Special and auxiliary historical disciplines and their role in historical research.

Detailed Solution paragraph Introduction to history for 10th grade students, authors V.I. Ukolova, A.V. Revyakin Profile level 2012

• Gdz control and measuring materials on History for grade 10 can be found

Define the concepts and give examples of their use in historical science:

civilization - a stable socio-cultural community, consisting of a group of countries united by cultural and linguistic characteristics at a certain stage of development;

historical anthropology - the concept of historical development and the method of cognition based on the awareness of the unity of material and spiritual culture, as well as with the help of cross-cultural research, while the focus of research is aimed at primitive societies;

modernization is the transition from a traditional society to an industrial one.

1. In what sense is the concept of "history" used?

On the one hand, history is a collection of past events. By default, what happened to humanity, but there is also the history of the planet Earth itself (geology studies it), the history of the Universe (astronomy tries to understand it), etc.

On the other hand, history is our idea of ​​this very past, its awareness and analysis. Such a picture is precisely created by the science of history.

The historian does not study the past itself, but the evidence of that past. As a rule, these are written sources that were written by someone, that is, events and phenomena are passed through the prism of perception by the author. Material evidence is more objective, but they carry much less information, usually the same written sources are needed to interpret them.

Not all created written sources and not all material evidence reach us. Time usually makes its own subjective selection, although there are exceptions. So the Spanish colonialists deliberately destroyed the books of the Aztecs, hoping that having lost the heritage of their pagan ancestors, they would more easily accept Christianity. From ancient sources, what has come down to us is mainly those that were copied in the Middle Ages, and then they specially selected texts according to certain criteria, therefore we see in many ways the picture created as a result of this selection.

The historian analyzes the data obtained on the basis of existing methods. In history, as in any science, they develop: the researchers of the past did not have the tools that they have today. This also applies to help. natural sciences(radiocarbon dating, methods of reconstructing a face from a skull, etc.), and directly analyzing the text, which has been increasingly improved over the generations of scientists.

In addition, any historian analyzes the past through the prism of his time. The most striking example is the ideological influence on history, which many political regimes have tried to exert over the past centuries. But there are also less obvious examples. Often the result depends on the personal predilections of the researchers, their gender and other conditions.

4. List the types of historical sources. What is their feature? Illustrate your answer with examples.

historical sources.

1. Material. Usually these are finds during archaeological excavations. They are the most objective, but without the help of written sources, they are sometimes difficult to interpret. That is why, for example, we know so little about the Cretan (Minoan) culture - a lot of material evidence remains of it, but the writing of that people has not been deciphered, the language is not understood.

2. Written.

a) Artistic works. Rather, they reflect the author's idea, but the author lives in certain historical conditions, which he unwittingly reflects in the work. Because in the absence of other sources works of art can be of great help to scientists. For example, numerous studies are based on Homer's poems, although they are most often used to study the era of the creation of poems, and not the Trojan War.

b) Religious texts. It is difficult to extract information from them, but some contain it. So the Bible is the main source for studying the past of the Jewish people. However, one should take into account the specifics of the source and understand that the presentation of events in such texts was not the main goal.

c) Memoirs. Tell directly about historical events. However, nothing prevents the author from distorting reality in order to whitewash himself or for any other purpose. It should also be borne in mind that memoirs are usually written many years after the events described, and human memory is complicated thing which is only beginning to be understood today. An example is the memoirs of Georgy Konstantinovich Zhukov: with the opening of archival funds dedicated to the Great Patriotic War, more and more places emerge where the marshal, to put it mildly, distorted reality, posing as a great strategist who knew everything in advance and predicted everything.

d) Letters. Unlike memoirs, they are usually written immediately after the event. But the question of the sincerity of the author remains. Examples are the letters of Mark Tullius Cicero (the texts of many of them have been preserved): they are not used to reconstruct the event if the information reported is not confirmed in parallel sources, but it contains a lot of valuable information about the life and customs of the Romans of the 1st century BC .

e) Press. Many of their contemporaries learned about the events from publications in newspapers and magazines, and historians can also use them. However, the “objectivity” of the press is well known: it is most concerned about either circulation or the opinion of the authorities, depending on the type of state in which the publication is published. In addition, the publication often appears before all the details of the event are known. As an example, we can mention the differences in the coverage of the events on Tiananmen Square in Beijing in 1989 by the newspapers of the United States and China, and not only the assessments, but the published "veils" were different.

f) Chronicles, chronicles, etc. Contrary to popular belief, the authors had reasons not to distort what they knew. However, the question arises about their awareness. A typical example is the "History" of Herodotus. When the author describes events close to his time, he conveys them quite accurately, but when describing the first centuries of the Greco-Persian conflict (which he traces back to the beginning of history itself), he uses frank mythology.

g) Official documents. They usually reflect reality objectively, because they are compiled for practical purpose, and not to pass information to descendants. However, they have their own specifics and individually usually contain little information. So it makes sense to study the tablets of the economic archives of the Sumerian temples only in their significant complex. From a separate entry, which says, for example, how much grain this or that person contributed as a tax, little can be understood.

There are many other types of written sources.

3. Folklore. It should be remembered that events in folklore are described through the prism of folk memory. In addition, these works have come a long way through oral transmission before being written down. For example, it would be strange to study the reign of Vladimir the Holy according to the description of Vladimir the Red Sun in Russian epics. However, they provide valuable information about people's perception of certain events, about the worldview of the people.

4. Photos.

a) Artistic photos. They help in studying the history of culture, as well as everyday life and material objects. For example, pre-war even artistic photographs show buildings that later died during the hostilities, and fashion magazines of the past decades are the best source for studying this very fashion.

b) Documentary photos. Usually, they are objective, but require interpretation based on other types of sources. For example, photographs of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin during public speaking help us understand what kind of expression he had, why he led so many people. But if we did not know from other sources who this speaker was and what his role was in history, we would not be able to understand the value of these shots.

5. Cinema and phono sources.

a) artistic. This type includes art films, recordings of musical compositions, etc. From them you can study the history of culture, as well as life and even worldview, and also get other valuable information. For example, shortly after the revolution in Russia, most of the equestrian stunts in Hollywood films were performed by exiled Cossacks. Therefore, there you can see examples of horse riding, which are described in written sources, but rarely caught on film.

b) Archival records. This type includes mainly recordings of television and radio programs. They are also useful for exploring both culture and worldview. For example, in such records, we can see interviews with politicians of past years, make out their demeanor, style of speech, etc.

c) Documentaries and programs. In such films, we see genuine footage. Sometimes, they are preserved only in a similar form - the originals are lost. But in this case, you need to understand that the material went through the prism of perception of the author of the film. He did not edit the frames and audio fragments, but selected those that seemed most interesting to him, that best reflected his idea.

d) Documentary footage and audio recordings. These are records made during the events, not processed by anyone. They are the most objective, but they require patience, because in order to find the one most informative minute, sometimes you need to look at the clock. An example is the numerous materials of the Great Patriotic War, made by cameramen right during the fighting, right in the thick of things.

5. Can a historian be objective? Please confirm your opinion.

The historian usually strives for this, but cannot be completely objective. If only because the human perception of even what he directly sees and hears is not completely objective. A scientist understands historical events with the help of sources that have an author with their own biased perception. Information passes through the prism of perception of several people. Moreover, these people differ in worldview, therefore they often understand the same things differently. In addition, we must not forget about the censorship of time - not everything created in a certain period has come down to us, many sources have died for a variety of reasons. Therefore, our knowledge is largely mosaic.

6. Write a discussion on the topic "Three reasons why people study history and what studying history will give me personally."

Historical science in its primitive form arose in Ancient Greece. In the form of a mature science, it exists according to at least, from the 18th century. Areas of knowledge that humanity does not need are measured over such a period of time. Suffice it to recall phrenology - a science that tried to understand a person's character, intellect and mental state by the protrusions of his skull (which supposedly spoke of the greater or lesser development of certain parts of the brain). Phrenology was quite popular at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, but eventually died out. Nothing like this happened in history.

People study history for the following reasons.

1) It's interesting. Any science begins with interest, otherwise there is no point in doing it.

2) The ability to avoid the mistakes of the past. Lately the phrase “History teaches only that it teaches nothing” is spreading more and more, but nevertheless, after the horrors of World War II, humanity learned not to divide people into full-fledged and inferior on any grounds, after the end of colonialism, they understood the importance of an independent life for everyone from peoples, etc.

3) Formation of one's own historical memory. The common past plays a big role in the formation of the nation, patriotic feeling and much more.

Personally, I am attracted to history by the opportunity to literally immerse myself in other eras. It's like living another life and then returning to your own. Immersion in history without knowing it is bad Hollywood movies - only the weapon changes, while the musket is held like a modern rifle. But a different era is not only a different city around and people in different costumes, but also their different behavior, a different picture of the world in their heads, different interests, expectations and aspirations. All this is very interesting.

1. Highlight the social functions of the story. What role does history play in politics? Give examples of the ideologization of history.

Social features:

cognitive function;

predictive function (although the failure of such forecasts throughout the 20th century has shaken the position of this function);

Self-identification of nations and civilizations;

educational function.

History in a distorted form was used by many regimes. Thus, the formational approach dominated in the Soviet Union, according to which the highest form historical development was communism, in the previous - socialism. Based on this concept, the USSR, like the rest of the countries of the socialist camp, were declared more developed than the "decaying West".

Hitler's Germany focused on civilizations that developed rapidly, and then began to degrade, after which they disappeared. Nazi scientists argued that the development was provided by the Aryan ethnic element, and degradation began when the Semites began to predominate in civilization.

The use of history for ideological purposes leads to the inevitable distortion of history, because the reality of the past is too complex to illustrate simple political ideas. Mixing ideology and history always harms historical science.

2. Name modern concepts historical development. Make a summary of the 3rd paragraph of the paragraph in the most rational form.

1. Civilizational concepts.

a) The concepts of the French Enlightenment.

b) Civilization as a stage in the development of society.

c) Civilization as a cultural and historical community.

d) Linear-stage theories of civilization.

e) The concept of A. Toynbee and its development.

2. Historical (cultural) anthropology.

a) The study of primitive societies.

b) Annals School.

c) New sections: the history of mentality, everyday life, etc.

d) Comparativeness in history.

3. Theories of modernization.

a) Understanding modernization as an acceleration of development.

b) Understanding modernization as a transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern era.

c) Understanding modernization as a transition from a traditional society to an industrial one.

d) Second and third echelons of modernization.

3. Consider why there is no single definition of "civilization".

Because this word with a Latin root initially had a very broad and relatively vague meaning, and in everyday life it has retained it to this day. However, it was very popular. In science, a definition must unambiguously imply one particular meaning. Each author of the concept took one of the aspects of the ordinary meaning of the word "civilization" and included it in his constructions. There are many civilizational concepts, and therefore there are many definitions of the concept of "civilization".

4. Explain the concept of "modernization". In what historical situations is it appropriate to use this concept, and in which not? Give examples.

It is easiest to use this concept in the narrowest sense of the word. Modernization is the path from a traditional society to an industrial one. In this sense, the abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861 is a significant step towards modernization.

The concept of modernization as a transition from the Dark Ages to our time is much broader. In this sense, modernization means reforming the Western christian church(meaning as the Reformation, there is perestroika catholic church during the struggle against the Protestant). In the same sense, the transition of an already industrial society to a post-industrial one (in which the main part of GDP is the service sector and the majority of employees work in the same sector) is also modernization.

Modernization as accelerated development is linked with the concept of progress. This is the introduction of steam engines, and the invention of firearms, and much more.

History translated from Greek means a story about the past, about what has been learned. History is a process of development of nature and society. Also called history is a complex of social sciences (historical science), studying the past of mankind in all its concreteness and diversity. History is included in the group of humanities that study a particular region (African studies, Balkan studies), a people (Sinology, etc.) or a group of peoples (Slavic studies).

World (general) history is a history that studies the period of mankind from the appearance of the first Homo sapiens until now.

The history of homeland - this is a history that studies the history of individual countries and peoples (the history of Russia, the history of Germany).

The history is divided into the following sections in chronological order:

the history of primitive society is a history that studies the period in the history of mankind before the invention of writing, after which there is the possibility of historical research based on the study of written sources.

ancient history is the history that studies the period of human history, distinguished between the prehistoric period and the beginning of the Middle Ages in Europe.

Medieval history is a history that studies the period in the history of mankind, following after Antiquity and preceding the New Age.

new history - history that studies the period in the history of mankind, located between the Middle Ages and the Newest time.

recent history - history that studies the period of mankind since 1918

Branches of history:

economic history is a branch of history that studies the phenomena and processes associated with evolutionary development and the interaction of those aspects of human activity that are somehow connected with the economy.

military history is a branch of history that studies wars that took place in any particular historical era; also the history of any one war or even a single campaign.

historical geography - a branch of history that studies history through the "prism" of geography, it is also the geography of a territory at a certain historical stage of its development.

historiography - branch historical science studying its history (accumulation of historical knowledge, interpretation of historical phenomena, change of methodological trends in historical science, etc.).

Organic parts of history as a complex of sciences:

archeology is a science that studies the history of society based on the material remains of people's life and activities - material (archaeological) monuments.

ethnography (ethnology) is the science of ethnic groups (peoples), studying their origin and settlement, life and culture.

History is included in the group of humanities that study a particular region (African studies, Balkan studies), a people (Sinology, etc.) or a group of peoples (Slavic studies).

historical sources- all objects that directly reflect historical process and giving an opportunity to study the past of mankind.

Historical sources are conditionally divided into several groups:

according to the type of information fixation:

written - epigraphic documents, birch bark letters, manuscripts, printed materials.

material - the instruments of production and the material goods created with the help of them: buildings, weapons, jewelry, dishes, works of art - everything that is the result of human labor activity.

Unlike written ones, they do not contain a direct account of historical events and most often do not contain any inscriptions.

film and photo documents - documentary film, audio and photographic materials.

pictorial - icons, parsuns, paintings, posters, etc.

from the point of view of studying any science:

ethnographic - information that has survived to the present: data on life, customs, customs, which are often absent in written sources. Such information is collected, studied and processed by ethnography.

folklore - monuments of oral folk art, i.e. legends, songs, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings, etc. Such information is collected, studied and processed by folklore.

linguistic - information about the origin of geographical names, personal names, proper names of ships, ships, proper names of gods and deities, etc. Such information is studied by linguistics.

Separate historical sources can only conditionally be attributed to one or another group. So, some ethnographic sources study both archeology and ethnography; anthropological sources stand on the verge of natural science and history. The development of society is constantly leading to a particularly rapid expansion of the varieties of written sources and the emergence of completely new types of historical sources. For example, the invention and use of sound recording photo and film cameras led to the formation of a special group of film, audio and photographic materials.

Auxiliary historical disciplines - these are subjects that study certain types or individual forms and contents of historical sources.

We can refer the following sciences to auxiliary historical disciplines:

Paleography - an auxiliary historical discipline (a special historical and philological discipline) that studies the history of writing, the patterns of development of its graphic forms, as well as monuments of ancient writing in order to read them, determine the author, time and place of creation. Palaeography studies the evolution of the graphic forms of letters, written characters, the proportions of their constituent elements, the types and evolution of fonts, the system of abbreviations and their graphic designation, the material and tools of writing. A special branch of paleography studies the graphics of cryptography systems (cryptography).

Diplomatics - an auxiliary historical discipline that studies historical acts (legal documents). It explores ancient documents of a diplomatic and legal nature: charters, acts and similar texts and their originals. One of its tasks is to distinguish fake acts from real ones.

Genealogy - an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the family relationships of people, the history of childbirth, the origin of individuals, the establishment of family ties, the compilation of generational paintings and family trees. Genealogy is linked to heraldry, diplomacy and many other historical disciplines. Since the beginning of the 21st century, in connection with scientific progress, genetic genealogy using human DNA analysis has been gaining popularity.

Heraldry - a special historical discipline dealing with the study of coats of arms, as well as the tradition and practice of their use. It is part of emblematics, a group of interrelated disciplines that study emblems. The difference between emblems and other emblems is that their structure, use and legal status correspond to special, historically established rules. Heraldry precisely determines what and how can be applied to the state coat of arms, family coat of arms, and so on, explains the meaning of certain figures.

Sphragistics - an auxiliary historical discipline that studies seals (matrices) and their impressions on various materials. Initially developed as part of diplomacy, dealing with the determination of the authenticity of documents.

Historical metrology - an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the measures used in the past - length, area, volume, weight - in their historical development. Often units of measurement did not form a metric system, they are referred to as traditional systems of measurement. Historical metrology studies the history of the genesis and development of various measurement systems, the names of individual measures, their quantitative ratios, establishes their real values, that is, their correspondence to modern metric systems. Metrology is closely related to numismatics, since many peoples in the past had weights that coincided with monetary units and had the same name.

Numismatics - an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the history of coinage and monetary circulation. Public functions of numismatics: identification of numismatic cultural monuments; the study of characteristic facts, connections and processes that contribute to a deeper understanding of history and fill in the gaps in historical science.

Chronology - an auxiliary historical discipline that establishes the dates of historical events and documents; sequence of historical events in time; a list of any events in their time sequence.

Historical geography - an auxiliary historical discipline that studies history through the "prism" of geography; it is also the geography of a territory at a certain historical stage of its development.

Archiving - a scientific discipline that studies and develops theoretical, methodological and organizational issues of archiving and its history.

Archeology - a historical discipline that studies the historical past of mankind from material sources.

Ethnography - a part of historical science that studies ethnic peoples and other ethnic formations, their origin (ethnogenesis), composition, settlement, cultural and everyday features, as well as their material and spiritual culture.

Historiography is an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the history of historical science. Historiography tests the correct application of the scientific method in writing a historical work, focusing on the author, his sources, the separation of facts from interpretation, as well as style, author's biases and the audience for which he wrote this work in the field of history.

Historical computer science - an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the methodology of using information technology in the study of the historical process, the publication of historical research and the teaching of historical disciplines, as well as in archival and museum work.

CHRONOLOGY. TIME COUNT. Julian and Gregorian calendars.

Chronology(from Greek χρόνος - time; λόγος - teaching):

an auxiliary historical discipline that establishes the dates of historical events and documents;

sequence of historical events in time;

a list of any events in their time sequence.

"The calendar"- from the Latin ‘Calendarium’ – “debt book”, and ‘Calendae’ is the first day of each month in ancient Rome, on which it was supposed to pay regular interest on debts; - hence the figurative meaning of this word as a time counting system.

When counting time in history, two parameters are needed:

measures of time in relation to each other - this is a "calendar" in the narrow sense;

the distance from a conditionally chosen reference point is the “chronology” or “era”.

Together, these two parameters make up a system of counting time or a "calendar in the broadest sense."

Calendars in the narrow sense are of three types:

solar - measures of time in them from the ratio of the Sun - Earth: DAY, YEAR and its derivatives - CENTURY (CENTURY) and MILLENNIUM.

lunar - measures of time in them from the ratio Moon - Earth - Sun - WEEK, MONTH

lunisolar, - combine measures of time of the 1st and 2nd type.

Calendars of the 3rd type are more widely used, and the first two are usually in the field of religion. Calendars of the 3rd type are JULIAN and GRIGORIAN, the use of which is typical for European and Russian history.

Julian calendar- a calendar developed by a group of Alexandrian astronomers led by Sosigen. The calendar was introduced by Julius Caesar from January 1, 45 BC. e. The Julian calendar year begins on January 1, since it was on this day from 153 BC. e. consuls elected by the comitia took office.

The Julian calendar replaced the old Roman calendar and was based on the astronomical culture of Hellenistic Egypt. In Kievan Rus, the calendar was known as the "Peaceful Circle", the "Church Circle", the Indiction and the "Great Indiction". The Julian calendar in modern Russia is usually called the old style.

Gregorian calendar- a time calculation system based on the cyclic circulation of the Earth around the Sun; the duration of the year is taken equal to 365.2425 days; contains 97 leap years for 400 years.

The Gregorian calendar was first introduced by Pope Gregory XIII in Catholic countries October 4, 1582 instead of the former Julian: the next day after Thursday, October 4, was Friday, October 15.

THE PRINCIPLE OF HISTORICISM. PARADIGMS OF HISTORICAL SCIENCE. GENERAL HISTORICAL PERIODIZATION.

historicism- a scientific method, the principle of considering the world, natural and socio-cultural phenomena in the dynamics of their change, formation in time, in a natural historical development, involving the analysis of research objects in connection with the specific historical conditions of their existence.

Periodization of history- a special kind of systematization, which consists in the conditional division of the historical process into certain chronological periods. These periods have certain distinctive features, which are determined depending on the chosen basis (criterion) of periodization.

PERIODIZATION OF THE HISTORY OF PRIMARY SOCIETY. MONUMENTS OF PRIMARY CULTURE ON THE TERRITORY OF RUSSIA.

Stone Age:

Stone Age - ancient period in the history of mankind, when the main tools and weapons were made mainly of stone, but wood and bone were also used. At the end of the Stone Age, the use of clay (dishes, brick buildings, sculpture) spread.

Periodization of the Stone Age:

Paleolithic:

The Lower Paleolithic is the period of the appearance of the oldest human species and the widespread distribution of Homo erectus.

Middle Paleolithic - the period of displacement of erectus by evolutionarily more advanced species of people, including modern man. Neanderthals dominated Europe during the entire Middle Paleolithic.

The Upper Paleolithic is the period of domination of the modern type of people throughout the globe in the era of the last glaciation.

Mesolithic and Epipaleolithic; the terminology depends on how much the region has been affected by the loss of megafauna as a result of the melting of the glacier. The period is characterized by the development of technology for the production of stone tools and common culture person. Ceramic is missing.

Neolithic - the era of appearance Agriculture. Tools and weapons are still stone, but their production is brought to perfection, and ceramics are widely distributed.

Copper Age:

Copper Age, Copper-Stone Age, Chalcolithic(Greek χαλκός "copper" + Greek λίθος "stone") or Eneolithic (Latin aeneus "copper" + Greek λίθος "stone")) is a period in the history of primitive society, a transitional period from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age. Approximately covers the period 4-3 thousand BC. e., but in some areas it exists longer, and in some it is absent altogether. Most often, the Eneolithic is included in bronze age, but sometimes considered a separate period. During the Eneolithic, copper tools were common, but stone tools still prevailed.

Bronze Age:

Bronze Age- a period in the history of primitive society, characterized by the leading role of bronze products, which was associated with an improvement in the processing of metals such as copper and tin, obtained from ore deposits, and the subsequent production of bronze from them. The Bronze Age is the second, late phase of the Early Metal Age, succeeding the Copper Age and preceding the Iron Age. In general, the chronological framework of the Bronze Age: 35/33 - 13/11 centuries. BC e., but different cultures are different. In the Eastern Mediterranean, the end of the Bronze Age is associated with the almost simultaneous destruction of all local civilizations at the turn of the 13th-12th centuries. BC BC, known as the Bronze Collapse, while in the west of Europe the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age drags on for several more centuries and ends with the appearance of the first cultures of antiquity - ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.

Bronze Age periods:

Early Bronze Age

Middle Bronze Age

Late Bronze Age

Iron Age:

The Iron Age is a period in the history of primitive society, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools. For civilizations of the Bronze Age, it goes beyond the history of primitive society, for other peoples, civilization develops in the era of the Iron Age.

THE LARGEST GREEK POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CENTERS IN THE NORTHERN BLACK SEA REGION. SCYTHIANS.

Ancient Greek colonies of the Northern Black Sea region:

Borisfen (on the island of Berezan at the mouth of the Dnieper) - the first Greek colony in the Northern Black Sea region, later its center moved north to Olbia; founded ca. 647 BC e.

Tyra (now Belgorod-Dnestrovsky, founded c. 502 BC); UNESCO is included in the list of 10 oldest cities in the world, the oldest city (of the existing ones) in Ukraine.

Olbia (Ochakov area, founded in the first quarter of the 6th century BC, one of the largest policies in the region);

Kerkinitida (now Evpatoria, founded around 550 BC by the Ionians. In the 4th - 2nd centuries BC, it was under the rule of Chersonesos, then captured and practically destroyed by the Scythians.);

Tauric Chersonesos (now in its place is Sevastopol; founded by the Heracleians around 528 BC) - the most important city of southwestern Tavria; weakened by the struggle with the steppe nomads and the Bosporus, became dependent on Rome, later became the possession of Byzantium. His successor was the Principality of Theodoro.

Kalos-Limen (near the village of Chernomorskoye) - founded in the 4th century BC. e. the Ionians. At the end of the 4th century BC. e. was captured by the Chersonesites; became an arena of confrontation between the Greeks and the steppe peoples - the Scythians and Sarmatians. Destroyed by the Sarmatians in the 1st century AD. e.

Theodosius - founded in the middle of the VI century BC. e., from 355 BC. e. - captured by the Bosporus kingdom. After the Hun invasion - an Alanian, then a Khazar settlement, gradually deserted. The revival began in 1267, when this place was bought from the Tatars by the Genoese for a trading post and where the city was revived under the name of Kafa;

Panticapaeum (later the center of the Bosporus kingdom (now Kerch, founded at the very end of the 5th century BC or the first quarter of the 5th century BC) with adjacent policies and settlements that also became part of the Bosporan kingdom:

• Tiritaka

  Mirmekiy

• kimmerik

  Zenonov Chersonese

  Heracles

• Parthenius

On the Asian side of the Cimmerian Bosporus:

Hermonassa - founded by the Milesians in the first quarter of the 6th century BC. e.

Kepi ​​- founded by the Miletians in the 580s - 570s BC. e.

Korkondam

Patreus - founded no later than the third quarter of the 6th century BC. e.

Phanagoria - founded shortly after 543 BC. e., the largest city on the Asian side of the Kerch Strait;

Exercise 1. Find 3 - 5 statements about the benefits of studying history and write them down in your workbook. Having chosen one of the statements, determine its main idea (problem) and arrange your thoughts in a mini-essay in the amount of 8-10 sentences. ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________





___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Task 2. Fill in the table "Auxiliary historical disciplines".

Task 3. Define the following terms:

Story - ____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

The object of historical science is _______________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Historical source - ________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Archeology - ____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Anthropology - _____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Ethnography - _________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Folkloristics - _________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Source study - _________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Historiography - ________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Task 4. Match the flags, coats of arms (or state seals) and the countries to which they belong:

	China
	the Russian Federation
	Japan
	USA
	Germany
	England

Carry out the blazonization (description) of the coat of arms of the Republic of Bashkortostan:

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Creative task. Make a coat of arms (emblem) of your family using Appendix 1 (p. 37).

Describe the coat of arms (emblem) that you have drawn up: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Task 5. Fill in the gaps in the “Formational development social history»:






Task 6. Read an excerpt from the article by the famous Russian philosopher Yu.K. Pletnikov "Formational and civilizational triads of K. Marx" and answer the questions to the text.

In domestic social science it is now considered good form to criticize Marxism. But there are critics and criticism. Criticism as a primitive negative attitude, breaking, rejection of something and criticism (in the spirit of the tradition of classical German philosophy) as a cleansing of this something from everything superficial and random. Criticism of "pure reason" by I. Kant, for example, meant not a rejection of "pure reason", but the desire to make "pure reason" even purer. In the same vein, apparently, it is necessary to understand the well-known subtitle of K. Marx's "Capital" "Criticism of Political Economy", the meaning of which disputes continue to this day.

Modern criticism of Marxism, if it claims to be scientific, should first of all become a cleansing of Marxism from all situational conclusions and assessments, post-Marxian simplifications and attempts to turn Marxist theory into a kind of dogma, a dogmatic scheme, under which all diversity was adjusted. human history. But other things cannot be ignored. The development of Marxist theory requires not only understanding the realities modern world but also the critical assimilation of the objective results of non-Marxist research, their dialectical “removal” and inclusion in such a transformed and subordinate form into the theoretical system of Marxism, its enrichment with new ideas and new problems ...

The term “formation” was adopted by K. Marx from geological science, where he denoted the stratification of geological deposits of a certain period, which was a formation formed in time in earth's crust. Having applied this term in the philosophy of history, K. Marx put new content into it, although the element of analogy was preserved. The similarity between “formation” in the form of a category of geological science and “formation” in the form of a category of the philosophy of history is that in both cases we are talking about emerging and changing material formations ...

The basic links of formational development are the "formational triad" - three large social formations. In the final version (1881), the formational triad was presented by K. Marx in the form of a primary social formation (common property), a secondary social formation (private property) and, probably, one can say so, although K. Marx did not have such a phrase , - tertiary social formation (public property) ...

... the Marxist formational triad is far from coinciding with the so-called formational “five-membered system”, which until recently was widespread in Marxist literature. Contrary to the warnings of K. Marx, this “five-term structure”, constituted mainly in Western European historical material, was presented as universal, the only possible stages of the historical process. Faced with historical facts, the comprehension of which did not fit into such a formational scheme, Orientalists and other researchers of non-European countries and regions declared the failure of Marxism. However, such a “criticism” of Marxism actually means only criticism of a surrogate for Marxism. The formational triad puts everything in its place. Marxism does not provide ready-made dogmas, but the starting points for further research and the method of such research.

Questions and assignments to the text.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What methods of studying the teachings of K. Marx does the author of the article call on modern researchers? Why?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. From which science did K. Marx borrow the term "formation"? What was in common between the original meaning of this word and the meaning invested in this concept by K. Marx?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Did the division of the historical process into formations differ in the teaching

K. Marx from the vision of the formational development of social history in the studies of his followers? Justify your answer.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Task 7. Fill the table " Comparative analysis civilizational and formational approaches»

Task 8.

1. Make a family tree of your family on a separate sheet.



History as a science, subject and methods of study.

What is history? It can be viewed both as a process of development of nature, society, man, and as a complex of social sciences that study the past of mankind in all its concreteness and diversity (diagram

History is primarily a field of human activity.

The value of history lies in the fact that thanks to it we learn what a person has done and, therefore, what he is.

Historical sources are everything that reflects the historical process, gives us the opportunity to study the past of mankind. Several decades ago, historical science developed a system for classifying historical sources based on principle of information carrier. In our opinion, this traditional system gives the most complete picture of the whole variety of historical sources that are in service with historical science (Scheme 2). Most authors distinguish six types of sources.

1. Written sources. It is generally accepted that the oldest type of writing was pictography, i.e. writing-drawings, which were used by primitive people. It is from such drawings that hieroglyphic writing originates. Writing, which denotes not objects of thought, phrases or words, but the sounds of the language, also arose in ancient times. The inventors of the first alphabet are the Phoenicians - a people who lived on the east coast mediterranean sea in the second half of the 1st millennium BC. Slavic alphabet was created in the ninth century. based on the Greek alphabet by Christian missionaries Cyril and Methodius. The first written monuments in the Old Russian language that have come down to us date back to the 11th century. Written sources include ancient chronicles, memoirs, articles from newspapers and magazines, business documents, statistical materials, etc. Even an important source can be fiction, because the works of writers and poets perfectly reflect the life, customs, social moods of a particular era.

Scheme 2

2. Material sources. Such sources can be called a tool of labor of a primitive man found by an archaeologist, and a family service passed down from generation to generation, and an old clock stored in a museum, and any other item that helps us study the history of mankind.

3. Ethnographic sources. These include cultural, religious, household traditions different peoples. The customs, norms of behavior, rituals, holidays that we inherited from our ancestors - component historical memory of mankind.

4. Oral sources. Any of us who have ever listened to the memories of the experiences of our parents and grandparents have come across this type of source. Much has happened in the memory of living people: the Great Patriotic War, short-term thaw of 1950-1960, perestroika, collapse of the USSR. Someone remained a passive observer of the events taking place, and someone, by the will of fate, found himself in their very thick. Eyewitness accounts can be a very valuable source and provide a basis for serious historical research.

5. Linguistic sources. The memory of the past is kept not only by people, but also by the languages ​​they speak, therefore it is customary to single out linguistic sources as a separate type. For example, the origin in the Slavic languages ​​of words denoting the names of animals and plants allows scientists to draw conclusions about the location of the ancient ancestral home of the Slavs. We can say for sure that ancient ancestors Slavic peoples lived in places where spruce and birch trees grew, but beeches did not grow, since their name in our language has an "alien" origin.

6. Audiovisual documents (photo, film and video documents, sound recording). They represent a significant period of new and recent history. As you know, photography appeared in the middle, and cinema - at the very end of the 19th century. In the XX century. photography became color, and cinema, besides this, became sound. Relatively recently, videos have appeared. The materials captured on photo, film and videotape make it possible to "stop" the moment, "revive" the irretrievably bygone past.

The first phonograph was invented in 1877 by the American T. Edison. Since then, sound preservation techniques have been continuously improved. In less than a hundred years, gramophone records have been replaced by laser CDs. Audio recordings store the sounds of past eras, the voices of long dead people.

The study of historical sources requires special skills and knowledge. To get them, it is necessary to study special (auxiliary) historical disciplines that allow you to master the basic methods of working with historical sources (see Table 1).

Table 1

Auxiliary historical disciplines

Name	Subject of study
Genealogy (Greek genealogia - genealogy)	The science of the origin, emergence and development of family relations
Heraldry (lat. heraldus - herald)	The science that studies coats of arms
Diplomatics (Greek diploma - document)	The science that studies the origin, form and content, functioning, history of the text of documents legal nature
Metrology (Greek metron - measure and logos - science)	The science that studies the measures of length, area, volume, weight used in the past in their historical development
Onomastics (Greek onoma - name, name)	The science that studies proper names, the history of their occurrence. It has several sections: toponymy - the science of geographical names; anthroponymy - a science that studies the personal names of people; ethnonymy is a science that studies the names of cities; Theonymy is the study of the names of gods.
Numismatics (lat. numisma - coin)	The science that studies the history of coinage and monetary circulation of coins, banknotes, etc.
Paleography (Greek palos - ancient and grafo - I am writing)	The science that studies the external features of handwritten sources in their historical development (handwriting, writing signs, ink, etc.)
Sphragistics (Greek sphragis - seal)	The science that studies seals
Chronology (Greek chronos - time)	The science that studies the systems of chronology and calendars of various peoples
Etymology (Greek etymon - truth, true meaning of the word)	A branch of linguistics that studies the original word-formation structure of a word and identifies elements of its ancient meaning

It is not always enough to simply read a historical source to obtain the necessary information. And yes, it can be hard to read at times. V Ancient Russia, for example, the text was written together, without separating words, the spelling of individual letters was very different from the modern one. Even the number of alphabetic characters changed over time. The type of handwriting also became different: charter, semi-tire, cursive. In order to learn how to read the manuscripts of past centuries, historians study paleography - the science of the external features of handwritten sources.

No less important for researchers is the account of time. It is not difficult, for example, to guess that the ancient Greeks never wrote that they lived in the 5th century BC. BC. They began their reckoning from the beginning of the first Olympic Games. In pre-Petrine Russia, years were counted from the biblical "creation of the world." By the way, New Year our ancestors met in the spring (March 1), and from the end of the 15th century. - in September. Over the long history of mankind, many calendars have been created. Lunar calendars come from Mesopotamia, and solar calendars from ancient egypt. A calendar similar to the one we use was created in Ancient Rome. In the 1st century G. Yu. Caesar introduced a calendar consisting of 365 days and 6 hours, called the Julian. According to this calendar, there is a leap year every four years. Once every 128 years, there was a difference of one day. By the 16th century it was ten days, so in 1582 Pope Gregory reformed the calendar. This is how the Gregorian calendar was born. In our country, it (we also call it "new style") was adopted only in 1918. Orthodox Church still occur according to the ancient Julian calendar. Historians help to understand the systems of chronology and calendars of different times and peoples chronology.

Throughout the long history of mankind, not only time counting systems have changed, but also systems of measures. The metric system is adopted in most countries of the world. But in the past, each nation had its own system of measures of length, area, volume, weight. The systems of measures in their historical development are dealt with metrology.

As mentioned above, the memory of the past is kept by the languages ​​of the peoples of the world. This is especially evident in the names of proper names. The history of their origin is studied onomastics. This discipline has several sections, the most important of which can be considered toponymy (the science of geographical names) and anthroponymy (the science of the origin of human names and surnames).

Of great importance to the historian are numismatics, examining coins, and sphragistics - the science of seals. One of the most interesting historical disciplines are genealogy - the science of genealogy heraldry - the science of emblems.

Historical sources and the complex of considered disciplines make it possible to approach the knowledge of historical truth.




Similar information.




Historians do not draw knowledge about the past from nowhere. There are a large number of branches of historical science that help advance the study of specific periods. What are these branches, and how do they help historians understand the past?

Classification of historical disciplines

For most of them, the term "auxiliary historical disciplines" is used. Conventionally, they are divided into two groups. The first includes those involved in the study of different types of sources from any one side. These are such auxiliary historical disciplines as archeography, genealogy, archival science, paleography, historical metrology, epigraphy, papyrology, chronology, textology. So, for example, chronology deals with the study of chronology systems, for which various types of written sources are used. Historical metrology studies the units of measurement for weight, length, and other quantities that existed in various countries. Without it, we would hardly be able to imagine what a pud, pound or talent is, which are reported in many written sources known to us. Specialists in epigraphy are interested in inscriptions that are short in content - on stones, handicrafts, building walls, etc.

The second group includes disciplines that study specific types of sources, but at the same time consider them from different angles. Examples include numismatics, sphragistics, heraldry, faleristics. Each of them has a narrow numismatics studies banknotes(paper and metal), sphragistics - seals, heraldry - emblems, faleristics - types of awards.

There is another term - special historical disciplines. These are branches that are considered completely independent parts of historical science. The most famous of them is archeology. This is a science with its own terms and periodization and a wide range. This also includes historiography, which studies the development process. Also, special historical disciplines such as ethnography, source studies, historical geography. In general, this term has not yet been established in science - it is used both to replace the word "auxiliary" and to independent disciplines. Historians also define the independence of a particular discipline in different ways.

The role of support and special disciplines in research

What role do special and auxiliary historical disciplines play in the process of knowing history? In fact, these are the bricks that make up historical knowledge. Any professional historian has to master special knowledge in order to successfully study a particular period. Thus, a specialist in the history of the Middle Ages will have to master both narrow written manuscripts and broader source studies. Auxiliary historical disciplines give us knowledge, thanks to which we gradually present an overall picture of a particular period. For example, the presence of inscriptions on handicrafts of the era Kievan Rus indicates that literacy was widespread not only among the nobility, but also among ordinary people. Finds with stamps in the burials of nomads in the Black Sea steppes allow us to determine the direction of trade carried out by these nomadic peoples. Genealogy gives us knowledge about among the aristocracy, dynastic contacts of rulers. huge role in historical research plays a chronology that studies the systems of chronology in different countries. Without it, we simply would not be able to determine the sequence and time of events in historical documents.

In general, the division of historical disciplines into auxiliary and special is very conditional. After all, each of them is an integral part of historical science, helping scientists learn more about the past.

• total:0
• In contact with 0
• Google+ 0
• OK 0
• Facebook 0