Earth reached 5.5 billion people, i.e. doubled compared to 1950, and in 2000 it will exceed 6 billion. Without dwelling on the causes of the demographic explosion, we note that it was accompanied huge territories for residential buildings and public institutions, automobile and railways, airports and marinas, crops and pastures. Hundreds of square kilometers have been cleared of tropical forests. Under the hooves of numerous herds, the steppes and prairies turned into
desert. Simultaneously with the demographic explosion, a scientific and technological revolution took place. Man mastered nuclear energy, rocketry and went out into space. He invented the computer, electronic engineering and the synthetic materials industry. The population explosion and the scientific and technological revolution have led to a colossal increase in the consumption of natural resources. So, today in the world 3.5 billion tons of oil and 4.5 billion tons of hard coal and brown coal are produced annually. At such a rate of consumption, it became obvious that many natural resources would be depleted in the near future. At the same time, waste from giant industries began to increasingly pollute the environment, destroying the health of the population. In all industrialized countries, cancer, chronic pulmonary and cardiovascular diseases are widespread. Scientists were the first to sound the alarm. Beginning in 1968, the Italian economist Aurelio Pecce began annually to gather in Rome prominent experts from different countries to discuss issues of the future of civilization. These meetings were called the Club of Rome. In the spring of 1972, the first book prepared by the Club of Rome was published, with the characteristic title Limits to Growth. And in June of the same year, the UN held in Stockholm the First International Conference on Environment and Development, which summarized materials on pollution and its harmful effects on the health of the population of many countries. The conference participants came to the conclusion that a person from a subject who has studied the ecology of animals and plants, under new conditions, must himself turn into an object of multilateral environmental research. They appealed to the governments of all countries of the world with an appeal to create special government agencies ... After the conference in Stockholm, ecology merged with nature conservation and began to take on its present importance. In different countries, ministries, departments and committees for the environment began to be created, and their main goal was to monitor the natural environment and combat its pollution in order to preserve the health of the population. In the USSR, in 1973, a Commission for the Protection of Nature and the Rational Use of Natural Resources was established under the Presidium of the Council of Ministers. On its basis, in 1987, the State Committee was formed. It entered the first government of independent Russia under the name of the Ministry of Ecology, but then it was again renamed the Committee, and the word ecology remained only in its abbreviated name (Goskomekologiya). Research into human ecology required a theoretical foundation. First, Russian, and then foreign researchers recognized the teachings of V.I. Vernadsky about the biosphere and the inevitability of its evolutionary transformation into the sphere of the human mind - the noosphere. Environmental problems of our time in terms of their scale can be conditionally divided into local, regional and global and require dissimilar means and scientific developments of different nature for their solution. An example of a local environmental problem is a plant that dumps its industrial waste, harmful to human health, into the river without cleaning. This is a violation of the law. The nature protection authorities or even the public should fine such a plant through the court and, under threat of closure, force it to build a treatment plant. In this case, no special science is required. An example of regional environmental problems is the Kuzbass - an almost closed basin in the mountains, filled with gas-coke ovens and the smoke of a metallurgical giant, which no one thought about capturing during construction, or the drying up Aral Sea with a sharp deterioration of the ecological situation on its entire periphery, or high radioactivity of soils in areas adjacent to Chernobyl. Scientific research is already needed to solve such problems. In the first case - the development of rational methods for the absorption of smoke and gas aerosols, in the second - accurate hydrological studies to develop recommendations for increasing the runoff into the Aral Sea, in the third - the elucidation of the impact on the health of the population of prolonged exposure to low doses of radiation and the development of methods for soil decontamination. However, the anthropogenic impact on nature has reached such proportions that problems of a global nature have arisen, about which at the beginning of the XX century. no one could even suspect. If we leave aside the economic and social aspects, and talk only about nature, we can name the following global environmental problems that are in the field of vision of mankind at the end of the 20th century: global warming, depletion of the ozone layer, destruction of the Earth's forest cover, desertification of vast territories , pollution of the oceans, decrease in species diversity of fauna and flora. Scientific research is needed not only to solve or mitigate these problems, but also to find out the reasons for their occurrence, because without this it is simply impossible to solve them. Started in the second half of the XX century. a sharp warming of the climate is reliable fact ... We feel it in milder winters than before. The average temperature of the surface air layer in comparison with 1956-1957, when the First International Geophysical Year was held, increased by 0.7 ° С. There is no warming at the equator, but the closer to the poles, the more noticeable it is. It reaches 2 ° С beyond the Arctic Circle. What is the reason for this phenomenon? Some scientists believe that this is the result of burning a huge mass of organic fuel and releasing large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which is a greenhouse gas, i.e. makes it difficult to transfer heat from the Earth's surface. Others, referring to climate changes in historical time, consider the anthropogenic factor of climate warming to be negligible and associate this phenomenon with increased solar activity. In connection with the warming of the climate, a number of related questions arise. What are the prospects for its further development? How will warming affect increased evaporation from the world's oceans, and how will this affect precipitation? How will this precipitation be distributed over the area? And a number of more specific questions concerning the territory of Russia: in connection with the warming and general humidification of the climate, can we expect mitigation of droughts in the Lower Volga region and the North Caucasus; should we expect an increase in the Volga runoff and a further rise in the level of the Caspian; will the retreat of permafrost begin in Yakutia and the Magadan region; will navigation along the northern coast of Siberia become easier? All these questions can be answered exactly. However, for this, various scientific studies must be carried out. The environmental problem of the ozone layer is no less scientifically difficult. It arose in 1982, when a probe launched from a British station in Antarctica, at an altitude of 25-30 km, detected a sharp decrease in the ozone content. Since then, an ozone hole of varying shapes and sizes has been recorded over Antarctica. Later, the same hole was discovered over the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, over Spitsbergen, and then in different parts of Eurasia, in particular over Voronezh. The depletion of the ozone layer is a much more dangerous reality for all life on Earth than the fall of some super large meteorite, because ozone (triatomic oxygen formed in the stratosphere from ordinary oxygen due to the energy of ultraviolet and even shorter wavelength cosmic rays) does not allow dangerous radiation to the surface of the Earth. If not for ozone, these rays would destroy all living things. The depletion of the ozone layer has worried not only scientists, but also governments in many countries. The search for the reasons began. From the beginning, suspicion fell on the chlorine and fluorocarbons used in refrigeration units, the so-called freons. They are really easily oxidized by ozone, thereby destroying it. Large sums were allocated for the search for their substitutes. However, refrigeration units are used mainly in countries with warm and hot climates, and for some reason ozone holes are most clearly manifested in the polar regions. This was puzzling. Then it was found that a lot of ozone is destroyed by rocket engines of modern aircraft flying at high altitudes, as well as when launching spaceships and satellites. For final decision the question of the causes of the depletion of the ozone layer requires detailed scientific research. Another cycle of research is needed to develop the most rational methods for artificially restoring the previous ozone content in the stratosphere. Work in this direction has already begun. But has the idea of ​​transforming nature been abandoned? Is the practice of nature management improving? In what direction does a person's attitude to the natural environment change? First example. Fishing has long been one of the main occupations of the Norwegians. Fishing went across the ocean to the shoals off the coast of Iceland and New Foundland. They caught mainly herring, but in small quantities and salmon, or European salmon, which through the fjords enters the mountain rivers of Norway for spawning. About 20 years ago, the Norwegians figured out how to change their salmon fishing technique. After the fish start to spawn, they block the exit from several fjords into the sea with a fine mesh net. After the eggs ripen, the fry of salmon slide down the rivers into the fjord, but they cannot get out of it. They are fed first with minced fish, and then with small trash fish, which are caught off the coast of Norway. Young salmon grow rapidly, after 3-4 years they reach a weight of 9-10 kg, after which they are easily caught with seines. The new method of breeding and fishing allowed Norway to increase the annual salmon production from several tens of thousands of tons to 500 thousand tons, i.e. more than an order of magnitude. In any European restaurant you can now get relatively cheap Norwegian salmon. And Norwegian fishermen began to live much richer. Another example of expedient changes in natural ecosystems is the cultivation of marine molluscs in Japan, China and Vietnam.
In these countries, some species of benthic marine molluscs have been eaten for a long time. However, in the last two decades, artificial breeding of them has begun. Vast areas of coastal shallow waters of these countries were previously cleared of other benthic fauna, and then inhabited by those species of edible molluscs that grow most rapidly. No one knows how many edible sea molluscs were caught earlier, but in recent years their total harvest has amounted to 5 million tons, and this has become a significant help in the food balance of the population of Southeast Asia. An example of rational nature management can also be the forestry of Germany, where a law was passed (and it is strictly observed) that the area occupied by forests should not be less than 27% of the entire territory of the country. In the forests there are no fallen rotting tree trunks and stumps. The forests of Germany are all secondary and homogeneous. For planting selected tree species with good, strong wood and relatively fast growth. Up to a height of about 600 m, the forests are made of beech, and in mountainous areas southern Germany - from a special type of spruce. Beech grows wood relatively quickly - in 45 years, spruce - in 60 years. Upon reaching this age, the forest is cut down, and the vacated areas are planted with young trees. This way of forestry provides Germany with the necessary timber and does not disturb the ecological balance. Red deer, roe deer, wild boars and hares are found in the forests of Germany, black grouse and songbirds nest. These examples show that man's attitude to the natural environment, which should become dominant in the age of the noosphere. It is believed that broad environmental education will contribute to the transformation of the biosphere into the sphere of human reason - the noosphere, upon entering which all mankind will understand that it is a part of this noosphere, and will strive not to destroy, but to expand and multiply natural resources.

Nature protection - a set of measures covering the protection, rational use and restoration of objects of animate and inanimate nature.

Here are just a few alarming facts. From the bowels of the Earth, 100 billion tons of minerals are removed annually (25 tons per person). More than 90% of them goes to waste. The amount of oxygen consumed by individual countries already exceeds the production of oxygen by the plants of these countries. The rainforest rainforest (the main “lungs” of the Earth) has been destroyed by more than 40%. Its cutting continues at a speed of over 20 hectares per minute! Nearly 1,000 species of animals and 25,000 species of plants are now under threat of extinction. The main reasons for this are destruction, over-harvesting, suppression of native species by animals resettled by humans from other geographic areas, and chemical poisoning of the natural environment. Humanity, having accumulated unheard-of technical power, never ceases to strive for the benefits of today. This entails a depletion of earthly wealth and undermines the foundation.

The conflict between man and nature did not arise all of a sudden. It grew gradually. Our ancestors also noticed that with an excessive increase in the number of livestock in a limited area, fat pastures turn into deserts. Thoughtless hunting, burning of forests, extermination of fish in reservoirs often left people without the necessary funds. Therefore, even in ancient times, people cared about the rational use of natural resources, about their preservation and enhancement. There were bans on catching animals, grazing pastures, deforestation. They began to allocate reserved lands, to protect and breed valuable animals and birds. These were the first feeble attempts to balance the use of natural resources with their protection and restoration. However, the balance was not reached. And nature, and with it humanity, as an integral part of it, suffered more and more damage.

By the beginning of the XX century. it became obvious that special and effective measures must be taken. The first International Congress on the Conservation of Nature was held in 1913, but the problem of the impoverishment of the Earth continued to aggravate. In the second half of our century, it became on a par with other, closely interconnected global problems: saving the world from nuclear disaster, environmental protection, an increase in the number of people on Earth (population explosion), the fight against hunger, overcoming the energy crisis. The cause of nature protection, like the cause of peace, concerns every person on Earth, depends on his mind, activity and goodwill. It requires the efforts of all states and peoples.

Only a deep knowledge of the laws of nature, their correct application in practice, general natural science education and upbringing will give humanity the opportunity to overcome the calamity that is now called the ecological crisis, that is, the consistent impoverishment of nature, threatening the death of many species of plants and animals, and ultimately undermining the base of human existence. The experience of a number of countries, primarily socialist ones, international cooperation has already shown that with a scientifically grounded organization of the protection of natural resources and their rational use, many environmental difficulties can be overcome.

Grafting cedar on pine allows this valuable plant to be promoted to new areas. Voronezh State Reserve.

Bustard. Red Book.

Gray and Siberian Cranes (right). The Siberian Crane is the rarest bird listed in the Red Book. Oka State Reserve.

Plot of virgin feather-grass steppe. Central Black Earth Reserve named after V.V. Alekhin.

Avdotka. Red Book.

Rose seagull. Red Book.

Black stork. Red Book.

In many reservoirs of our country, the white water lily has become a rare plant. It must be protected in every possible way.

These bustards are hatched in an incubator. The grown birds will be released into nature.

Over the past centuries, humanity has made an unprecedented technological breakthrough. Technologies have appeared that can significantly change the world. If earlier the impact of man on nature could not upset the fragile ecological balance, then new ingenious inventions allowed him to achieve this unfortunate result. As a result, many species of animals were destroyed, many living creatures are on the verge of extinction, and large-scale climatic changes begin on Earth.

The results of human activity cause such monstrous damage to the environment that all more people are beginning to worry about the future of our planet. Numerous public conservation organizations have emerged as a result of growing concern. Today they carry out their activities everywhere, monitor the preservation of the unique natural heritage, uniting millions of enthusiasts around the globe. But this was not always the case, a long way was done by the pioneers of the eco-movement in order to achieve the current state of affairs.

The emergence of conservation organizations

The year 1913 can be considered the beginning of the creation of the international ecological community, when the first International Conference dedicated to the protection of nature took place in Switzerland. It was attended by 18 countries, but the meeting was purely scientific character, without assuming any action in 10 years later in Paris, the first International Congress for the Protection of Nature. Then the International Bureau for the Conservation of Nature was opened in Belgium. However, it did not try to somehow influence the ecological situation in the world, but simply collected statistical data on reserves and environmental legislation.

Then, in 1945, it was created which took environmental cooperation between states to a completely new level. In 1948, a special department was created at the UN - international council protection of nature. It was he who was responsible for the international partnership in the field of environmental protection. Scientists suddenly began to understand that it is impossible to solve environmental problems at the level of one country, because an ecosystem is a delicate mechanism full of non-obvious, intricate relationships. A change in the natural balance in one place on the planet can have a catastrophic effect on other seemingly very distant places. The need for a joint solution to environmental problems became obvious.

Further development

In the future, the international became one of the most important topics for discussion at major scientific and cultural events. In 1972, Sweden hosted a UN conference on the environment, which was attended by 113 countries. It was at this event that the foundations of the modern nature conservation movement were laid. This day has become an international holiday - World Environment Day.

Then years of stagnation began in the environmental movement, when public organizations for the protection of nature began to receive less and less funding, and the popularity of their ideas began to wane. But in the early 1980s, the situation began to change for the better, resulting in the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development in Brazil. This event took place in Rio de Janeiro and continued the work started in Sweden. The conference adopted the basic concepts concerning the theme of further harmonious development of mankind. The model of sustainable development considered in Rio offers a completely new perspective on the further development of human civilization. It assumes controlled development within a certain framework, so as not to harm the environment. The conference in Brazil marked the activities of conservation organizations up to the present day.

Our days

Today, society is greatly alarmed by the changes in the environment caused by human activities. Many countries have passed a number of laws that control and organizations such as Greenpeace or WWF have gained millions of supporters around the world. Almost any more or less large country has representative offices international organizations for the protection of nature. Internet communities and thematic sites provide quick and easy access to information related to the environment. Also, the Internet allows coordinating the efforts of people around the planet - here everyone can make a contribution to protecting the environment.

Science also does not stand still, new inventions constantly appear, bringing the era of clean energy closer. Many countries have begun to actively use natural energy: wind energy, water, geothermal sources, the sun, etc. Of course, man-made emissions have not decreased, and corporations are still mercilessly exploiting nature for profit. But the general interest in the problem of ecology allows us to hope for a bright future. Let's take a look at the largest public conservation organizations.

"Greenpeace"

Organization "Greenpeace" today is the most popular environmental protection company on Earth. It appeared thanks to enthusiasts who oppose uncontrolled tests of nuclear weapons. The first members of Greenpeace, they are also its founders, managed to achieve an end to nuclear tests by the Americans in the area of ​​Amchitka Island. Further protests led to the fact that France also stopped testing nuclear weapons, later other countries joined it.

Despite the fact that Greenpeace was created to protest against nuclear tests, its activities are not limited to this. The members of the organization hold protests all over the world, called upon our planet from suicidal and stupid human activities. Thus, Greenpeace activists were able to stop the cruel whale hunt, which was carried out on an industrial scale in the last century.

The modern protest actions of this unusual organization are aimed at combating air pollution. Despite the fact that the harm caused to the atmosphere by emissions from factories and plants has been proven, corporations and their unprincipled owners do not care deeply about all life on this planet, they only care about profit. Therefore, Greenpeace activists are carrying out their actions designed to stop the barbaric attitude towards the environment. Sadly, it is likely that their protests will never be heard.

World Wildlife Fund

There are a wide variety of conservation organizations. The list of non-governmental organizations would be incomplete without mentioning the World Wildlife Fund. This organization operates in more than 40 countries around the world. The Wildlife Fund surpasses even Greenpeace in terms of the number of supporters. Millions of people support their ideas, many of them are fighting for the preservation of all forms of life on earth not only in word, but also in deed, more than 1000 environmental projects around the world are an excellent confirmation of this.

Like many other public conservation organizations, WWF sets as its primary mission on Earth. Members of this conservation organization are trying to protect animals from the harmful effects of humans.

United Nations Environment Program

Of course, the United Nations Organization is the head of public and state organizations for the protection of nature. It is these that are the most ambitious. At almost every UN meeting, issues of the environment and international cooperation in the field of improving the environmental situation on the planet are raised. The conservation office is called UNEP. Its tasks include control over pollution of the atmosphere and the world's oceans, preservation of species diversity.

This environmental protection system does its job not only in words, many important international laws designed to protect the environment were adopted precisely thanks to the UN. UNEP was able to achieve more careful monitoring of the transport of hazardous substances, and a commission has also been created to oversee attempts to stop this attack.

Russian organizations for nature conservation

Some of the international environmental movements have been described above. Now let's look at what organizations are involved in nature conservation in Russia. Despite the fact that the popularity of domestic environmental organizations is significantly lower than that of their international counterparts, these societies still fulfill their function and attract new enthusiasts.

The All-Russian Society for Nature Conservation is a large and influential organization dealing with environmental problems on the territory of the Russian Federation. It performs many different tasks, one of the main ones being promoting knowledge about ecology to the masses, educating people, drawing attention to environmental problems. VOOP also deals with scientific activities and monitors compliance with environmental legislation.

The All-Russian Society for Nature Conservation was created back in 1924. The fact that this organization was able to survive to this day, while increasing its number to three million people, shows the genuine interest of people in the environmental problem. There are other Russian associations of environmentalists, but VOOP is by far the largest all-Russian environmental protection organization.

Nature protection squad

The nature protection squad was created in 1960 and continues its work to this day. Moreover, some of the major Russian universities have joined this organization and created their own squads. Today DOP is engaged in the same activities as other nature conservation organizations in Russia. They carry out explanatory work, trying to raise citizens' education in the environmental field. In addition, the nature conservation squad is engaged in protest actions against the destruction of wild corners of Russia, helps in the fight against forest fires and makes its contribution to science.

The future of conservation organizations

There are a wide variety of nature conservation organizations, a list of some of their non-governmental representatives is as follows:

1. World Wildlife Fund.
2. "Greenpeace".
3. United Nations Program (UNEP).
4. World Society for the Protection of Animals.
5. Global Nest.

The number of such associations is growing every year, they are gaining more and more popularity. This is not surprising, since the consequences of the barbaric expansion carried out by man are becoming more and more noticeable. Scientists and public figures, like most people on Earth, have long understood that something needs to be changed, until we turned our planet into a lifeless dump. Of course, today the opinions of people are not significant in any of the existing states, which allows industrial magnates to continue their dirty business, taking advantage of impunity and their own shortsightedness.

However, there is still hope for a bright future. With the advent of the Internet, non-governmental organizations for the protection of nature were able to conduct their educational activities with millions of people. Now everyone who cares about the environment can communicate with like-minded people and get any necessary information about the environment, it has become much easier to unite supporters and coordinate protests. Of course, most people still remain victims of years of propaganda that portrays the green movements in an unattractive light. However, the situation can change at any second, as environmental organizations have become a force to be reckoned with.

What can be done to protect nature?

Loud speeches about the protection of ecology and the preservation of species diversity can excite the minds of young enthusiasts. But, unfortunately, this is all that words are capable of, real benefits to nature can be brought only by actions. Of course, you can find out which organizations are engaged in nature conservation in your city, and plunge headlong into their useful activities. This path is not suitable for everyone, so it is best to start saving nature by stopping to destroy and pollute it with your own hands.

Everyone has at least once seen the beautiful forest clearings, littered with heaps of garbage after someone's stormy rest. So, before you start nature, you first need to stop harming it. How can you encourage others to take care of the environment if you yourself pollute the environment? The garbage collected after the rest, the fire extinguished in time, the trees that you did not kill for the sake of firewood - all this is very simple, but it brings wonderful results.

If everyone remembers that the Earth is our home, and the fate of all mankind depends on its state, then the world will be transformed. For those who want to take an active part in environmental protection, numerous Russian nature conservation organizations are ready to provide such an opportunity. An era of changes has come, today it is decided what we will leave to our descendants - a radioactive dump or a beautiful green garden. The choice is ours!

Introduction

1. The semantic meaning of the concepts: "nature protection", "environmental protection", "nature management", "environmental safety"

2. Environmental crisis is a real threat to humanity

3. Environmental activity in Russia

4. Principles for the implementation of international cooperation in the field of environmental protection

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

Intensive exploitation of natural resources has led to the need for a new type of environmental protection activity — rational use of natural resources, in which protection requirements are included in the very process of economic activity for the use of natural resources.

This work will reveal such concepts as: "nature protection", "environmental protection", "environmental safety"; the reasons for the occurrence of the ecological crisis are analyzed and the ways of its solution are considered, such an issue as the Main Law on Nature Protection in Russia, as well as the principles of international cooperation in the field of environmental protection, will be directly highlighted.

principle protection nature ecology safety

1. The semantic meaning of the concepts: "nature protection", "environmental protection", "nature management", "environmental safety"

Protection of Nature- a set of state and general educational measures aimed at preserving the atmosphere, flora and fauna, soil, water and the earth's interior.

In the 50s. XX century there is another form of protection - protection of human habitat. This concept is close in meaning to nature protection, puts a person in the center of attention, the preservation and formation of such natural conditions that are most favorable for his life, health and well-being.

Environmental protection - represents a system of state and public measures (technological, economic, administrative and legal, educational, international) aimed at harmonious interaction between society and nature, the preservation and reproduction of existing ecological communities and natural resources for the sake of living and future generations. The new nature protection Federal Law (2002) uses the term “environmental protection”, while the “natural environment” is understood as the most important component of the environment. In recent years, the term has also been frequently used "Protection of the natural environment", which is close to another concept - "Protection of the biosphere" those. a system of measures aimed at eliminating negative anthropogenic or spontaneous influences on the interconnected blocks of the biosphere, maintaining its evolutionary organization and ensuring normal functioning.

The protection of the natural environment is closely related to the use of natural resources - social production activities aimed at meeting the material and cultural needs of society through the use of various types of natural resources and natural conditions. According to N.F. Reimers (1992), it includes:

a) protection, renewal and reproduction of natural resources, their extraction and processing;

b) the use and protection of the natural conditions of the human environment;

c) preservation, restoration and rational change of the ecological balance of natural systems;

d) regulation of human reproduction and the number of people.

Nature management can be rational and irrational. Rational use of natural resources means an integrated, scientifically grounded, environmentally safe and sustainable use of natural resources, with the maximum possible preservation of natural resource potential and the ability of ecosystems to self-regulation. Irrational use of natural resources does not ensure the preservation of natural resource potential, leads to a deterioration in the quality of the natural environment, is accompanied by a violation of the ecological balance and destruction of ecosystems.

At the present stage of the development of the problem of environmental protection, a new concept of "environmental safety" is being born, which means the state of protection of the natural environment and vital environmental interests of a person from the possible negative impact of economic and other activities, emergencies, and their consequences.

The scientific basis for all measures to ensure the ecological safety of the population and rational use of natural resources is theoretical ecology, the most important principles of which are focused on maintaining the homeostasis of ecosystems and preserving animal potential.

Ecosystems have the following limiting boundaries such existence(existence, functioning), which must be taken into account during anthropogenic impact (Saiko, 1985):

Limit anthropotolerance- resistance to negative anthropogenic impact, for example, the harmful effects of pesticides;

Limit stochetolerance- resilience against natural disasters, for example, the impact on forest ecosystems of hurricane winds;

Limit homeostasis- the ability to self-regulation;

Limit potential regeneration, those. self-healing ability.

Environmentally sound rational use of natural resources should consist in the maximum possible increase of these limits in order to achieve ecologically balanced use of natural resources. Irrational use of natural resources and ultimately leads to an ecological crisis.

2. Environmental crisis is a real threat to humanity

An ecological crisis is a stage of interaction between society and nature, at which the contradictions between economics and ecology are aggravated to the limit, and the possibility of maintaining potential homeostasis, i.e. the ability of self-regulation of ecosystems, in conditions anthropogenic impact seriously undermined.

A group of American scientists - D.H. Meadows, D.L. Meadows, I. Randers, V. Behrens, as well as representatives of the Club of Rome, using the methods of systems analysis, with the help of a computer, developed a model for the future development of the biosphere as a world system in five main parameters: population, food production, industrial production, environmental pollution, non-renewable natural resources. The authors of the model came to the conclusion that if the growth rates of the population, economy, and the rate of depletion of natural resources will increase on the same scale, then by 2020–2040. humanity will be on the verge of death as a result of the destruction of the natural environment. In other words, the degradation of the biosphere is now a direct threat to our civilization, since the limits of possible loads have already been reached.

Modern environmental science has proven that biota itself is able to regulate and stabilize the environment. Reacting to external disturbances with strong feedbacks (which is similar to the action of the La Chatelier – Brown principle in thermodynamics), the biota returns the environment to its previous state. However, such a reaction of the biota is possible only up to a certain limit.

In case of exceeding the economic or carrying capacity of the biosphere, the biota, according to V.I. Danilov-Danilyan and K.S. Losev (2000) itself becomes a "source of pollution". The remaining natural part continues to compensate for the disturbance, but such compensation is no longer enough to return the previous state of the natural environment.

It should be borne in mind that environmental degradation and its consequences are only one side of the manifestation of the ecological crisis, the other side (social) is crisis of state public structures, incapable of ensuring the environmental safety of society (Petrov, 1995).

A way out of the global ecological crisis is the most important scientific and practical problem of our time. The task is to develop a set of reliable anti-crisis measures that will actively counteract further degradation of the natural environment and achieve sustainable development. Attempts to solve this problem only by any means, for example, technological (treatment facilities, low-waste technologies, etc.), will not lead to the necessary results. Overcoming the ecological crisis is possible only under the condition of the harmonious development of nature and man, the removal of the antagonism between them. This is achievable only on the basis of the implementation of the “trinity of natural nature, society and humanized nature” (Zhdanov, 1995), on the path of sustainable development, an integrated approach to solving environmental problems. General principle environmental protection (Reimers, 1994): the global initial natural resource potential is constantly being depleted in the course of historical development, and, as a consequence, there is another principle: “environmentally friendly - economically”. This requires mankind to make fuller use of the natural resource potential, and efforts to implement it should be comparable to the economic results of nature management. Another important environmental rule: all components of the biosphere— atmospheric air, water, soil, etc.— it is necessary to protect not individually, but as a whole, as unified natural systems of the biosphere. Only with such an ecological approach is it possible to ensure the preservation of landscapes, mineral resources, animals, plants, etc.

According to the Federal Law "On Environmental Protection" (2002), the main principles of environmental protection are as follows:

Respect for human rights to a healthy environment;

Rational and sustainable nature management;

Conservation of biological diversity;

Payment for the use of natural resources and compensation for environmental damage;

Obligation to carry out state ecological expertise;

The priority of the conservation of natural ecosystems, natural landscapes and complexes;

Respect for everyone's right to reliable information about the state of the environment, etc.

The most important environmental principle, reflected in the Federal Law, is scientifically based combination of environmental, economic and social interests,- meets the spirit of the UN International Conference in Rio de Janeiro (1992), where a course was taken to preserve the surrounding natural environments "alongside, together" with economic growth.

An analysis of the ecological and socio-economic situation in Russia makes it possible to identify five main directions of Russia's exit from the ecological crisis (Fig. 1). At the same time, an integrated approach is required: the simultaneous use of all directions:

The first direction is greening technology: creation of environmentally friendly technology, introduction of waste-free, low-waste industries, etc.

The second direction is development and improvement of the economic mechanism environmental protection;

The third direction - administrative and legal: application of measures of administrative and legal responsibility for environmental offenses;

Fourth direction - green and educational: harmonization of ecological thinking, rejection of the consumer attitude to nature;

Fifth direction - international legal: harmonization of environmental international relations... Certain steps are already being taken in Russia to overcome the ecological crisis in all the above five areas. However, we all have to go through the most difficult and crucial sections of the road ahead.

3. Environmental activity in Russia

In our country, in different periods, certain efforts were made to protect nature. The laws on environmental protection in the USSR were adopted in the 70s and 80s of the XX century.

In 1991, the RSFSR Law “On Environmental Protection” was adopted. First of all, it defines the principles of protection

Environment: the priority of protecting human life and health,

Combination of economic and environmental interests,

Rational use of natural resources, publicity and

Openness of environmental information, etc.

The law establishes the rights of citizens in the field of environmental protection, the main legal institutions for environmental protection, specially protected natural areas, zones of environmental emergency, as well as requirements for various types of activities, the basics of environmental control and education, types of environmental offenses and responsibility for them. The law contains a set of rules for its protection in conditions of economic development and is thus the Environmental Code of Russia. The objectives of this law can be divided into three parts:

Protection of the natural environment (and through it and human health);

Prevention of the harmful effects of economic and their activities;

Improving the environment and improving its qualities

The leading principle aimed at solving these problems, the law calls the combination of environmental and economic interests, scientifically substantiated from the point of view of preservation and, if necessary, restoration of the natural environment and human health. This scientifically grounded combination should establish standards for the quality of the natural environment - maximum permissible exposure rates (chemical, physical, biological, etc.), maximum permissible concentrations of harmful substances, maximum permissible emissions, discharges of harmful substances, standards of radiation and electromagnetic exposure, noise , vibration, norms of harmful residues in food, etc. To ensure compliance with environmental quality standards, the law forms environmental requirements for all economic structures and citizens who are responsible for non-compliance. It is prohibited to finance and implement projects and programs that have not received a positive conclusion from the state environmental expertise. The commission for the acceptance of completed construction includes representatives of environmental protection and sanitary and epidemiological control. The object will not be accepted without their signature. The law establishes the imposition of a large fine on members of acceptance commissions for accepting facilities for operation in violation of environmental requirements. The Criminal Code of the Russian Federation permits the prosecution of such persons for negligence or abuse of office.

For the first time in our legislation, the law includes a section reflecting the right of citizens to a healthy and favorable natural environment. The real guarantees of this right are the standards for maximum permissible harmful effects, the system of environmental control over their implementation and liability for non-compliance. The right of citizens and public environmental movements to provide environmental information, participate in environmental expertise, demand its appointment, hold rallies, demonstrations, apply to administrative and judicial authorities with applications for the suspension or termination of the activities of environmentally harmful objects, with claims for compensation for harm caused to health and property. The amount of damage caused is recovered from the tortfeasor, and if it is impossible to establish it, then at the expense of the relevant state environmental fund, i.e. in this case, the state is responsible to the citizen. The law includes two categories of factors in the economic mechanism of environmental protection: positive and negative. Their goal is to ensure the economic interest of the user of natural resources in limiting the harmful effects on nature. Positive factors create direct economic incentives for nature conservation and provide financing, lending benefits, reduced taxation when introducing environmentally friendly technologies. Negative factors affect economic interest through the withdrawal of part of the income as a payment for the use of natural resources, a tax on environmentally harmful products or products manufactured using environmentally hazardous technologies. There are two types of payments for the use of natural resources: one - for the withdrawal, the consumption of natural substances, the second - for the discharge, emission, disposal of production waste in the natural environment. The system of economic incentives is supplemented in the law by measures of administrative and legal influence. These measures include environmental impact assessment, environmental control, measures of administrative and legal suppression of harmful activities, liability for environmental offenses. Environmental control is presented in three forms: an environmental monitoring system, state control, production and public control.

The principle of international cooperation in environmental protection, reflected in the law, is acquiring an important role, since the tasks of ecological revival are transboundary and can be fully resolved only through the efforts of the entire world community. Russia has signed a number of international agreements on environmental protection. In recent years, the country has seen an increase in the influence of local authorities and environmental authorities on the work of industry.

In Moscow, for example, it is forbidden to use leaded gasoline. Since 1989, the Moscow Committee for Nature Protection has introduced a round-the-clock duty of environmental ambulances (tel. 952-72-881 whose task is to promptly respond to reports of air, water or soil pollution. More than 150 environmentally harmful enterprises in Moscow either stopped or were closed.

4. Principles for the implementation of international cooperation in the field of environmental protection

The tasks of international cooperation in the field of environmental activities are to solve the problems of the correlation of legal regulation of the economy of different countries, the impact of human society on the environment in general and the mutual influence of ecology, law and economy, as well as issues of organizing rational use of natural resources using market levers of influence and bringing environmental standards of different countries towards uniformity.

Exchange between states includes a large range of environmentally significant goods - extraction, sale, transportation and export of hunting, including fur, trophies, exhibits and collections of rare animals and plants; transfer of oil, products produced from it, gas, other hydrocarbon raw materials; export of timber; food imports; import of technologies, industrial products, chemicals, as well as radioactive waste for processing. International quality standards also apply to environmental services - certification of forestry and other environmental products, implementation of environmental audits, voluntary and compulsory insurance of environmental risks, and other forms of environmental entrepreneurship. In addition, spontaneous movements of natural objects and transnational pollution are included in the sphere of interaction between countries in the field of ecology.

Management and control at the global regional and national levels over the state and changes of the environment on the basis of generally recognized criteria and parameters are international principles that are accepted by most states, and this implies the conclusion of not only interregional and bilateral, but also multilateral international agreements on environmental protection in the organization and implementation of nature management.

The agreements can be conditionally classified according to topics that give an idea of ​​the level and scale of globalization, on the directions of international environmental cooperation:

Issues of establishing international environmental organizations (40 in total) (World Meteorological Organization (1950) International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage (1994));

Protection of selected natural resources (39) - protection of all peaceful cultural and natural heritage (1972), international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora (1973), long-range transboundary air pollution (1979), conservation of biological diversity (1992); protection of the resources of the World Ocean: on the regulation of the mesh size of fishing nets and the limits of the size of fish (1953), on fishing in the waters of the Black Sea (1959), in the Northwest Atlantic (1978), the Baltic Sea (1973). ), Mediterranean Sea(1976 and 1980 on the prevention of pollution by discharges from ships (1973, 1988 and 1992);

Radiation safety issues (13) - on the protection of workers from ionizing radiation (1960), on the prohibition of nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere, in outer space and under water (1963), on the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons (1968), on prompt notification of a nuclear accident (1986), etc.

International agreements cover the solution of problems associated with the use of vehicles (16), Antarctica (5), outer space (4), military use and destruction of non-nuclear weapons of mass destruction (4).

The global nature of ecology leads to the creation of global supranational environmental governance bodies - international bodies for the protection of whales, fur seals, polar bears and other endangered species of animals and plants. OPEC coordinates the activities of states in setting oil and gas production quotas and minimum prices for hydrocarbon raw materials. The exchange of technologies in the field of using the energy of the sun, wind, sea tides is being carried out; coordination of measures for the search, processing, transportation, protection and sale of diamonds, platinum, palladium, gold and other precious metals; formation of a system for limiting harmful emissions into the atmosphere, monitoring emissions, charging fees for excess pollution, allowed after 1990 and the signing of the Kyoto Protocol. The European Environmental Arbitration Court, the European Environmental Commission and other bodies of environmental interaction were formed within the framework of the countries of the united Europe.

The Declaration on Environment and Development adopted in Rio de Janeiro at the World Conference "Environment and Development" (Rio de Janeiro, 14.06.1992). It also adopted a statement on the principles of protection and management of all types of forests; Convention on Biological Diversity; convention on climate change.

For the development of information cooperation in the field of harmonization of measurements, coordinated collection and exchange of environmental information at the international level and integration into international systems monitoring networks of national centers for information on the state of the environment of the Global Environmental Monitoring of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) are being created, taking into account and observing international standards.

Conclusion

French researcher Jacques-Yves Cousteau said: "Before, nature frightened man, but now man frightens nature." The time has come to stop frightening each other, and through the joint efforts of everyone living on Earth - be it a person or a microorganism - to improve our common home - the biosphere. The task of Homo sapiens is not to undermine the natural foundations of his existence, not to interfere with the progressive processes in the biosphere, wasting an ever-increasing amount of energy on this, but to try to understand the laws and rules that drive these processes, and coordinate with them your goals and actions.

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