Therefore, he did not expect to become an all-Russian autocrat. In April 1865, his older brother Nikolai died suddenly in French Nice from tuberculous meningitis. The Danish king Christian IX wanted to marry his daughter Maria Frederica to Nicholas, but only managed to betroth them. In 1866, Alexander Alexandrovich met a Danish princess and fell in love with her. King Christian had nothing against it, and on October 13, 1866, Alexander and Maria Fedorovna(after the adoption of Orthodoxy) got married.

March 2, 1881, after the assassination of Alexander II, which shook the whole of Russia, Alexander III was crowned king.

Domestic policy of Alexander III.

First of all, Alexander had to decide something with the draft constitution of Alexander Nikolaevich. The newly minted emperor considered that the liberal domestic politics and the weakening of the nuts of imperial power and led to repeated attempts on the crowned person. Thus, the constitutional draft was rejected, and instead adopted Manifesto on the inviolability of autocracy. Loris-Melikov, the creator of the constitution, was fired, along with several other liberal-minded officials.

The reforms of Alexander III, many historians call counter-reforms. However, this is not true. It would be correct to say that the transformations of Alexander Alexandrovich did not cancel the reforms of Alexander Nikolayevich, but brought them to mind, and also deprived them of an excessive liberal orientation.

Reforms of Alexander III.

In 1881 it was accepted State of emergency protection, which has strengthened the protection of public and state order due to recent events related to the growth of terrorist activity in the country. Naturally, this provision led to an increase in censorship, which was practically abolished in the time of Alexander II. This measure was necessary, but you can't explain it to some researchers.
At the end of the 80s, the influence of the central government on local courts, as well as local governments, was strengthened, which significantly reduced the level of extortion and slovenliness in the regions, although it was far from a liberal transformation.
A similar reform also affected higher educational institutions, since it was the youth (students), in the first place, who were influenced by radical ideas. The simplest example is the assassination attempt on Alexander III on March 1, 1887 by members of the terrorist faction", split off from" People's Will". One of the participants, organizers and main compiler of the "Terrorist Faction" program was a student Alexander Ulyanov, brother Vladimir Lenin. Moreover - he sold his school gold medal to buy explosive for the bomb. The attempt did not take place, and all the conspirators were hanged, including Ulyanov, despite the persuasion of his mother - Maria Ulyanova.
The Old Believers finally received legal status, but the percentage of the Jewish population in the cities was reduced to 5%, and in the capitals to 3%. This was due to the high proportion of people of Jewish origin in radical groups. It is paradoxical that such an anti-Semitic policy was supported by many European figures of Jewish origin, for example, the founder of the Siberian Commercial Bank, Baron Gunzburg, who lived in Paris.
In 1881-1886, a series of peasant reforms were carried out, which brought to mind reform of 1861 (the abolition of serfdom). The position of the peasant class improved significantly with the establishment Peasant Bank and cancellation Poll tax, introduced yet Peter I in 1718. Labor law reforms were also undertaken regarding the work of minors and women (their work time was significantly reduced), and other reforms of labor law. In 1894, a law was issued according to which the peasants could no longer lose their land plots due to debts.
A law (of an environmental nature) was issued to prevent deforestation and preserve nature.
As part of the military reforms under Alexander, 114 warships were launched, including battleships (17) and cruisers (10). After that, the battle fleet Russian Empire came in third after the British Empire and the French Republic.
During the reign of Alexander II, industrial development in the country reached its peak, especially metallurgy and coal mining.
Competent reform of taxation and customs duties also contributed to the growth of industrial production and, accordingly, revenues to the State Treasury.
Under Alexander, who contributed in every possible way to the development of science and technology, there was the invention of radio Popov.
Active construction of railways continued and construction began Trans-Siberian Railway.
The only negative moment in domestic politics (although not directly related to the activities of the emperor) was famine in Russia 1891-1892, caused by previous (1890-1891) crop failures. However, liberal historians blame the event specifically on Alexander III, or sometimes on his father's 1861 peasant reform. Meanwhile, the government of Alexander III took energetic measures, which are usually forgotten for some reason:
- purchase of bread and food (almost 2 million tons);
- issuance of loans to the population on preferential terms (in total, more than 150 million rubles were issued);
- The Ministry of the Interior was directly involved in the delivery of products to poor regions at the expense of the treasury;
- Nikolai Alexandrovich(the future emperor) created a Charitable Committee, which was involved in helping the victims (almost three thousand social canteens, 40 shelters were opened), the committee acted together with the Red Cross Society;
- was developed new system the fight against crop failures under the Ministry of Finance (already in 1901, after another crop failure, the system proved to be excellent, predicting crop failure and preventing famine).

In this way long years historical science ignored the transformations within the country that Alexander III carried out. Liberal historians of Europe, a little later - Soviet historians, presented Alexander as a despot autocrat and oppressor of both the people and the nobility, while the penultimate Russian Emperor completed the Great Reforms of Alexander II, which were unfinished, and could lead to a deep economic crisis in inept hands.

The main directions of domestic policy. In the era of the reign of Alexander III in Russia, strict administrative regulation of the social life of society was maintained. Enemies of state power were persecuted, arrested, and deported. Such facts existed both before and after the reign of Alexander III.

During his reign, the country developed dynamically, social and economic indicators changed markedly. The budget of Russia by the end of the 1880s. became balanced, which allowed a few years later (already under Nicholas II) to move on to the introduction of gold circulation.

In an effort to replenish revenues, the government raised duties on imported goods. New direct taxes were introduced, the rates of old taxes were raised. These measures primarily affected the wealthy segments of the population. In 1882, a tax was introduced on property that passed from owner to owner as a result of wills and gifts. In 1885, taxes on industrial enterprises, land tax, as well as a tax on real estate in cities (houses, shops, warehouses) were increased.

At the same time, the authorities went to reduce the taxation of the peasantry. In 1882, it was reduced by 12 million rubles. the size of the annual redemption payments. In 1883, a royal decree appeared, ordering to proceed with the abolition of the poll tax.

During the reign of Alexander III, another remarkable event took place. In 1882, the Peasant Land Bank was established. Its task was to lend to individual peasants and peasant communities. During the first 10 years, the peasants acquired ownership of more than 2 million acres of land using bank loans.

The policy of encouraging the industry, pursued by the government of Alexander III, brought economic results and changed social structure population. If in 1881 about 771 thousand workers worked in factories and plants in Russia, then in 1893 - already almost 1.5 million people.

The emergence of a significant category of hired workers posed the task of legal regulation of their position before the authorities. It was under Alexander III that laws were adopted that became the basis of Russian labor legislation. In 1882, the Factory Inspectorate arose within the structure of the Ministry of Finance, which took control of the implementation of factory legislation and the resolution of conflicts between workers and employers.

In 1882, a law appeared that prohibited the use of the labor of children (under 12 years old) in factories and plants. The working day of adolescents (under 15) lasted no more than 8 hours with a break after four hours, or 6 hours without a break. It was forbidden to use the labor of minors (under 16) for night work, weekends and holidays.

In 1886, important regulations were adopted - "Rules on the hiring of workers in factories, factories and manufactories" and "Special rules on the mutual relations of manufacturers and workers." They regulated the mutual obligations of workers and employers and provided for the conclusion of an employment contract with the designation of its conditions in the passbook (wages, rental costs, etc.); size of fines for violation of labor regulations, obliging the owners to send fine amounts to a special capital for the issuance of benefits to workers. The law forbade the issuance of wages in products or goods, the collection of fees for medical care.

The ongoing changes in the forms of managing social life reflected the difficult search by the government for an acceptable balance between the needs of the time and the country's capabilities. Among the most significant and indicative steps in this series was the transformation of local self-government, education and legal proceedings.

The local administration, formed under Alexander II, endowed zemstvos and cities with greater rights in dealing with local needs. However, in the laws on zemstvo and city self-government, many legal ambiguities remained both in the relationship between the local bodies themselves and in their relations with state power. The senatorial audits of some provinces, carried out in 1880-1881, revealed many problems and abuses.

After the abolition of serfdom in 1861, the peasantry had local self-government in the form of special peasant bodies, rural and volost (headmen, village and volost assembly), which were in charge of the daily, current affairs of the peasant community. They were subordinate to a state official - a mediator who had the right to approve and remove from office persons elected by the peasantry (volost foreman, village headman), resolve peasant lawsuits (with a claim not exceeding 30 rubles), imprison them under arrest for up to 7 days and punish with rods .

Peace mediators were appointed by the governor in agreement with the provincial marshal of the nobility from among the local nobles.

The next instances of state peasant administration were congresses of world mediators and special district and provincial presences for peasant affairs. The most important task of the peace mediators was to settle the land division between the peasants and their former owners - the landowners and.

The institute of zemstvo chiefs was created, who were appointed by the governor from among the nobles who owned real estate in the area, who had an average or higher education. They concentrated administrative power over the organs of peasant self-government, control over the activities of volost and rural administrations, and the approval of elected persons in the county. The zemstvo chief was also given the function of a justice of the peace.

The transformation of the peasant administration necessitated adjustments to the zemstvo administration as well. All-class elected bodies of zemstvo self-government arose in 1864, they owned affairs relating to local economic benefits and needs.

The involvement of local residents in the management by choice was an important step in the development of social self-activity of the population. However, over time, major shortcomings in the organization of the entire undertaking were revealed. Zemstvos could receive funds for their own purposes by introducing special (zemstvo) taxation. The law did not clearly outline either the limits of these fees or their relationship with state duties. Zemstvos complained that they did not have enough funds for the construction and maintenance of hospitals, schools, that there was no money for the repair and construction of roads. In turn, wealthy local residents, especially entrepreneurs, constantly complained about financial arbitrariness, about “zemstvo ripping off”, assured that the funds received by the zemstvos were squandered, that a significant part of them was spent on the wages of employees of the zemstvo council.

After lengthy discussions and approvals, Alexander III in June 1890 approved a new Regulation on provincial and district zemstvo institutions. The essence of the changes was as follows: the system of distribution of zemstvo voters according to the type of property was replaced by their distribution into three estate groups - noble, urban and peasant, with the nobility being given numerical predominance in zemstvo assemblies.

The highest supervision over the activities of zemstvo assemblies was entrusted to the minister of internal affairs, the current one - to the governor and a special collegium under him - the provincial presence for zemstvo affairs. All resolutions of Zemstvo assemblies were now submitted for approval to the governor, who, in case of disagreement with the decision, turned to the Minister of the Interior.

The governor received the right to temporarily suspend the decision zemstvo assembly if he believed that it was not in accordance with the law. However, the zemstvos had the opportunity to defend their case in court, to appeal against the decisions of the governor and the minister in higher instances.

Following the zemstvo, the urban public administration, which operated on the basis of the City Regulations of 1870, underwent a reorganization. After its appearance, the development of the urban economy achieved noticeable success - the improvement of cities made significant progress. However, there were also shortcomings of the Regulation. They largely stemmed from the system of city elections and the structure of government bodies, from lack of control in voting rights were reserved only for the owners of real estate, as well as for persons who acquired merchant certificates in a given place: the first guild for capital cities and the first and second guilds for all others . With regard to the approval of positions, control and appeal against decisions of local self-government bodies, norms similar to the Zemsky Regulations were introduced.

Under Alexander III, some aspects of legal proceedings were also adjusted.

Access to court hearings for minors and students was prohibited. The doors of the court session were closed to the public if the court recognized that the circumstances of the proceedings could offend religious feeling and morality, affect the dignity of state power and harm public order. In addition, no detailed reports, let alone transcripts of court proceedings, were allowed to be published.

Another important innovation concerned the process itself. Serious crimes, including those relating to an attempt on the political foundations of the country, were withdrawn from the jurisdiction of district courts and transferred to judicial chambers, where cases were considered by judges with the participation of class representatives (chairman noble society, mayor, volost foreman of the local county).

Despite a number of innovations, all the fundamental principles of the judicial reform of 1864 (the irremovability of judges, the independence of the judiciary, the jury, the right to defense) were not subject to revision.

The transformations also affected the organization of educational affairs in the empire. The authorities came to the conclusion that the autonomy of higher educational institutions, their isolation from the state, which they acquired under the University Charter of 1868, led to the fact that many educational institutions turned into centers of anti-government propaganda. Illegal literature circulated almost freely here, and student scientific societies devoted their main attention to discussing burning political issues.

Back in 1880, the then Minister of Education, Count D. A. Tolstoy, submitted to the State Council a draft of a new University Charter, which provided for strengthening state control over higher educational institutions. The Minister insisted on the introduction of uniform state exams, the appointment of the rector by the Ministry of Public Education, the liquidation of the university court, etc. But then the matter died out.

In November 1882, the Minister of Education, I. D. Delyanov, submitted to the State Council a draft amendment to the University Rules, which basically coincided with Tolstoy's draft. After lengthy discussions in May 1884, the matter came to a vote. Opinions were divided. Those who supported the proposals to introduce control over higher educational institutions turned out to be a minority. The majority in the State Council insisted on continuing the study of the issue.

Three months later, the tsar called a special meeting of the highest officials of the empire for a detailed discussion of the draft University Charter. In August 1884 he approved the minority opinion State Council. In Russia, a new edition of the University Charter began to operate.

Russia and international affairs. Surviving humiliation and loss Crimean War, Russia regained the status of a full-fledged great power. Although the fleet on the Black Sea had not yet been recreated, and Russian diplomacy was defeated at the Berlin Congress of 1878, not a single important issue of international life was resolved without the participation of the Russian Empire.

Representations of Emperor Alexander III about international activities Russia were very simple and practical: government policy should be carried out exclusively in the interests of Russia.

Meanwhile, relations with Austria-Hungary remained tense. The contradictions between the two monarchies looked insurmountable, since they concerned the interests of each of them in Eastern Europe and in the Balkans. However, St. Petersburg did not particularly strive to get closer to the Habsburg Empire, realizing that in the concert of world powers it was only a junior partner.

Russia's relations with the three leading world powers - England, Germany and France - also did not differ in stability.

Great Britain adhered to a staunch anti-Russian position. Central Asia was the center of Anglo-Russian contradictions. The Russian border was not clearly marked there, since Russia had established itself in Turkmenistan and the upper reaches of the Amu Darya only recently. Afghanistan, formally independent, was considered by the British as their protectorate. Russia, on the other hand, intended to settle the border issue with the government of Afghanistan and initially did not want to discuss this topic with London. But the ruler of Afghanistan was completely dependent on the British and could not take any independent action. In the end, Russia had to carry out the designation of the Russian-Afghan border with the participation of the British.

Relations with Great Britain caused a lot of trouble for Russian diplomacy, but there were no special puzzles here. Much more difficult to develop relations with Germany, which in the second half of the XIX century. confidently moved into the ranks of the most powerful powers. In Russia, anti-Prussian sentiments began to noticeably intensify after the proclamation of the German Empire in 1871, and especially after the Balkan War and the Berlin Congress. A qualitative change in Russian-German relations came under Alexander III. Germany and Russia, both formally and in fact, ceased to be allies.

I was not afraid of Turkish bullets at the front, and now I have to hide from the revolutionaries in my own country ...

Despite the different points of view of historians on the reign of Emperor Alexander 3, scientists agree on one thing - the domestic policy of Alexander 3 was consistent (the same can be said about foreign policy events). This policy was based on the ideology of conservatism. This choice of the emperor was influenced by the upbringing, environment, and also the fate of his reformer father Alexander 2, who was killed by terrorists. This left a strong mark in his mind and, having come to power, Alexander 3 did everything to strengthen his power and put maximum pressure on all "dissatisfied". Largely for this reason, part of the domestic policy of Alexander 3 went down in history under the name "counter-reforms", since they were the opposite of the liberal reforms of his father, Alexander 2. The article describes the main components of the domestic policy of the Russian Tsar-peacemaker Alexander 3, who ruled from 1881 to 1894 .

Background and ideology of government

In 1881, the father of Alexander 3, the reforming emperor Alexander 2, was killed. Part of the imperial entourage considered the main fault was the implementation of liberal reforms, which spread a sense of permissiveness among radical circles. That is why Alexander 3 began his reign by eliminating such liberals as M. Loris-Melikov and D. Milyutin from participation in the government of the country. The well-known conservative K. Pobedonostsev became the main adviser to Alexander 3. It was his advice and instructions that finally formed the ideological foundation of the views of the new emperor on state government. The following key points can be distinguished, in which the entire internal policy of Alexander 3 is visible:

Strengthening autocracy. The basis of the stability of any state is a strong and reliable power that can guarantee order;
Revision of liberal reforms. Freedom must be controlled, otherwise opposition-minded circles may start violence. In fact, part of the freedom of society is limited for its own safety.
Solving the key problems of farmers and workers. Society is one big family that needs a father. The power of the father in the country is represented by the emperor, his opinion is undeniable.
support of the nobility. The power should be based on someone who will protect this Vast. Alexander 3 made a bet on the nobility, which again began to receive significant privileges.

The basic principles of government were formulated in the Manifesto on the inviolability of autocracy, adopted on May 11, 1881. Thus, the main ideas of the domestic policy of Alexander 3 was the belief that autocratic power can help an unstable society gain confidence and feel safe.

Counter-reforms

Part of the internal transformations during the years of Alexander 3 went down in history as the Counter-Reforms. They were aimed at overcoming the negative consequences of the liberal reforms of Alexander 2. Most of counter-reforms took place from 1889 to 1892. Read more about these transformations of Alexander 3

Strengthening autocracy

Policy towards the peasantry and workers

With regard to the peasantry, Alexander 3 undertook a number of innovations, which were either an addition to the peasant reform of 1861, or a correction of its main shortcomings. The following main activities can be distinguished:

From 1883 to 1886, the poll tax was abolished. This type of taxes was introduced under Peter and was part of the establishment of the feudal system.
In 1881, he ordered the peasants to redeem their allotments. In fact, this was the elimination of the status of temporarily obliged, when actually free peasants continued to work out the panshchina. In fact, this innovation was never implemented until the fall of the monarchy in 1917.
In 1889, the Peasant Land Bank allowed peasants to rent land.

The main event for the peasantry was the decree of 1893, which finally secured the community as the main economic and social element villages. Under this law, it was forbidden to sell or mortgage an allotment of land. With this, the emperor tried to protect the peasantry from ruin and turning into an impoverished proletariat. In addition, the redistribution of communal land could be carried out no more than once every 12 years. It was in the peasant community that the emperor saw the basis of stability and order in the village. Thus, the policy of Alexander 3 in relation to the peasantry is characterized, on the one hand, by protection and guardianship from new economic challenges (for example, the market, competition), but on the other hand, these laws encouraged the passivity of the peasantry and did not stimulate initiative in the village.

Strengthening the positions of the nobility

National and confessional politics

Alexander 3 understood that a partial danger for the empire came from certain nations, primarily the Poles. The policy of introducing the Russian language in Polish gymnasiums and schools began. Teachers from the central regions of the empire received a salary increase if they agreed to go to teach in western regions. The same policy was in relation to other languages. In this regard, Alexander 3 fully continued the policy of his predecessor. Alexander 3 considered such a policy to be the basis of the security of the empire.

By the way, in 1883 a law was passed, which, several centuries later, recognized the legal status of the Old Believers.

Economic innovations

Firstly, Alexander 3 not only eliminated the old taxes, but also approved new ones:

in 1894, an apartment tax was introduced for the first time. It was collected from all homeowners. The cities were divided into 5 classes, hence the amount of the alleged fee.
An increase in indirect tax has begun - this is a surcharge on the cost of a product or on a separate tariff.

In addition, in 1891 a new tariff on customs duties was adopted. Historians call it one of the highest in the last 50 years. However, despite this, the treasury was replenished with new funds, which became the basis for further industrial modernization, as well as strengthening military power country.

By the way, it was during the period of Alexander 3 that the famous Minister of Finance, and later Chairman of the Council of Ministers, Count S. Witte, began his career.

Thus, the domestic policy of Alexander 3 is characterized by conservatism, which was aimed at strengthening the stability and security of the country.

Successors of Alexander II

§ 171. Emperor Alexander III Alexandrovich (1881-1894)

Portrait of Emperor Alexander III

In particular, the following important events of the time of Emperor Alexander III should be noted.

1. Regarding estates a number of measures were taken to bring order to their upset situation. Nobility experienced a severe economic crisis after the peasant reform. His economy fell into disarray with the loss of gratuitous peasant labor. The lands left the hands of the nobles with considerable speed, and at the same time, with the sale of estates, the nobles themselves left the districts. The government tried by a number of measures to support the declining class in every possible way. The nobles were granted predominance in the zemstvos (by means of a corresponding change in the order of the zemstvo elections). The position of "zemstvo district chiefs" was established in the counties. They replaced the justices of the peace and at the same time received great administrative power over the peasant societies. Granted by law to local nobles, the position of Zemstvo chief was, of course, supposed to raise the importance of the nobility in the districts. At the same time, the government came to the aid of the material needs of the nobility. A "noble land bank" was established to issue loans to nobles secured by their land on very favorable terms.

At the same time, the government made attempts to improve material life peasants . In many places, the peasant allotments were insufficient to provide for the increased peasant population. There was an urgent need for land. In view of this, a “peasant land bank” was established for the peasants, which issued loans to the peasants for the acquisition of land by purchase. Another means of combating land shortages was the peasant resettlement to free lands in Siberia and Central Asia. The government tried to streamline the resettlement movement and direct it; it came to the aid of the settlers, pointing out to them land plots and easing the hardships of their long journey. Lack of land drove the peasants from the villages to the cities and factories. The growth of factory production in Russia in the second half of the XIX century. led to the fact that in the cities and factory centers a crowded working class , cut off from the earth and provided with nothing but factory labor. Relations between manufacturers and workers sometimes became aggravated, leading to clashes and strikes. The authorities were forced to regulate these relations by law. Under Emperor Alexander III, not only factory legislation began, but also the position of factory inspectors was established to monitor factory procedures in order to introduce discipline among the workers and protect their legitimate interests from exploitation of the owners.

Reception of volost foremen by Alexander III. Painting by I. Repin, 1885-1886

2. Regarding finance and public economy under Emperor Alexander III, important measures were taken. The financial position of Russia after the war of 1877-1878, due to various reasons (§163), was unsatisfactory. The rate of credit notes was low (up to 60 kopecks per ruble or even less) and constantly fluctuated. There were deficits in the budget every year. Emperor Alexander III resorted to extreme frugality and adopted a system of protective duties, heavily taxing imported goods and encouraging Russian production. The ministers of finance (N. Kh. Bunge, I. A. Vyshnegradsky, S. Yu. Witte), one after the other, consistently pursued this financial policy and not only achieved an end to deficits, but, moreover, managed to form a significant stock of gold cash. With her help, reform was prepared monetary circulation, produced already under Emperor Nicholas II. In terms of the economic upsurge of the eastern outskirts and their closer connection with the state center, the construction of the great Siberian railway was undertaken, connecting European Russia With Pacific Ocean, and the Trans-Caspian Railways, which connected Central Asia with Russia.

Nikolai Khristoforovich Bunge, Minister of Finance during the reign of Alexander III. Portrait by I. Tyurin, 1887

3. Foreign policy Emperor Alexander III was distinguished by certainty and stability. Strictly protecting Russian national interests, he resolutely avoided interfering in European affairs and always displayed an unfailing peacefulness. At the first manifestations of dissatisfaction with the Russian protectorate on the part of the southern Slavs, Emperor Alexander III retreated from him and left Bulgaria and Serbia to their own forces. He did not maintain old connections with the Prussian Hohenzollerns, being very dissatisfied with the German policy at the Berlin Congress (§169). Founded in those years under the hegemony of Germany " Triple Alliance»Emperor Alexander III considered her with Austria and Italy a threat to the European world and the interests of Russia and France. Therefore, he became close to France and entered into a defensive alliance with her, restoring the political balance in Europe and becoming a stronghold for a long time. European world. The constancy of the Russian sovereign in maintaining common peace and the sincerity of his peacefulness gave him the title of "peacemaker". Throughout the reign of Alexander III Russia had only one small armed clash with the Afghans (1885) on the river. Kushk on the occasion of the accession to Russia of the Merv oasis and the Pende oasis. The defeat of the Afghan detachment by General Komarov did not cause any further complications either with Afghanistan or with its patroness England, and the disputed lands remained with Russia.

4. Being a representative of a strictly national foreign policy, Emperor Alexander was the bearer of Russian national idea . He strove for a close unification of the foreign outskirts with the state center and for the possible Russification of the foreigners. The unification policy particularly affected the Ostsee region. There, instead of the old German forms of government and self-government, national institutions with the Russian language were introduced; and the German university in the city of Yuriev (before 1893 bearing the name of Dorpat) was transformed into Russian. In the Polish provinces, steps were also taken to strengthen Russian influence. With regard to Finland, drastic measures were taken. During the reign of Emperor Alexander II, the Finns managed to achieve such forms of self-government that turned Finland from an autonomous Russian province, as it were, into a separate country. The Finnish population was allowed to have its own coin (marks and pennies), its own post office, its own customs system, its own railways, even his army. There is no doubt that all these signs of internal independence and isolation should have instilled in the Finns a view of their homeland as a separate state, which is only in union with Russia. By the time of Emperor Alexander III, this view had already led to many inconveniences and misunderstandings between the government and the Finnish Diet and Senate. Not sympathizing with the Finnish isolation, the sovereign announced (1890) that the Grand Duchy of Finland was “in the ownership and sovereign possession of the Russian Empire” and that it should be returned to closer unity with other parts of the Russian state. In accordance with this principle, government control over Finnish administration was strengthened and measures were outlined, and partly implemented, to limit Finnish autonomy.

Domestic policy of Alexander III (briefly)

The initial period of the reign of Tsar Alexander III fell on the era of the struggle of two parties: the monarchist and the liberal, which wanted the ruler to continue the reforms of Alexander II. The ruler himself abolished any possibility of the constitutionality of Russia and began to strengthen the autocracy.

On August 14, 1881, the government passes a law according to which a state of emergency could be introduced to suppress unrest and terror, as well as punitive means. A year later, the secret police appear.

At the same time, Alexander the Third was sure that all disagreements and troubles in the state grow from the education of the lower classes and the freethinking of his subjects, which was a consequence of his father's reforms. Thus began the era of the policy of counter-reforms.

Universities were considered as the main center of terror, and therefore in 1884 the so-called university charter was issued, which sharply limited the autonomy of educational institutions, and severe censorship was introduced in the country.

In early April, the tsar publishes a Manifesto, which was compiled by one of his associates, the reactionary K. Pobedonostsev. This document significantly limited zemstvo rights, and their actual work was taken under close control of the governors. From now on, in the city dumas there was a majority of assessors from officials and merchants, and in the zemstvo dumas there were up to 90% of the nobles. This became possible due to the increase in property qualification.

In 1890, the ruler of Russia, Alexander the Third, adopted an updated regulation on the zemstvos. Now the court became dependent on the government, and the magistrates' courts were on the verge of liquidation.

At the same time, communal land use and the poll tax were abolished, and a mandatory redemption of land was introduced. At the same time, prices were reduced. In 1882, the Peasants' Bank was opened, the purpose of which was to issue loans to peasants for the acquisition of private property and land.

The tsar understood the importance of army reserves and for this reason formed reserve regiments and infantry battalions. In addition, he created a cavalry division that is capable of fighting both on foot and on horseback.

Artillery siege battalions, as well as mortar regiments and mountain artillery batteries, were formed to conduct battles in the mountainous terrain. And for the transportation of troops, a special railway brigade is being created.

In 1892, river mine companies, military pigeon houses, aeronautic detachments, as well as fortress telegraphs also appeared.