Kyiv Institute of Business and Technology

TEST

on exchange rate

« Fundamentals of psychology and pedagogy"

on the topic :

« Communication and interpersonal relationships»

2nd year students

group 97 - 1

Faculty of Economics and Management

Likholay Lilia Evgenievna

Kyiv - 1999

PLAN

Introduction.

I. Determinants interpersonal communication.

II. The relationship between the characteristics of the circle of communication of the individual and its properties:

a) changing the circle of direct communication depending on

age and environment;

b) the problem of the influence of the composition of people on the development of personality.

III. Communication and personality formation:

a) interaction of practical activity and communication;

b) the educational value of communication;

c) a person's assessment of other people;

IV. Conditions for psychologically comfortable and personally developing communication:

a) features of knowledge of the participants in the communication of each other;

b) ways of influencing the participants of communication.

Conclusion.

INTRODUCTION

At present, it is no longer necessary to prove that interpersonal communication is an absolutely necessary condition for the existence of people, that without it it is impossible for a person to fully form a single mental function or mental process, not a single block of mental properties, a person as a whole ..

Since communication is the interaction of people and since it always develops mutual understanding of each other, certain relationships are established, a certain mutual circulation takes place (in the sense of the behavior chosen by the people participating in communication in relation to each other), then interpersonal communication turns out to be such a process. , which, provided that we want to comprehend its essence, should be considered as a person-person system in all the multidimensional dynamics of its functioning (other types of communication can be called: communication of a person with various communities of people, communication of these communities among themselves).

For interpersonal communication, such a situation is typical when the participants in communication, entering into contacts, pursue in relation to each other goals that are more or less significant for them, which may coincide in their content, or may differ from each other. These goals are a consequence of the action of certain motives that the participants in communication have, their achievement constantly involves the use of various ways of behavior that each person develops as he develops the qualities of the object and subject of communication. All this means that interpersonal communication in its main characteristics is always a type of activity, the essence of which is the interaction of a person with a person. It is about interpersonal communication, as one of the main factors in the formation of personality, that I would like to tell further.

CHAPTER I

In the vast majority of cases, interpersonal interaction of people, referred to as communication, almost always turns out to be woven into the activity and acts as a condition for its implementation. So, without people communicating with each other, there can be no collective labor, teaching, art, games, functioning of means. mass media. At the same time, the type of activity that communication serves invariably leaves its mark on the content, form, and course of the entire process of communication between the performers of this activity.

Interpersonal communication is not only a necessary component of activity, the implementation of which involves the interaction of people, but at the same time an indispensable condition for the normal functioning of a community of people.

When comparing the nature of interpersonal communication in different associations of people, the presence of similarities and differences is striking. The similarity is that communication is necessary condition their being, a factor on which depends the successful solution of the tasks facing him, their movement forward. At the same time, each community is characterized by the type of activity that prevails in it. Yes, for study group such activity will be mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, a sports team - a performance designed to achieve the planned result in competitions, for a family - raising children, providing living conditions, organizing leisure, etc. Therefore, in each type of community, the predominant type of interpersonal communication is clearly visible , which provides the main activity for this community.

At the same time, it is clear that the way people communicate in a community is influenced not only by the main activity for this community, but also by what this community itself is.

If we take a family, then its daily goals - raising children, doing household chores, organizing leisure activities, etc. - directionally program the interpersonal communication of family members with each other. However, how it turns out in reality depends on the composition of the family, whether it is a complete or incomplete family, “three or two” or “one generation”. Specific characteristics of intra-family interpersonal communication are also associated with the moral and general cultural image of the spouses, with their understanding of their parental responsibilities, the age and health of children and other family members. As in any other community, the features of interaction in the form of interpersonal communication and in the family are also largely determined by how family members perceive and understand each other, what emotional response they mainly evoke in each other, and what style of behavior they have towards each other. allow to a friend.

The communities to which a person belongs form the standards of communication that a person gets used to following. Bearing in mind the persistent influence of the type of activity and the characteristics of the community of people in which interpersonal communication unfolds, it is necessary in the analysis to make allowances for the constant variability of the process of activity and the community of people. All these changes, taken together, necessarily affect the interpersonal communication of the performers of this activity.

In the interaction of people, each person constantly finds himself in the role of an object and subject of communication. As a subject, he gets to know other participants in communication, shows interest in them, and maybe indifference or hostility. As a subject solving a certain problem in relation to them, he influences them. At the same time, he turns out to be an object of knowledge for everyone with whom he communicates. It turns out to be an object to which they address their feelings, which they try to influence, to influence more or less strongly. At the same time, it should be specially emphasized that this stay of each participant in communication simultaneously in the role of an object and a subject is characteristic of any type of direct communication between people.

Being in the position of the object (subject) of communication, people differ greatly from each other in the nature of their role. First, "doing" can be more or less conscious. As an object, a person can show other people his physical appearance, expressive behavior, appearance design, his actions, naturally without thinking at all about what kind of response they evoke in those with whom he communicates. But he may try to determine what impression he makes in others throughout his communication with them or at some particular moment, purposefully do everything in his power to form in others exactly the impression of himself that he would like them to have. . Secondly, differing in the degree of complexity of their personal structure, which characterizes their individual identity, people present different opportunities for successful interaction with them.

At the same time, being the subjects of communication, people differ from each other in the ability inherent in each of them to penetrate into the mentioned originality of another personality, to determine their attitude towards it, to choose the most appropriate, in their opinion, for the purposes of their communication, ways of influencing this personality.

At present, the phenomenon of the so-called compatibility or incompatibility of people is being widely studied in psychology. The facts collected at the same time show that the named greater or lesser compatibility makes itself felt most strongly in the communication of people, directly determining how they manifest themselves as objects and subjects of communication.

Now it is very important for psychological science, using comparison, to develop a typology of communication of individuals who are similar to each other in certain parameters or differ from each other also in certain parameters.

CHAPTER II

A person's personality is formed in the process of communicating with people. If in the initial period of life a person is not free to choose for himself the people who make up his immediate environment, then in adulthood he himself can to a large extent regulate the number and composition of the people who surround him and with whom he communicates. Thus, a person provides himself with a certain stream of psychological influences from this environment.

As you know, the immediate environment of a person is made up of people with whom he lives, plays, studies, rests, and works together. A person mentally reflects all of them, gives an emotional response to each, in relation to each he practices a certain way of behavior. The nature of the mental reflection, emotional attitude and behavior of the person communicating with them to a greater extent depend on the personal characteristics of these people.

At the same time, this mental reflection, emotional attitude and behavior always bear the imprint of the characteristics of the motivational-need-to-requirement sphere of a person who communicates with people around him. Related to these features is his choice of people with whom he prefers to communicate.

Numerous facts show that depending on how people, with their external and internal appearance, knowledge, skills and actions, satisfy the needs of a person communicating with them, the frequency and nature of his communication with them are determined. The correspondence of the characteristics that the people communicating with him carry, the features of his need-motivational sphere, determines the subjective significance of each of these people for a person.

At the same time, people become subjectively significant for a person and cause a desire to communicate with them not only when they correspond to the standards learned by a person, traditional for the people of his environment. The choice of people for more frequent communication is influenced by such specific individual needs of the individual as the need for empathy, guardianship, dominance, self-protection or self-assertion.

The quantitative and qualitative parameters of a person's circle of direct communication are in a certain way influenced by such characteristics as social affiliation and circumstances, such as teaching at a university, features of work, or leaving it by a woman to raise children.

The expansion of the boundaries of the circle of communication in most people is characterized by breaks in gradualness. A significant renewal of the composition of people with whom each person communicates occurs at such points in the life path as entering kindergarten, school, transition to its middle, then senior classes, leaving for the army, entering college, starting independent work, marriage or marriage. The volume of communication with peers from the same gender group is increasing and the circle of communication with adults is expanding with the transition to the middle classes of the school.

With age, there is a significant change in the nature of the reasons forcing a person to enter into direct communication with other people. So, if in the time interval of life of 15-23 years there is a significant increase in contacts, which were based on the need to satisfy a cognitive need, then there is a noticeable decrease in them. The most intense period of direct communication falls on the age of 23-30 years. After this age, a person's social circle decreases, i.e. the number of subjectively significant people who were in the circle of direct communication is decreasing.

Changes in the subjective significance of other people for a person, as a rule, are determined, on the one hand, by her position in relation to herself in the system of needs, and on the other hand, by the attitude towards her from the people who make up her social circle. These attitudes of other people towards him, which are significant to varying degrees for a person, influence not so much his leading needs, but rather the subordinate tendencies to protect his “I”, manifested in the search for and in the implementation of ways of behavior that affirm this “I”.

The problem that needs further solution is to find out how the specific composition of people who form a person's social circle in different years of his life affects the formation of personality.

To solve this problem, it is necessary not only to general conditions that make other people significant for a person and increase the degree of his susceptibility to their influences, but also to establish how these conditions should change from age to age, depending on the person’s gender, his profession and individually. -personal properties, so that he retains high degree susceptibility to the influence of certain people. It is also necessary to find out what kind of social circle each individual person should have at each stage of his life in order for the formation of his personality to proceed most successfully. Finally, how to manage the creation of such a circle of communication for a person so that not only subject-practical activity, but also his interaction with other people can be consciously and purposefully used for the optimal development of his personality.

CHAPTER III

Recently, scientists representing various fields of psychological science have shown an increased interest in a range of problems that, after being solved all together, will make it possible to fairly comprehensively cover the laws of the mechanism of communication.

Their efforts have enriched psychology with a number of general and more particular facts, which, being considered from the standpoint of a holistic theory of human development as an individual and as a person, convincingly show the extremely necessary role of communication in the formation of many important characteristics of mental processes, states and properties throughout a person's life.

We must consistently consider all these facts and try to trace how and why communication, along with labor, is an obligatory personality-forming factor and how to strengthen its significance in education.

If by activity we mean the activity of a person aimed at achieving certain goals that he realizes with the help of methods learned by him in society and stimulated by equally specific motives, then activity will be not only the work of a surgeon, a painter, but also the interaction of people with each other in the form of communication.

After all, it is clear that, entering into communication with each other, people also, as a rule, pursue some goal: to make the other person like-minded, to achieve recognition from him, to keep him from doing the wrong thing, to please, etc. In order to carry it out, they more or less consciously use their speech, all their expression, and induce them to act in such cases in exactly this way, and not otherwise, their needs, interests, beliefs, value orientations.

At the same time, characterizing communication as a special type of activity, it is necessary to see that without it, the full development of a person as a person and a subject of activity, as an individuality, cannot take place.

If the process of this development is not considered one-sidedly and realistically assessed, then it turns out that the objective activity of a person in all its modifications and his communication with other people are intertwined in life in the most intimate way.

While playing, the child communicates. Long-term learning necessarily involves fellowship. Work, as you know, in the vast majority of cases requires constant interaction of people in the form of communication. And the results of substantive practical activity of the people involved in it depend on how communication proceeds, how communication is organized. In turn, the course and results of this activity constantly and inevitably affect many characteristics of the communicative activity of people involved in the objective activity.

Both the formation of a number of stable characteristics of mental processes, states and properties of a person’s personality, and the formation of the structure of these properties, are influenced by objective activity and communication activity in combination, with different effects depending on their ratio.

If the moral norms according to which people communicate in their main work activity do not coincide with the norms underlying their communication in other types of activity, then the development of their personality will be more or less contradictory, the formation of a whole personality for everyone will be difficult .

Trying to find out the reasons that make communication one of the strongest factors involved in the formation of personality, it would be simplistic to see its educational value only in the fact that in this way people get the opportunity to transfer to each other the knowledge they possess about the reality around them, as well as skills and abilities. skills required by a person for the successful performance of subject activities.

The educational value of communication lies not only in the fact that it expands the general outlook of a person and contributes to the development of mental formations that are necessary for him to successfully perform activities of an objective nature. The educational value of communication also lies in the fact that it is a prerequisite for the formation of a person’s general intellect, and above all, many of his mental and mnemonic characteristics.

What requirements do the people around a person make to his attention, perception, memory, imagination, thinking, when they communicate with him on a daily basis, what kind of “food” is given to him, what tasks are set for him and what level of his activity they cause - from this in more depends on the specific combination of different characteristics that the human intellect carries.

Communication as an activity is of no less importance for the development of the emotional sphere of a person, the formation of his feelings. What experiences are predominantly provoked by people communicating with a person, evaluating his deeds and appearance, responding in one way or another to his appeal to them, what feelings he has when he sees their deeds and actions - all this has a strong influence on the development in his personalities of stable emotional responses to the impact of certain aspects of reality - natural phenomena, social events, groups of people, etc.

Communication has an equally significant impact on the volitional development of a person. Whether he gets used to being collected, persistent, resolute, courageous, purposeful, or the opposite qualities will prevail in him - all this is largely determined by how favorable the development of these qualities are those specific situations of communication in which a person finds himself every day.

Serving objective activity and contributing to the formation of typical human general characteristics his outlook, the ability to handle objects, as well as his intellect and emotional-volitional sphere, communication to an even greater extent turns out to be a prerequisite and a necessary prerequisite for the development of a complex of both simpler and more complex qualities in him, making him able to live among people, coexist with them and even rise to the point of implementing high moral principles in their behavior.

The completeness and correctness of a person's assessment of other people, the psychological attitudes that manifest themselves in the perception of others and the manner of responding to their behavior bear the stamp of a specific communication experience. If on his life path he met people who were similar to each other in virtues and shortcomings, and he had to communicate day by day with a small number of people who did not represent different age, gender, professional and national-class groups of people, then this limited personal impressions from meetings with people cannot but have a negative impact on the formation of evaluative standards in a person, which he begins to apply to other people, and on the result of his emotional reactions to their behavior, on the nature of the ways of responding to the actions of people with whom he, for one reason or another communicates now.

Own experience is only one of the ways in which a person develops the qualities he needs for successful communication with other people. Another way that complements the first one is the constant enrichment of it with theoretical information related to various areas of human knowledge, penetration into new layers of the human psyche, comprehension of the laws governing his behavior through reading scientific and authentic fiction, watching realistic films and performances that help to penetrate into the inner world of a person, understanding the mechanisms that ensure his existence. The enrichment of people coming from different sources with generalized knowledge about the main manifestations of a person as a person, stable dependencies that connect its internal characteristics with his actions, as well as with the surrounding reality, makes these people more sighted in relation to the personal essence and, so to speak, the momentary state of each of those specific individuals with whom these people have to interact.

It is necessary to raise another issue that is directly related to educating a person's ability to interact with other people at a psychologically competent level - this is the formation of a setting for creativity in communication. A person, especially if he is an educator, leader, doctor, must be able to carry out individual approach to each of those with whom he has to work, to overcome formalism in communication and, moving away from evaluative stereotypes, to identify, stepping over old behavioral patterns, to seek and try the most educationally appropriate ways of addressing the given case.

To achieve tangible results in covering all areas of the process of personality formation in communication, it is necessary to raise new questions and look for scientifically convincing answers to them. These include the development of ways to manage communication in order to increase its educational impact on the individual and, in this regard, the definition of a directed correction of communication of a person with these specific properties; clarification of the characteristics of communication most favorable to the comprehensive development of the personality, its goals, means, actualization of motives, taking into account the age, gender and profession of those communicating; search for an educationally optimal organization of communication when people perform various types of activities; creation of reliable diagnostic tools for establishing the degree of formation in the personality structure of the traits that form the "communicative block".

CHAPTER IV

At present, the enormous role of communication in the development of a particular psychological state in a person, in the actualization of certain characteristics of mental processes and properties, as well as in the formation of his entire personality, is generally recognized.

In order for communication to optimally contribute to the satisfaction of the positive needs of the persons participating in communication, to give them a state of emotional comfort, high intellectual and volitional activity that allows them to successfully achieve the goals of their collective activities, it must be characterized by a number of psychological features.

If we keep in mind the features of the participants in communication each other, which favor the increase in the psychological effectiveness of interpersonal interaction, enhance their role in the development of individual properties and the personality of each participant in communication, then they are as follows:

1) communicators must carry the ability to perceive and adequately psychologically interpret each other's behavior directly at every moment of communication, fix changes in cognitive processes, feelings and actions of communication partners, determine the reasons that these changes cause;

2) communicators should form a wide range of evaluative standards that allow them to compare the nature of the changes that occur in the verbal and non-verbal behavior of each participant in communication, and make correct conclusions about their essence in a timely manner;

3) some participants in communication must constantly be aware of how the other participants in this communication perceive and psychologically interpret their appearance and behavior and, accordingly, “correct” for this influence;

4) communicating should have, if possible, deep knowledge of typical errors such as the “halo effect”, “stereotyping”, “projection” and others, which are often made when assessing the external and internal appearance of other people, as well as in the psychological explanation of the observed picture of their behavior; they must also constantly show the ability not to fall into dogmatism and inertia when evaluating the appearance and behavior of each other, to reveal the ability to isolate themselves from prejudice when knowing another person, imposed by a stranger, perhaps even an authoritative opinion, for the sake of comprehending the individually unique originality of this person.

The condition for the development of a comfortable state for those who communicate, their behavior at their characteristic optimal level of intellectual-volitional activity is also their manifestation of goodwill towards each other during interpersonal contacts, as well as the ability to empathize and sympathize.

Sincerity in expressing feelings is always an important condition for successful communication, because only if it is present, it is possible to build a truly psychologically adequate and constructive behavior of the participants of communication in relation to each other.

Communicating people should develop in themselves a stable habit of creativity, which manifests itself in the constant search and use, when establishing and maintaining contacts with each other, of ways of behavior that take into account the individual originality of those to whom they are addressed, and at the same time work to the maximum to achieve the goals of communication.

When selecting methods of influencing participants in communication and using them in the process of establishing contacts with each of them, one must remember that the basis of a person’s ability to influence other people is the ability to deeply and comprehensively understand both these people and himself and himself. , relying on this knowledge, to develop various forms of cooperation with all participants in communication. Moreover, our ability to understand the content, scope and causes of overt and covert conflicts that arise between us and those with whom we have to interact on a daily basis is the most important condition for finding effective ways to reduce or completely eliminate these conflicts in a timely manner. In this regard, it can be directly stated that the immunity of a person to the influences that he is subjected to by the person communicating with him, usually turns out to be evidence that one hundred and the last resorted to methods of treatment that do not correspond to personality traits the person to whom they were used.

Evidence of psychological blindness and deafness to these features are the poverty and monotony of the methods of influence that representatives of a certain type of personality resort to when they come into contact with different people and with the same person in different situations, as well as their characteristic great opportunity to use these methods. For example, the habit inherent in some educators of influencing students with the help of punishments and threats, as a rule, causes a defensive reaction in the latter, requires them to spend considerable energy in order to cope with fear and apprehensions, and to a large extent suppresses their intellectual and volitional activity, t .e. causes the opposite result; on the other hand, human behavior in communication, which weakens and, even worse, removes any self-control over their actions from other participants in communication, as a rule, has a negative result for their behavior in the present and future.

Therefore, human creativity, aimed at enriching the ways of behavior in communication, should not be subordinated to the formation of the ability to manipulate people or, on the contrary, facelessly adapt to their desires found in their behavior during communication, but is aimed at mastering the ability to create psychological conditions by their treatment of people. facilitating the manifestation of the intellectual-volitional and moral potential of these people at the optimal level.

Mastering the ways of dealing with other people, striving to ensure that they give rise to people's trust, tune in to cooperation, it must be remembered that the degree of their effectiveness to a large extent depends on their compliance with the personal characteristics of the person who uses these methods in his communication with other people. . Therefore, each person should strive to form for himself (although this is not easy) a style of communication that most accumulates the dignity of this person, when he has to act as an object and subject of communication, at the same time taking into account the personal characteristics of those with whom he predominantly to communicate. Moreover, the development of this style of communication will be more successful if we have the courage and skills to constantly be self-critical towards ourselves, in addition, understanding that our treatment of people can be affected by our existing and not always conscious attitudes, for example, to adapt to the expectations of others or the rejection of certain characteristics in oneself.

Thinking and organizing the treatment of other people, a person does this to achieve various goals. And, as already indicated, the psychological effect of the action of his treatment of a person in communication in some cases turns out to be really the way he planned it, in others it is achieved only partially, in others it does not work at all. The conditions that increase the degree of psychological effectiveness of the appeal or, conversely, reduce it in communication, were discussed above, now I would like to emphasize the following: so that the treatment of one person with other people, along with the solution of local problems (labor, educational, gaming, domestic, etc. .) worked optimally for the positive development of the individual, it must from beginning to end meet the principle of exactingness towards another person and respect for him.

If we have in mind communication aimed at helping a person move forward in his personal development, then the task of the persons helping him in this is, first of all, to activate his internal resources to the maximum by their influence on him in the process of communication, so that he he himself, on a high moral level, could successfully cope with a variety of life problems.

CONCLUSION

All of the above illuminates one idea: since communication is one of the main activities of people, it not only reveals the most significant characteristics of them as objects and subjects of communication, but depending on how it proceeds, what requirements it imposes on their cognitive processes, emotionally - the volitional sphere and how much it generally corresponds to the ideal of communication that each of them has, in different directions affects the further formation of their personality and most clearly on such blocks of properties in it, in which its attitude to other people and to itself is expressed. And the changes that take place in them under the influence of one way or another (with a positive or negative result for the goals of each participant) of unfolding communication, in turn, more or less strongly affect such basic personality properties, which express its attitude to various social institutions and communities of people, to nature, to work.

It is necessary to correctly evaluate the role of communication in a timely manner in order to stimulate the optimal emotional mood of the individual, to maximize the manifestation of his socially approved inclinations and abilities, and, finally, to form it as a whole in the direction necessary for society, it is necessary because communication as a value in the system of values ​​that most people have very high place.

REFERENCES:

1. Asmolov A.G. "Psychology of Personality". Moscow, 1990

2. Zeigarnik V.V. "Personality Theories in Foreign Psychology". Moscow, 1982

3. Maslow A. "Self-actualization of personality and education." Kyiv-Donetsk, 1994

4.A.A. Bodalev "Psychology about personality". Moscow, 1988

5. Nemov R.S. "General Foundations of Psychology". Moscow, 1994

6. Kostyuk G.S. “The initial-spiritual process and mental

development of individuality". Kiev, 1989

The basis of interpersonal relations is communication - the need of a person as a social, rational being, as a carrier of consciousness.

Communication is a process of interpersonal interaction generated by the needs of interacting subjects and aimed at satisfying these needs. The role and intensity of communication in modern society are constantly increasing, because with the increase in the volume of information, the processes of exchange of this information become more intense, the number of technical means for such an exchange increases. In addition, an increasing number of people professional activity which is associated with communication, i.e. having professions such as "man is man".

In psychology, there are important aspects of communication: content, purpose and means.

Purpose of communication- this is for the sake of which a living being has this species activity. In animals, this may be, for example, a warning of danger. A person has much more goals of communication. And if in animals the goals of communication are usually associated with the satisfaction of biological needs, then in humans they are a means of satisfying many different needs: social, cultural, cognitive, creative, aesthetic, the needs of intellectual growth and moral development, etc.

Means of communication- these are ways of encoding, transmitting, processing and decoding information transmitted in the process of communication. Information can be conveyed through direct bodily contact, such as tactile hand contact; it can be transmitted and perceived at a distance through the senses, for example, by observing the movements of another person or listening to the sound signals produced by him. In addition to all these natural ways of transmitting information, a person has others invented by himself - this is language, writing (texts, drawings, diagrams, etc.), as well as all kinds of technical means of recording, transmitting and storing information.

Communication can be divided into several types (Fig. 15).

Rice. fifteen. Classification of types of communication

Communication between people can be verbal and non-verbal.

non-verbal- this is communication without the use of linguistic means, that is, with the help of facial expressions and gestures; its result is tactile, visual, auditory and olfactory images received from another individual.

Verbal communication takes place with the help of any language.

Most non-verbal forms of communication in humans are innate; with the help of them, a person achieves interaction on an emotional level, and not only with his own kind, but also with other living beings. Many of the higher animals (for example, monkeys, dogs, dolphins), just like humans, have the ability to communicate non-verbally with their own kind. Verbal communication is unique to humans. It has much wider possibilities than non-verbal.

communication functions, according to the classification of L. Karpenko, are the following:

contact- establishing contact between communication partners, readiness to receive and transmit information;

informational– obtaining new information;

incentive- stimulation of the activity of the communication partner, directing him to perform certain actions;

coordination- mutual orientation and coordination of actions for organizing joint activities;

reaching mutual understanding- adequate perception of the meaning of the message, understanding by partners of each other;

exchange of emotions- excitation in the partner of the necessary emotional experiences;

relationship building- awareness of one's place in the system of role, status, business and other relations of society;

influence- a change in the state of the communication partner - his behavior, intentions, opinions, decisions, and so on.

AT structure of communication There are three interrelated aspects:

1) communicative- exchange of information between communicating individuals;

2) interactive– interaction between communicating individuals;

3) perceptual- mutual perception of communication partners and the establishment of mutual understanding on this basis.

When talking about communication in communication, then, first of all, they mean that in the process of communication people exchange different ideas, ideas, interests, feelings, etc. and active exchange of it. The main feature is that people in the process of exchanging information can influence each other.

The communicative process is born on the basis of some joint activity, and the exchange of knowledge, ideas, feelings, etc. suggests that such activity is organized. In psychology, two types of interaction are distinguished: cooperation (collaboration) and competition (conflict).

So, communication is a process of interaction between people, during which interpersonal relationships arise, manifest and form. Communication involves the exchange of thoughts, feelings, experiences. In the process of interpersonal communication, people consciously or unconsciously influence the mental state, feelings, thoughts and actions of each other. The functions of communication are very diverse, it is a decisive condition for the formation of each person as a person, the implementation of personal goals and the satisfaction of a number of needs. Communication is the internal mechanism of joint activity of people and is the most important source of information for a person.

2. Perception

The process of perception by one person of another is mandatory integral part communication and is what is called perception. The perceptual side of communication explains the perception and understanding of another person and oneself, the establishment of mutual understanding and interaction on this basis. In perception, an important role is given to the installation in communication. Often the formation of the first impression of a stranger depends on the characteristic given to him. And then in it, depending on the installation, some will find positive features, others are negative. In perception, it is possible perception errors, the reasons for which may be:

The "halo" effect- information received about a person before direct communication with him, forms a biased idea about him even before his perception;

¦ effect of "novelty"- when perceiving a stranger, the primary information about him (the so-called first impression) often seems to be the most significant;

The stereotype effect- arises due to insufficient information about a person and exists in the form of a certain stable image.

3. Attraction

In the process of perception, not just the perception of each other takes place, but a whole gamut of feelings is born, emotional relationships arise, the mechanism of formation of which is studied by attraction.

attraction- this is the emergence, when a person is perceived by a person, of the attractiveness of one of them for another. There are a few ways you can use to create an attraction:

reception "proper name"

when communicating, more often refer to a partner by name and patronymic, since such an appeal serves as an indicator of attention and unconsciously evokes positive emotions;

reception "mirror of the soul"

a friendly facial expression, a smile when communicating signal friendly relations and good intentions;

reception "golden words"

do not skimp during communication on compliments, praise, which any person needs;

patient listener technique

be able to listen with interest and patiently to your interlocutor, to let him speak;

reception "preliminary information"

when communicating, use knowledge about your interlocutor (character, temperament, hobbies, marital status, etc.).

Thus, communication is a complex, multifaceted socio-psychological process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the need for joint activities, communication and including the exchange of information, the development of a unified interaction strategy, perception and understanding of another person.

Considering technologies, techniques and rules of communication, they usually proceed from the idea of ​​constructive, positive communication. Exist a few rules of constructive communication, the purpose of which is to achieve the best result during communication, for example:

Speak in a language understandable to both partners;

Show respect for the partner, emphasize his importance;

Emphasize commonality with a partner (professional, gender, ethnic, confessional, age, etc.);

Show interest in your partner's problems.

4. Communication and speech

One of the main features of a person is our ability to interact. People transmit various information to each other, report their mental states and feelings.

The most important achievement of man, which allowed him to use universal human experience, both past and present, was verbal communication.Speech is the process of communication through language.

The possibility of verbal communication is one of the main differences between a person and the rest of the animal world, reflecting the laws of his physiological, mental and social development.

The classification of types of speech (Fig. 16) is carried out on the basis of the presence of certain signs. For example, monologue speech is always active, planned, involves the ability to use any language, different intonations, use pauses during a monologue, etc. While the hallmarks of inner speech are fragmentation and fragmentation.

External and kinetic speech mainly play the role of means of communication, while inner speech plays the role of means of thinking.

The physiological basis of speech is the activity of auditory and motor analyzers, as well as the resulting temporary connections between external stimuli and movements of the vocal cords, larynx, tongue and other organs that regulate the pronunciation of words.

The main properties of verbal communication include:

informative;

clarity;

expressiveness.

Rice. sixteen. Classification of types of speech

In the communication of people, as a rule, there is an emotional coloring, which is the basis of non-verbal communication. Means of non-verbal communication as a kind of language of feelings are a product community development and do not coincide in different national cultures, in different age groups, professional communities, social groups. For example, for Bulgarians, a vertical nod of the head means disagreement with the interlocutor, for Russians it means agreement, in China the color of mourning is white, and in the West it is black. Compliance of the means of non-verbal communication used with the goals and content of the verbal transmission of information is one of the elements of the culture of communication.

In psychology, the concepts of "speech" and "language" are separated.

Speech - this is a set of spoken or perceived sounds, as well as means of non-verbal communication, having the same meaning and meaning as the corresponding system of written signs.

Language - This is a system of conditional symbols, with the help of which combinations of sounds are transmitted that have a certain meaning and meaning for people. Language is developed by society and is a product of socio-historical development. This is a rather complex formation, characterized by grammar, lexical and phonetic composition. The language is the same for all people who speak it, but each person's speech is individual, peculiar. It expresses the psychology of a single person belonging to a certain community, which is characterized by certain features of speech.

Speech without mastering the language is impossible, at the same time, the language exists and develops according to laws that are not related to psychology and human behavior.

Human speech can be expanded and abbreviated. The expanded type of speech is characterized by a large vocabulary and various grammatical forms, frequent use of prepositions, use of impersonal pronouns, clarifying adjectives and adverbs, numerous subordination components of sentences, which indicates a person planning his speech. Abbreviated speech utterances are usually used in everyday speech, in a familiar and familiar environment.

Lesson 1

1 Interpersonal relationships and social roles

2 Social roles and social positions

3 Social norms and conditions for effective interaction

Lesson 2

1 Structure of communication: communicative, interactive, perceptual components

2 Verbal and non-verbal means of communication

3 The role of communication in the work of a leader

4Interaction in communication

Basic concepts on the topic

Communication- this is the process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the need for joint activities and consisting in the exchange of information, interaction and perception of a person by a person.

social meaning communication lies in the fact that it acts as a way of transferring forms of culture and social experience.

Psychological sense communication consists in the fact that in the course of it the subjective, inner world of one person is revealed to another and there is a change in the thoughts, feelings and behavior of the interacting people.

Structure of communication(according to G.M. Andreeva):

Communicative side is the exchange of information between people. At the same time, information is not only transmitted, but also formed, refined, and developed. The main goal of information exchange in communication is the development of a common meaning, a common point of view and agreement on various situations and problems.

Interactive side is an exchange, not of information, but of actions in the process of organizing and implementing interaction between people. This side of communication can be manifested in the coordination of actions, the distribution of functions, the impact on the mood, behavior or beliefs of a partner.

Perceptual side - this is the process of perception by partners of each other, their appearance and inner peace. The effectiveness of perception (perception) is associated with socio-psychological observation, which allows external manifestations an individual to capture its essential features and predict behavior.

The main mechanisms of social perception:

Identification(assimilation) consists in trying to put oneself in the place of a partner. Close to identification is the mechanism of empathy. However, with empathy, there is not a rational understanding of the problems of another person, but the desire to respond to them emotionally.

Reflection - this is the individual's awareness of how he is perceived by a communication partner.

In the process of social perception, attitudes play an important role, leading to the following psychological effects:

halo effect - when previously developed ideas about a person interfere with seeing his real qualities.

The effect of novelty when in a situation of perception of a familiar person, new information about him turns out to be more significant.

Stereotyping effect - when the perceived person is related to one of the famous people. Stereotyping simplifies the process of social perception, but, unfortunately, at the cost of distorting the real essence of the partner.

Communication functions:

pragmatic function communication reflects its need-motivational reasons and is realized through the interaction of people in the process of joint activities. At the same time, communication itself is very often the most important need.

The function of formation and development reflects the ability of communication to have an impact on partners, developing and improving them in all respects. Communicating with other people, a person learns universal human experience, historically established social norms, values, knowledge and methods of activity, and is also formed as a person.

Confirmation function provides people with the opportunity to know, approve and confirm themselves.

Function of uniting-separating people, on the one hand, by establishing contacts between them, it contributes to the transfer of necessary information to each other and sets them up for the implementation of common goals, intentions, tasks, thereby connecting them into a single whole, and on the other hand, it can contribute to the differentiation and isolation of individuals in the result of communication.

The function of organizing and maintaining interpersonal relationships serves the interests of establishing and maintaining sufficiently stable and productive ties, contacts and relationships between people in the interests of their joint activities.

intrapersonal function communication is realized in a person’s communication with himself (through internal or external speech, completed according to the type of dialogue). Such communication can be considered as a universal way of human thinking.

Parties of communication - its specific characteristics, showing its unity and diversity:

Interpersonal side communication reflects the interaction of a person with the immediate environment: with other people and those communities with which he is associated with his life.

Cognitive side communication allows you to answer questions about who the interlocutor is, what kind of person he is, what can be expected from him, and many others related to the personality of the partner. It covers not only the knowledge of another person, but also self-knowledge.

Communication and information the side of communication is an exchange between people of various ideas, ideas, interests, moods, feelings, attitudes, etc.

Emotive side communication is associated with the functioning of emotions and feelings, moods in personal contacts of partners. They are manifested in the expressive movements of the subjects of communication, their actions, deeds, behavior.

Conative (behavioral) sides and communication serves the purpose of reconciling internal and external contradictions in the positions of partners. It provides a controlling influence on a person in all life processes, reveals a person’s desire for certain values, expresses the motivating forces of a person, and regulates the relationship of partners in joint activities.

social role- a model of human behavior, objectively set by the social position of the individual in the system of social institutions, public and personal relations, i.e. behavior that is expected of a person holding a certain status.

Position social- place, position of an individual or group in the system of relations in society, determined by a number of specific features and regulating the style of behavior.

social norms- these are the rules of conduct that regulate the relationship between people and their associations.

The main types of social norms:

Law- these are obligatory, formally defined rules of conduct that are established or sanctioned, and also protected by the state.

moral standards(morality) - the rules of conduct that have developed in society, express people's ideas about good and evil, justice and injustice, duty, honor, dignity. The action of these norms is ensured by internal conviction, public opinion, measures of public influence.

Norms of customs- these are the rules of behavior, which, having developed in society as a result of their repeated repetition, are executed by force of habit.

Norms of public organizations(corporate norms) - these are the rules of conduct that are independently established by public organizations, enshrined in their charters (regulations, etc.), operate within their limits and are also protected from violations by them through certain measures of public influence.

Among social norms there are: religious norms; political norms; aesthetic standards; organizational norms; cultural norms, etc.

Types of communication:

Verbal - non-verbal;

Contact - distant;

Direct - indirect;

Oral - written;

Dialogical - monologue;

Interpersonal - mass;

Private - official (business);

Sincere is manipulative.

Each type of communication has its own characteristics. For example, the Code of Business Communication contains seven principles:

The principle of cooperativeness (your contribution must be such as the jointly adopted direction of the conversation requires);

The principle of sufficiency of information (say no more and no less than what is required at the moment);

The principle of information quality (do not lie);

The principle of expediency (do not deviate from the topic, be able to find a solution);

Express thought clearly and convincingly;

Know how to listen and understand the right thought;

Know how to take into account the individual characteristics of the interlocutor.

Stages of communication:

The emergence of the need for communication, as well as the intention to make contact;

Orientation in goals, in a situation of communication;

Orientation in the personality of the partner;

Planning the content of communication (usually unconsciously);

Unconscious or conscious choice of means, phrases, manners of behavior;

Perception and evaluation of the response, the establishment of feedback;

Adjusting the direction and style of communication.

Means of communication:

- language- ensuring mutual understanding of partners; the occurring misunderstanding of each other often occurs due to the fact that the interlocutors attach a different subjective meaning to the words used;

- intonation;

- facial expressions- the movement of the facial muscles, expressing the internal state of mind;

- poses, distance, relative positions of partners;

- glances, "eye contact";

- gestures.

Behavior strategies:

a) cooperation, which implies the maximum achievement by the participants of interaction of their goals;

b) rivalry, which involves focusing only on one's own interests, without taking into account the interests of a partner;

c) a compromise involving a private, intermediate (often temporary) achievement of the partners' goals for the sake of maintaining conditional equality and maintaining relations;

d) compliance, which involves sacrificing one's own needs in order to achieve the partner's goals;

e) avoidance, which involves avoiding contact, refusing to strive to achieve one's goals in order to exclude the gain of another.

Interpersonal (human) relationships- a set of interactions between individuals that make up the social hierarchical ladder. Human relations are mainly based on the connections that exist between members of society through different types of communication: primarily visual (or non-verbal connections, which include both appearance and body movements, gestures), linguistic ( oral speech), affective, as well as languages ​​built as a result of the development of complex societies (economic, political, etc.).

Classification of interpersonal relationships:

primary relationship: those that are established between people as necessary in themselves.

secondary relationships: those that arise from the need for help or some function that one person performs in relation to another.

Topics of abstracts

1 Psychological barriers to communication in a team.

2 Techniques for creating optimal interpersonal relationships in a group.

3 Communication as a process of developing contacts between people.

Questions for self-control

1What is communication?

2What are the differences between the social meaning of communication and the psychological one?

3What is the structure of communication?

4What are the features of the communicative side of communication?

5How is the interactive side of communication expressed?

6What is social perception?

7What are the main mechanisms of social perception?

8What are the functions of communication?

9What are the aspects of communication and their features?

10 What are social norms? What are their types?

11 What are the characteristic features of certain types of communication?

12 What are the stages of communication?

13 What are the means of communication?

14 What does the behavior strategy include?

15 What is interpersonal relationship? What is their classification?

Literature

1 Andreeva, G.M. Social psychology: a textbook for universities / G.M. Andreeva.- M.: Aspect-Press, 2001.- 376 p.

2 Vechorko, G.F. Fundamentals of psychology and pedagogy: answers to examination questions / G.F. Vechorko. – 4th ed., revised. and additional - Minsk: TetraSystem, 2010.-192 p.

3 Dyachenko, M.I. Brief psychological dictionary / M.I. Dyachenko, L.A. Kandybovich. - Minsk: Halton, 1998. - 399 p.

4 Obozov, N.N. Interpersonal relations / N.N. Convoys. - L.: Publishing house of the Leningrad University, 1979. - 160 p.

5 Modern psychological dictionary / ed. B.G. Meshcheryakova, V.P. Zinchenko. - St. Petersburg: PRIME-EURO-SIGN, 2006. - 490 p.

6 Stolyarenko, L.D. Fundamentals of psychology / L.D. Stolyarenko.- 3rd ed., revised. and additional - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1999. - 672 p.

7 Fomin, Yu.A. Psychology of business communication / Yu.A. Fomin. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - Minsk: Amalfeya, 2003. - 350 p.

G. M. Andreeva
COMMUNICATION AND INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS 1
Place and nature of interpersonal relationships

Now it is fundamentally important to understand the place of these interpersonal relations in the real system of people's life.

In the socio-psychological literature, different points of view are expressed on the question of where interpersonal relations are “located”, primarily in relation to the system of social relations. Sometimes they are considered on a par with social relations, at the base of them, or, on the contrary, at the highest level (Kuzmin E.S. Fundamentals of social psychology. L., Leningrad State University, 1967. S. 146), in other cases - as a reflection in the minds of social relations (Platonov K, K. O sistemy psikhologii. M., 1974, p. 30), etc. It seems to us (and this is confirmed by numerous studies) that the nature of interpersonal relations can be correctly understood if they are not put on a par with social relations, but to see in them a special series of relations that arises within each type of social relations, not outside them (be it “below”, “above”, “sideways” or in any other way). Schematically, this can be represented as a section by a special plane of the system of social relations: what is found in this “section” of economic, social, political and other varieties of social relations is interpersonal relations (Fig. 1.1).

Rice. 1.1. Interpersonal relationships and social relations

With this understanding, it becomes clear why interpersonal relations, as it were, "mediate" the impact on the personality of a broader social whole. Ultimately, interpersonal relations are conditioned by objective social relations, but it is precisely in ultimately. In practice, both series of relations are given together, and the underestimation of the second series prevents a truly deep analysis of the relations and the first series.

The existence of interpersonal relations within various forms of social relations is, as it were, the realization of impersonal relations in the activities of specific individuals, in the acts of their communication and interaction.

At the same time, in the course of this realization, relations between people (including social ones) are again reproduced. In other words, this means that in the objective fabric of social relations there are moments emanating from the conscious will and special goals of individuals. It is here that the social and the psychological collide directly. Therefore, for social psychology, the formulation of this problem is of paramount importance.

The proposed structure of relations generates the most important consequence. For each participant in interpersonal relationships, these relationships may appear to be the only reality of any relationship at all. Although in reality the content of interpersonal relations is ultimately one or another type of social relations, i.e., a certain social activity, the content, and even more so their essence, remain hidden to a large extent. Despite the fact that in the process of interpersonal, and hence social relations, people exchange thoughts, are aware of their relationship, this awareness often does not go beyond the knowledge that people have entered into interpersonal relationships.

Separate moments of social relations are presented to their participants only as their interpersonal relationships: someone is perceived as an “evil teacher”, as a “cunning merchant”, etc. At the level of everyday consciousness, without a special theoretical analysis, this is exactly the situation. Therefore, the motives of behavior are often explained by this, given on the surface, picture of relations, and not at all by the actual objective relations that stand behind this picture. Everything is further complicated by the fact that interpersonal relations are the actual reality of social relations: outside of them there are no “pure” social relations somewhere. Therefore, in almost all group activities, their participants act as if in two qualities: as performers of an impersonal social role and as unique human personalities. This gives grounds to introduce the concept of “interpersonal role” as a fixation of a person’s position not in the system of social relations, but in the system of only group relations, and not on the basis of his objective place in this system, but on the basis of individual psychological characteristics of the individual. Examples of such interpersonal roles are well known from everyday life: about individuals in a group they say that he is a “shirt-guy”, “one on the board”, “scapegoat”, etc. The detection of personality traits in the style of performing a social role causes other members of the group respond, and thus, a whole system of interpersonal relations arises in the group (Shibutani, 1968).

The nature of interpersonal relations differs significantly from the nature of social relations: their most important specific feature is the emotional basis. Therefore, interpersonal relationships can be considered as a factor in the psychological "climate" of the group. The emotional basis of interpersonal relationships means that they arise and develop on the basis of certain feelings that people have in relation to each other. AT domestic school Psychology distinguishes three types, or levels of emotional manifestations of personality: affects, emotions and feelings. The emotional basis of interpersonal relationships includes all kinds of these emotional manifestations.

However, in social psychology, it is the third component of this scheme that is usually characterized - feelings, and the term is not used in the strictest sense. Naturally, the “set” of these feelings is unlimited. However, all of them can be reduced to two large groups:

1) conjunctival - this includes all sorts of people that bring people together, uniting their feelings. In each case of such an attitude, the other side acts as a desired object, in relation to which a readiness for cooperation, joint actions, etc. is demonstrated;

2) disjunctive feelings - this includes feelings that separate people, when the other side appears as unacceptable, perhaps even as a frustrating object, in relation to which there is no desire for cooperation, etc. The intensity of both kinds of feelings can be very different. The specific level of their development, of course, cannot be indifferent to the activities of the groups.

At the same time, the analysis of these interpersonal relations alone cannot be considered sufficient to characterize the group: in practice, relations between people do not develop only on the basis of direct emotional contacts. The activity itself defines another series of relations mediated by it. That is why it is an extremely important and difficult task of social psychology to simultaneously analyze two series of relations in a group: both interpersonal and those mediated by joint activity, i.e., ultimately, the social relations behind them.

Communication in the system of interpersonal

and public relations

An analysis of the connection between social and interpersonal relations makes it possible to place the right emphasis on the question of the place of communication throughout complex system human connection with the outside world. However, first it is necessary to say a few words about the problem of communication in general. The solution to this problem is very specific within the framework of domestic social psychology. The term “communication” itself does not have an exact analogue in traditional social psychology, not only because it is not quite equivalent to the commonly used English term “communication”, but also because its content can be considered only in the conceptual dictionary of a special psychological theory, namely the theory of activities. Of course, in the structure of communication, which will be discussed below, such aspects of it can be distinguished that are described or studied in other systems of socio-psychological knowledge. However, the essence of the problem, as it is posed in domestic social psychology, is fundamentally different.

Both series of human relations - both public and interpersonal - are revealed, realized precisely in communication. Thus, the roots of communication are in the very material life of individuals. Communication is the realization of the whole system of human relations. “Under normal circumstances, a person’s relationship to the objective world around him is always mediated by his attitude to people, to society” (Leontiev A.A. Communication as an object of psychological research // Methodological problems social psychology, 1975. S. 289), i.e. included in communication. Here it is especially important to emphasize the idea that in real communication not only interpersonal relations of people are given, i.e. not only their emotional attachments, hostility, etc. are revealed, but also social, i.e. impersonal by nature relations are embodied in the fabric of communication . Diverse relationships of a person are not covered only by interpersonal contact: the position of a person outside the narrow framework of interpersonal relations, in a broader social system, where his place is not determined by the expectations of individuals interacting with him, also requires a certain construction of a system of his connections, and this process can also be implemented only in communication. Without communication, human society is simply unthinkable. Communication acts in it as a way of cementing individuals and, at the same time, as a way of developing these individuals themselves. It is from here that the existence of communication follows at the same time both as a reality of social relations and as a reality of interpersonal relations. Apparently, this made it possible for Saint-Exupery to draw a poetic image of communication as "the only luxury that a person has."

Naturally, each series of relations is realized in specific forms of communication. Communication as the realization of interpersonal relationships is a process more studied in social psychology, while communication between groups rather studied in sociology. Communication, including in the system of interpersonal relations, is forced by the joint life activity of people, therefore it must be carried out in a wide variety of interpersonal relations, that is, it is given both in the case of a positive and in the case of a negative attitude of one person to another. The type of interpersonal relationship is not indifferent to how communication will be built, but it exists in specific forms, even when the relationship is extremely aggravated. The same applies to the characterization of communication at the macrolevel as the realization of social relations. And in this case, whether groups or individuals communicate with each other as representatives of social groups, the act of communication must inevitably take place, is forced to take place, even if the groups are antagonistic. Such a dual understanding of communication - in the broad and narrow sense of the word - follows from the very logic of understanding the connection between interpersonal and social relations. In this case, it is appropriate to appeal to Marx's idea that communication is an unconditional companion of human history (in this sense, we can talk about the importance of communication in the "phylogenesis" of society) and, at the same time, an unconditional companion in everyday activities, in everyday contacts between people (see. A. A. Leontiev, Psychology of Communication, Tartu, 1973. In the first plan, one can trace the historical change in the forms of communication, i.e., their change as society develops along with the development of economic, social and other social relations. Here the most difficult methodological question is solved: how does a process appear in the system of impersonal relations, which by its nature requires the participation of individuals? Speaking as a representative of a certain social group, a person communicates with another representative of another social group and simultaneously realizes two types of relations: both impersonal and personal. A peasant, selling a product on the market, receives a certain amount of money for it, and here money is the most important means of communication in the system of social relations. At the same time, this same peasant bargains with the buyer and thus “personally” communicates with him, and the means of this communication is human speech. On the surface of phenomena, a form of direct communication is given - communication, but behind it is communication, forced by the very system of social relations, in this case, the relations of commodity production. In socio-psychological analysis, one can abstract from the “second plan”, but in real life this “second plan” of communication is always present. Although in itself it is the subject of study mainly of sociology, in the socio-psychological approach it must also be taken into account.

Unity of communication and activity

However, with any approach, the question of the connection between communication and activity is fundamental. In a number of psychological concepts, there is a tendency to oppose communication and activity. So, for example, E. Durkheim eventually arrived at such a formulation of the problem, when, arguing with G. Tarde, he paid special attention not to the dynamics of social phenomena, but to their statics. Society looked to him not as a dynamic system of active groups and individuals, but as a set of static forms of communication. The communication factor in determining behavior was emphasized, but the role of transformative activities: the social process itself was reduced to the process of spiritual speech communication. This gave grounds for A. N. Leontiev to note that with this approach, the individual appears rather “as a communicating than practically acting social being” (Leontiev A. N. Problems of the development of the psyche. M., 1972. P. 271).

In contrast to this, domestic psychology adopts the idea unity of communication and activity. Such a conclusion follows logically from the understanding of communication as a reality of human relations, assuming that any forms of communication are included in specific forms of joint activity: people do not just communicate in the process of performing various functions, but they always communicate in some activity, “about” it. Thus, an active person always communicates: his activity inevitably intersects with the activity of other people. But it is precisely this intersection of activities that creates certain relations of an active person not only to the object of his activity, but also to other people. It is communication that forms the community of individuals performing joint activities. Thus, the fact of the connection between communication and activity is stated one way or another by all researchers.

However, the nature of this relationship is understood differently. Sometimes activity and communication are considered not as parallel interrelated processes, but as two sides social life of a person, his way of life (Lomov B. f. Communication and social regulation of the individual's behavior // Psychological problems of social regulation of behavior. M., 1976. P. 130). In other cases, communication is understood as a certain side activity: it is included in any activity, is its element, while the activity itself can be considered as condition communication (A. N. Leontiev. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. M., 1975. P. 289). Finally, communication can be interpreted as a special kind of activity. Within this point of view, there are two varieties of it: in one of them, communication is understood as communicative activity, or the activity of communication, acting independently at a certain stage of ontogenesis, for example, in preschool children and especially in adolescence (Elkonin, 1991). In the other, communication in general terms is understood as one of the types of activity (meaning primarily speech activity), and in relation to it all the elements characteristic of activity in general are found: actions, operations, motives, etc. (A. A. Leontiev. Communication as an object of psychological research // Methodological problems of social psychology. M., 1975. P. 122).

It is hardly essential to elucidate the merits and comparative shortcomings of each of these points of view: none of them denies the most important thing - the undoubted connection between activity and communication, all recognize the inadmissibility of their separation from each other in analysis. Moreover, the divergence of positions is much more obvious at the level of theoretical and general methodological analysis. As far as experimental practice is concerned, all researchers have much more in common than different. This common feature is the recognition of the fact of the unity of communication and activity and attempts to fix this unity.

The allocation of the subject of communication should not be understood vulgarly: people communicate not only about the activities with which they are associated. For the sake of highlighting two possible reasons for communication in the literature, the concepts of “role” and “personal” communication are divorced. Under some circumstances, this personal communication in form may look like a role-playing, business, “subject-problem” (Kharash A.U. To determine the tasks and methods of social psychology in the light of the principle of activity // Theoretical and methodological problems of social psychology. M., 1977 pp. 30). Thus, the separation of role-playing and personal communication is not absolute. In certain relations and situations, both are associated with activity.

The idea of ​​“weaving” of communication into activity also allows us to consider in detail the question of what exactly in activity communication can constitute. In the most general form, the answer can be formulated in such a way that through communication, activity organized and enriched. The construction of a joint activity plan requires each participant to have an optimal understanding of its goals, objectives, understanding the specifics of its object and even the capabilities of each of the participants. The inclusion of communication in this process allows for “coordination” or “mismatch” of the activities of individual participants (A. A. Leontiev. Communication as an object of psychological research // Methodological problems of social psychology. M., 1975. P. 116).

This coordination of the activities of individual participants can be carried out thanks to such a characteristic of communication as its inherent function. impact, in which the “reverse influence of communication on activity” is manifested (Andreeva G. M., Yanoushek Ya. Interrelation of communication and activity // Communication and optimization of joint activity. M., 1987). We will find out the specifics of this function together with the consideration of various aspects of communication. Now it is important to emphasize that activity through communication is not just organized, but enriched, new connections and relationships between people arise in it.

Structure of communication

Given the complexity of communication, it is necessary to somehow designate its structure, so that each element can then be analyzed. The structure of communication can be approached in different ways, as well as the definition of its functions. We propose to characterize the structure of communication by highlighting three interrelated aspects in it: communicative, interactive and perceptual. The structure of communication can be schematically depicted as follows (Fig. 1.2).

Rice. 1.2. Structure of communication

Communicative side of communication, or communication in the narrow sense of the word, is the exchange of information between communicating individuals. Interactive the other side lies in the organization of interaction between communicating individuals, i.e., in the exchange of not only knowledge, ideas, but also actions. Perceptual the side of communication means the process of perception and knowledge of each other by partners in communication and the establishment of mutual understanding on this basis. Naturally, all these terms are very conditional. Others are sometimes used in a more or less analogous sense. For example, in communication there are three functions: information-communicative, regulatory-communicative, affective-communicative (Lomov BF Communication and social regulation of the individual's behavior // Psychological problems of social regulation of behavior. M., 1976. P. 85). The challenge is to carefully analyze, including at an experimental level, the content of each of these aspects or functions. Of course, in reality, each of these aspects does not exist in isolation from the other two, and their selection is possible only for analysis, in particular, for building a system experimental studies. All aspects of communication indicated here are revealed in small groups, that is, in conditions of direct contact between people. Separately, it is necessary to consider the question of the means and mechanisms of influence of people on each other and in the conditions of their joint massive actions, which should be the subject of a special analysis, in particular, in the study of the psychology of large groups and mass movements.

A. Dobrovich

SYSTEMATICS OF COMMUNICATION 2

1) General model

When building a general communication model, it is advisable to use the scheme of R. Jacobson (1964):

where BUT -"addresser" B -"addressee" of information.

Connection it can be direct (in human communication - speech and gestures in the broad sense of the word, including, for example, “vocal gestures”; intonations) or indirect (telephone, teletype, etc.).

The code - the rules of the language (or “bundle” of languages) used to convey the message; context- a predetermined "semantic field" in which the message becomes informative.

2) Contact

By “contact” is meant a case of communication with feedback:

K. Buhler (1927) understands “contact” exactly as the “mutual orientation” of partners. For him, contact is “a process of coordinated co-changes in behavior”.

The sender not only communicates information, but also receives a response. In other words, the addresser, having made a message, becomes the addressee; he, having received the message, becomes the addresser. This process can continue indefinitely.

From our point of view, the concept of “formal” (or “informal”) communication is applicable specifically to contact, and not to communication in general. “Formal communication” we will call a contact on which certain restrictions are imposed. The meaning of this definition will be explained later. For now, let's continue with the contact.

3) Contact unit

A sends B one “communicative stimulus” (or “communicat”) and receives one response; B receives one stimulus and transmits one in response; communication takes place. Following the psychotherapist E. Berne (1964), we will call such an exchange a “transaction”.

Examples. A gave B a contemptuous look. He defiantly turned away - there was a transaction. The same, but B simply looked the other way and did not notice the sign of contempt - the transaction did not take place (there was no contact). A told B some news, B smiled without saying a word - the transaction nevertheless took place, since a smile is a “gesture”, a communicative stimulus. And as an actor, he delivered a spectacular remark, the auditorium (as the addressee) held its breath - the transaction took place. The same - if the audience shushed indignantly, burst out laughing or burst into applause. Human transactions almost always involve the use of several codes at the same time, i.e., a "bunch" of languages. The language of words is combined with the language of pauses, intonations, postures and facial expressions.

4) The content of the communicative stimulus

As can be seen from the examples just given, the communicator is capable of carrying both elementary and highly complex information. An example of an elementary one is the so-called “stroking”: information about belonging to one community, about a benevolent attitude towards a partner. An example of highly complex information is the verbal-musical-pantomimic transmission of mystical experience by a priest or shaman.

Let us single out the “emotional radical” of the communicative stimulus in particular. If we agree, according to Berne, to call the elementary “positive” stimulus “stroking”, then the elementary “negative” stimulus deserves the name “kick”, “bite” or “prick”. "Prick" is preferable in terms of style.

5) Contact partners. masks

Further development of the scheme concerns contact partners. Since we are talking about people, each of them has:

a) a set of masks for "impersonal" communication;

6) personality for “interpersonal” communication. Let us now turn to the contact of the masks.

Mask - this is a set of signs (speech, gestures), the supply of which ensures “smooth” and safe interaction in a human group. Examples: politeness mask. In a public place, the absence of such a mask (evil or distracted facial expression, rude tone, excessively loud laughter, etc.) entails group sanctions: criticism, ridicule, aggressiveness. And at the same time, to appear in a mask of politeness among tipsy revelers means to cause their irritation or resentment; here another mask is required: benevolence or loyal non-intervention. The mask of sorrow is suitable for funerals, but not for weddings, etc. People change masks almost automatically, according to circumstances.

If only the contact of masks is allowed in the communication of partners, i.e., a restriction is imposed on participation personalities in conversation, then before us the first occasion of formal communication.

The specified restriction can be different in nature. Let us note four types of restrictions imposed on a contact. a) Conventional restrictions. In this social group, there is a “convention” - the custom according to which it is not customary to ask personal questions to a random companion on the bus (“You must have slept badly today?”) disappointed in life. Only impersonal communicative stimuli of the type are accepted: “Allow me? - Please”, “Sorry! “It's okay,” etc. The convention, therefore, forces the partners to “impersonal” contact, to the communication of masks.

b) Situational restrictions. They are close to conventional. Here are special situations in which participation personalities as contact partners only “spoils” the matter. Examples: the ceremony of handing over the shift or divorce of the guard, the Japanese tea ceremony, etc.

c) Emotional limitations. Communication partners are emotionally cold or hostile to each other and, trying to prevent conflict, use only masks in contact.

d) Violent restrictions. One of the partners may be ready for interpersonal communication, but the other, for one reason or another, stops these attempts, putting on a mask and forcing his interlocutor to do the same. Restrictions of this kind, as we see, differ from emotional ones only in some nuances.

Contact restrictions, according to D.S. Parygin (1970), create “psychological barriers between people”, replacing genuine communication with “stereotypes”, “standard behavioral reactions”.

Any case of mask contact can be explained by the listed limitations or a combination of them.

6) Personality and position of the person in contact

Personality is a structure of extreme complexity, and we will consider it only in particular aspects that are of the greatest importance in contact. A person as a “communicator” has at least three personal positions. They, according to E. Berne, coexist within the same personality, complementing each other.

a) The position of the child, "child" (position D). Preserved from an early age. It focuses on the strengths and weaknesses of children's nature. The “strong”, apparently, should include looseness, creative impulses, impulsive cheerfulness, fantasy, curiosity. To the “weak” - fearfulness, uncertainty, helplessness, gullibility, intemperance.

b) The position of the parent (position P). Assimilated in childhood due to the adoration of elders and imitation of them. Her strengths: confidence in the correctness of moral requirements, the ability to have an authoritative tone, to patronize and protect the weak. Less attractive features: categorical attitude, dogmatism, consciousness of superiority and the right to “punish”.

c) The position of an adult (position B). Calculation of actions, control over them, sobriety in assessments, understanding of the relativity of dogmas. At the same time, excessive skepticism, constraint (lack of spontaneity), poverty of imagination, underestimation of the emotional side of life.

If a person is deprived of any of these positions, his behavior would become "maladaptive": either too rigid, or too loose and careless. However, in some unit of time (in the course of contact) one of the positions is leading; the next moment the other may prevail.

From what has been said, it follows that not two, but six partners actually participate in the contact:

Addressee Addressee

D D

This circumstance requires a more detailed taxonomy of transactions. They are subdivided as follows:

7) Complementary transactions

The communicative stimulus is sent by the addresser from position X and received by the addressee at position Y; the response stimulus is sent from position Y to be received by the partner in position X.

And in a n about in. What happened to the young people? They completely loosened up.

P e tr o v. Yes, in their years we were more modest.

In this example, the communicative stimulus is sent from the position of the parent (from left to right, as indicated by the arrow). The stimulus is addressed to the “parental” position of the partner. The partner answers exactly from this position (arrow from right to left).

II

Teacher. How did you get the three digit number?

Student: Oh, yes: I forgot to take the square root.

III

C e to v o d. Why don't we break into a bar while there are no bosses?

Accountant. But rather: I'm dying - I want beer.

Examples I, II and III can, as is sometimes done in directing, be called "an extension of partners side by side."

IV

And in a n about in. I think you should make way for that old lady over there.

P e tr o v. You are right (giving way). ,

Option: Unfortunately, I am ill and can hardly stand on my feet. I hope the lady will excuse me.

And in a n about in. Aren't you ashamed to sit when an elderly woman is standing next to you?

P e tr o v. I'm sorry, I just didn't notice. I thought, you know...

Option: What are you up to? Who are you to tell me?;

S i d o r o v a. Escort me: drunks are always crowding in our stairwell.

And in a n about in. Well, of course I will.

VII

P e tr o v. You are so experienced - teach me how to live on.

And in a n about in. First of all, you need to rest and calm down.

Option: You are always whining and waiting for advice from others!

Examples IV and V for the partner on the left are "top extension"; examples VI and VII for the partner on the left are the “lower addition”.

Often such transactions are fixed. For example, small talk of unfamiliar pensioners may be limited to P-P transactions (see I). A business conversation or a diplomatic reception requires fixed B-B transactions (see II). In the situation of a picnic or a costume ball, transactions D-D are fixed (see III), while others are considered inappropriate. The relationship between a teacher and a student prescribes transactions in positions P-B (see IV), and between a teacher and schoolchildren - P-A (see V). It is natural (and desirable) for women to have transactions with a man type B-R(see VI) or even D-R (see VII). transactions type D-R constantly arise between the patient and the psychotherapist, and the change of mutual position in the course of contacts was considered prohibited until recently.

If we defined the contact of masks as the first case of formal communication, then in fixed transactions we are faced with the second case; there is a restriction imposed on the change of positions. As in the previous case, restriction can be conventional, situational, emotional, violent, or a combination of these in nature.

8) Transactions without complementarity

Here, the partner's response stimulus either comes from a different position than the original stimulus was directed to, or is addressed to a different position from which this original stimulus was sent.

And in a n about in. What happened to the young people? They completely loosened up.

P e tr o v. Remember: when we were young, our parents said the same thing.

C e to v o d. Why don't we go to the movies while there are no bosses?

Accountant. Be ashamed, you're at work!

Cases of types VIII and IX we call transactions without complementarity, but "with given the address." Indeed: the right partner in these examples does not respond from the position from which it was expected, but is addressed to the initial position of the left partner.

C e to v o d. Why don't we go to the movies while there are no bosses?

Accountant. Kindly give me the statement for the month of July.
XI

Cases of type X and XI are "addressless" transactions. In fact, the right partner not only answers from an unexpected position, but also addresses a different position than the left partner's original position.

Case XI depicts the so-called "cross" transaction. Here are more examples of the same type.

Husband. Have you seen my cufflinks?

Zhenya. Are you always picking on me? Why do I have to remember everything?

S e m e n. Take a bag, brother, and go get some bread.

S t e p a n. Too lazy to get off the couch? Take it and go yourself!

Cross transactions often mean a quarrel between partners. In general, transactions without complementarity usually contain a painful “prick” for at least one of the participants in the contact.

If transactions of type VIII - XIII determine the whole contact stroke, i.e. the restriction is imposed on any kind of complementarity, before us the third case of formal communication. We call such communication “conflict”. The nature of the restriction is most often emotional or violent.

And yet, if the restriction is imposed on any of the two “emotional radicals” of the communicative stimulus, then this is the fourth case of formal communication. We are talking about the prohibition of “pricks” (salon chirping, where only mutual strokes are allowed) or the prohibition of strokes (traditional picking of partners who are ordered to act only as opponents of each other; the limiting case is the Montagues and Capulets).

9) Hidden transactions

The communicative stimulus may consist of two (or three) messages, each of which is addressed to different positions of the partner. That message, which is most consistent with the "conventions" and the context of the conversation, is considered explicit; the other turns out to be “hidden”, indirect.

XIV

And in a n about in. Come to me, I live alone. Let's have a hot cup of tea... (I like you very much.)

P e tr o v a. Yes, it would be nice to warm up with tea ... (You, too.)

XV

P e tr o v. Now I will give you the floor. (I see you are burning with impatience to show off on the podium.)

And in a n about in. Hm! (I don't have to speak at all if you intend to make a laughing stock of me.)

XVI

P e tr o v. Now I will give you the floor. (I can imagine how you will deal with them!)

And in a n about in. Fine! (Don't worry, I'll give them some pepper.)

Salesman. This thermos would suit you best... (I just don't know if you can afford such expenses.)

Buyer. I take it, it's just what I need.

The covert transactions in Examples XV, XVI, and XVII are clearly provocative. However, in some cases, such a provocation is not intentional. If we return to the cross-transactions of examples XI, XII and XIII, then, strictly speaking, these are most likely cases of unintentional provocations. The picture here seems to be this.

Husband. Have you seen my cufflinks? (Sorry darling for distracting you, I'm so distracted.)

Zhenya. You're always losing everything, you can't live without a nanny!
HPa

Husband. Have you seen my cufflinks?

Zhenya. What are you picking on me for? Why do I have to remember everything?

Although the use of hidden transactions sometimes leads to cross-transactions and further to broken complementarity or to a break in communication (i.e., to a quarrel), one should note the special role of this “hidden” interaction in arousing the feelings of interlocutors. The restriction placed on covert transactions is fifth case of formal communication. The contact becomes “dry”, “boring”, “painful” for the partner. Such a restriction can be both conventionally situational (business meeting) and emotionally violent (conversation of hostile and wary people) in nature.

Before we go any further, we must dwell on violent restrictions on contact. Such restrictions are referred to as cases of “games”, meaning the “losing” of one of the partners who was limited in communication or in achieving their goals. We would prefer to call these cases “manipulations.” Communicative manipulations of people are most often far from innocent games. Unlike sports, card games, and the like, which can be "fair" or "unfair", manipulation is always dishonest. Let's talk about them in more detail.

10) Manipulation

According to their structure, they can be divided into "single-cycle" and "multicycle". An example of a one-step TRAP manipulation is the Seller-Customer case (see XVII), although such manipulation often consists of many "tacts" - ingenious "moves". Example XI is sometimes a one-shot variant of the DOOR SLAMMING manipulation:

M uh (friendly). Have you seen my cufflinks?

Zhenya. You're always losing everything, you can't live without a nanny!

(The husband, having exploded, leaves the room, slamming the door hard. For some reason, this is what the wife wanted).

Another example: the one-cycle manipulation ALL BECAUSE OF YOU. The father of the family pores over the drawings, which he does not know how to do and does not like. The son knocks and enters with the question: “Mom calls for dinner - are you coming?” The unfortunate draftsman puts a blot on paper and exclaims fiercely: “What have you done, it's all because of you!”

Multicycle manipulations consist of a whole series of transactions.

Example: multi-cycle manipulation DOOR SLAMMING: Man (friendly). I wonder where the key to this box went. Didn't you get it?

Zhenya. Blind, right? There, by the mirror.

Husband. What does “blind” have to do with it - things should be in their places.

Zhenya. You and your mommy don't miss a chance to tell me nasty things.

Another example: dead end manipulation. The wife feels that her husband has begun to be weary of her. Meanwhile, he brings tickets to the theater for a performance that has long been of interest to both. In the course of his wife's excited dressing, however, he makes a sharp remark to her: "You are always digging!"

Never mind, we'll make it in time for a taxi.

By taxi? What extravagance! That's why I have to work like a damned man!

If he succeeds in provoking his wife to retaliate “shots”, the manipulation turns into SLAMMING THE DOOR. The husband goes to his acquaintances, leaving his wife, if she pleases, to rush to the theater herself. At the same time, on the one hand, he achieved what he wanted, on the other hand, he is not responsible for the scandal. After all, none other than he brought the tickets! The wife is driven into a "dead end".

Sometimes long (and planned) breaks are possible between the series of manipulative transactions. Such is the manipulation TRY IT AWAY. Petrov took a rare book from Ivanov. Ivanov asks to return it. Petrov expresses his readiness to do this, “forgets” about his promise several times, and then invites Ivanov to visit. Accepting it, he holds himself in such a way that he feels flattered. However, as if by the way, Petrov drops the phrase: “I hope you came to us not only because of your book?” This makes it difficult for Ivanov to be reminded of the book, and he leaves with nothing. The next day, Petrov throws up his hands: “We started talking and forgot about the book!” Ivanov is forced to answer: "It's okay." Taking advantage of this, Petrov immediately seeks permission to transfer the book to his friend N. - "just for a couple of days." Further, warning Ivanov's question about the book, he again invites him to visit, etc.

From the point of view of the “benefit” of the manipulator, manipulations can be divided into worldly beneficial and psychologically beneficial (although one is often combined with the other). Worldly beneficial, for example, TRAP, DEAD END, TRY IT AWAY. A striking example of worldly beneficial manipulation is the so-called SANDWICH. The husband asks his wife not to throw away yesterday's cutlets, but to make a sandwich out of them and wrap him up at work (although the wife knows that there is a buffet at work where they feed tasty and inexpensively). This goes on day in and day out and has a very specific purpose: to prevent the wife from asking for a new coat. A “context” is created in which such a request would sound inappropriate and even impudent.

Psychologically the manipulation of ALL BECAUSE OF YOU, described earlier, is beneficial. It represents a typical "clearing of conscience" at the expense of a scapegoat. The psychological gain, in addition to clearing your conscience, can also be to receive “strokes” that you have the right not to respond to, inflicting “pricks” with impunity, or “an extension on top”.

Examples. Manipulation ALCOHOLIC. The drunkard turns to a benevolent acquaintance with repentance and requests for help with advice. An acquaintance sincerely sympathizes with him and discusses his problems with him.

After a long conversation, the alcoholic, however, reveals that he has remained inconsolable. Thus, firstly, he clears his conscience, and secondly, he receives “strokes”, which he has not been given for a long time; and thirdly, without confirming the value of the consolations he heard, he leaves the partner without reciprocal strokes. Sometimes, for an “addition from above,” he also resorts to a sensitive “prick” in the finale: “What can you, a teetotaler, understand in the soul of a drinker?” (in fact, this is a R-D transaction: addressing the "wise" to the "naive child"),

Manipulation COULD YOU? - YES, BUT...

D a m a My TV hasn't been working for a month now.

O d i n i z g o s t e y. Could you ask your husband to fix it?

D a m a Yes, but my husband is absolutely helpless in these matters.

Other g o s t. Then call the wizard.

D a m a Yes, but the master will most likely require the TV to be taken to the workshop.

Third guest. Why don't you do it?

D a m a Yes, but I don't have time to spend an hour on the phone ordering a taxi.

The fourth guest. So ask your husband about it.

D a m a What are you, a helpless person...

The conversation falls into an awkward silence. The lady secretly triumphs: the guests gave her a whole bunch of “strokes”, sympathizing or at least pretending to sympathize. At the same time, she is not obliged to “give back” their strokes in return.

Manipulation IF IT WOULD NOT BE YOU. The husband constantly tells his wife that “if it weren’t for you,” he would have finished his dissertation long ago. One fine day, the wife is going to live with her children for two weeks with her relatives. The husband, however, is not enthusiastic about this idea. He is forced to undertake a new manipulation (for example, IMAGINARY SICK) in order to detain his wife. In fact, he needed to clear his conscience, and at the same time maintain a sense of guilt in his wife, which makes it easier for him to “add on from above”.

Manipulation HOME SAGE. Someone accustoms his environment to the idea that he is able to disinterestedly give wise advice. Skillfully encouraging the pilgrimage of those thirsty for advice, he keeps a secret account of his victories - "outbuildings from above." The manipulative nature of such actions is revealed by the fact that the "wise man" himself cannot stand anyone's advice. An extension “beside” or “below” is considered by him as a loss.

Another manipulation. Its children's version is presented in Ch. Dickens's novel "Great Expectations". A girl in a clean starched dress comes out onto the porch and asks the boy, her admirer, to make her a sand cake. The boy rushes to comply with this request, after which the girl winces; “Fu, how dirty, nasty you are - covered in sand.” Manipulation can accordingly be called a SAND PIE. Its adult version is often associated with the sexual negativism of one of the spouses. A woman can reproach a man for being an “animal” and experiencing only attraction for her, but not love. Under this pretext, she provokes a long cooling in the relationship. Nevertheless, after some time, she resorts to coquetry, caresses, etc., giving the man a reason to be more persistent. However, in response to his more determined claims, she bursts into tears: "What did I say - you're just an animal!" Thus, she manages, on the one hand, to avoid relationships that are unpleasant for her, on the other hand, to maintain the appearance of marriage, to keep the man “with her”.

A simple manipulation model might look like this:

P e tr o v. Now I will give you the floor. (I can imagine how you will deal with them!) Petrov's covert transaction carries "stroking" in it.

And in a n about in. Fine. (I'll give them some pepper.)

P e tr o v. Well, get on the podium. (Don't mumble, for God's sake!)

Petrov's hidden transaction is an offensive “prick”.

And in a n about in. I'm coming.

Option: Huh? .. (Ivanov, not finding what to answer, obediently goes to the podium.)

In the variant "I'm going, I'm going," Ivanov accepts a forced extension from below; in option "A?" he does not have the opportunity to deliver a response “prick” and involuntarily finds himself “in the stalls”. Witnesses of this scene hold back laughter.

Manipulators are often psychologically perverted people (sadistic tendencies). They are dangerous for the partner and force him to be on his guard in the future, that is, to apply formally - up to the contact of the masks. Moreover, one of the “pleasures” of the manipulator is to again, at any cost, extract the partner “from under the mask”, in order to then again inflict a humiliating “prick” on him.

If the contact as a whole is a series of manipulations and nothing more, we certainly have the sixth case of formal communication. Here one of the partners forcibly restricts the actions of the other.

However, one should not forget that manipulations are sometimes resorted to out of unconscious cunning or intuitively pursuing mutually beneficial goals. So, SLAMMING THE DOOR is sometimes provoked loving woman. Following the manipulation, her communication with a man becomes formal for some time. But this is unusual for a man and extremely burdensome to him. Feelings of guilt, attachment to a woman, or at least boredom prompt him to take the first step towards reconciliation, which turns out to be all the more ardent, the colder the formal relationship was. So sometimes a dull marriage is “revived”. The formalization of contacts serves in this example the task of more complete informal (intimate) communication.

A person, as a being included in a variety of relationships and interactions with other people, has a certain way of perceiving and explaining events, phenomena, states that he can observe in himself and the world around him, that is, a socio-psychological type of thinking. At various stages of the development of human civilization, socio-psychological thinking took the form and form of various socio-cultural phenomena and processes. At the present stage of development of human civilization, social psychology as a cultural phenomenon is represented by such forms as:

- worldly, contained in the content of fairy tales, myths, proverbs, sayings, rituals, traditions;

- examples of literature and art;

- scientific, explaining personality as a socio-psychological phenomenon;

- a mental paradigm that sets a certain view of the entire system of modern human knowledge;

- psychotechnical, represented by various methods of socio-psychological influence, strategies for building relationships in a particular situation, technologies for managing the behavior and attitudes of other people.

Most modern authors define social psychology as a science with a dual subject: on the one hand, the psychological properties of a person, manifested in interaction with other people, on the other hand, the features of socio-psychological processes and phenomena that give rise to these psychological properties. As subject of social psychology consider (G. M. Andreeva) the patterns of behavior and activities of people, which are due to inclusion in social groups, and the psychological characteristics of such groups.

How the main distinguish the following sections of social psychology:

1) patterns of communication and interaction of people;

2) socio-psychological characteristics of groups, the relationship between the individual and the group;

3) socio-psychological characteristics of the personality;

Social Psychology- This is a psychological science that studies a person as a participant in social relations (interpersonal and intergroup) of various forms and goals, and the characteristics of relations that arise in the process of communication.

The formation, development of the properties and characteristics of the psychological world of a person - a participant in social relations - occurs precisely in the process of communication and group interaction at different levels.

Each person strives to understand himself and other people, looking for explanations for the observed actions. Human behavior is determined and does not recognize any accidents, although at first glance it is quite the opposite that catches the eye - everyday life, including business life, is overflowing with seemingly accidents. The psychology of human relationships proves that there are no accidents in communication, there is a strict predestination and regularity. In order to make intelligent decisions and achieve results with the least effort, everyone must have an idea of ​​​​what is happening, a kind of concept regarding this case.

Communication is an extremely important characteristic of the human world, it is a universal reality of human existence, generated and supported by various forms of human relations, in which both various types of social relations and the psychological characteristics of an individual are formed and developed. Communication is a special form of human activity, a mechanism for the development of his relations, a form of existence of these relations and a way of existence of the most important aspects of his mental world.

Communication- this is a process of interaction between at least two persons, aimed at mutual knowledge, the establishment and development of relationships, the provision of mutual influence on their state, views and behavior, as well as the regulation of their joint activities.

Communication- a form of interaction between subjects, which is initially motivated by their desire to identify each other's mental qualities, during which interpersonal relationships are formed between them (A. V. Brushlinsky).

Communication- a complex multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities and including the development of a unified strategy for interaction, perception and understanding of another person (R. S. Nemov).

Team work- situations in which interpersonal communication of people is subordinated to a single goal - the solution of a specific problem (A. V. Brushlinsky).

Communication as an object of study has its own structure:

1st level - macro level: communication of an individual with other people is considered as the most important aspect of his lifestyle;

2nd level - mesa level: communication is considered as a changing set of purposeful logically completed contacts or situations of interaction;

3rd level - micro level: elementary units of communication are considered as conjugated acts, the so-called transactions;

In communication, the following are distinguished (R.S. Nemov) aspects of :

goal- something for which a person has this type of activity;

facilities- ways of encoding, transmitting, processing and decoding information transmitted in the process of communication from one partner to another.

There are two main information transmission channel:

1) verbal;

2) non-verbal.

Verbal means of information transmission involve the use of speech and the assimilation of a certain language by a person (including: Morse code, the language of the deaf, various fonts). The speech situation consists of the following elements: who - to whom - about what - where - when - why - why. Verbal communication necessarily interacts with non-verbal communication.

non-verbal means of information transmission are usually classified according to sensory channels:

1) optical system - gestures, facial expressions, postures, gait, eye contact (studies: pantomime, kinesics, proximics);

2) acoustic system - various qualities of voice, pauses, coughing (studies paralinguistics);

3) kinesthetic system - touch, handshake.

Scheme 11

In the process of human interaction, from 60% to 80% of communications are carried out through non-verbal means. American (mostly) studies distinguish the following sections in psychology that study the transmission of information through non-verbal reactions (Scheme 11):

1. Kinesics- a science that studies body language (arbitrary, unconscious).

It has been established (A. Pease) that the main communication postures and gestures all over the world practically remain the same. Informative for communication: open posture, the presence of protective barriers, gestures of lies, ways of artificially raising the status.

2. Proxemics(English) proximity- proximity) - a discipline that explores the unconscious structuring of a person's own space. The term was introduced in 1963 by E. T. Hall. The concept of a person's personal space is based on the following ideas: 1) personal space has four zones that structure a person's behavior in his personal contacts; 2) specific characteristics of space are determined by socio-cultural factors.

A specific feature of personal space is that a person, without even realizing it, refers to the space around him as part of his own "I". Attempts by other people to penetrate personal space are perceived as unpleasant, as an encroachment on personal freedom. Individual distance- this is the distance that is perceived by a person as subjectively optimal and comfortable for interaction with another person or group of people.

The following types of distances and their sizes have been found:

- intimate zone (about 15 cm) - communication of well-known and emotionally close partners (parents and children, spouses);

- personal zone (about 70 cm) - communication of friends, well-known, but emotionally indifferent partners (colleagues);

- social zone (approximately 300 cm) - the distance is typical for formal and official meetings;

- public area (about 700 cm) - communication with a large group of people or a hostile individual.

3. Paralinguistics- a science that studies the parameters of voice and speech: the volume of the voice, pauses in speech, the pace of speech (arbitrary, unconscious reactions).

In the process of social life, communication performs certain tasks or functions. One of the generally accepted bases for classification is the allocation in communication of three interrelated parties (characteristics of communication):

- perceptual;

– communicative (informational);

- interactive.

In this case, there are three communication functions:

1) affective-communicative (perceptual);

2) information and communication;

3) regulatory and communicative (interactive).

Sometimes there are such functions of communication:

1) communication - a form of existence and a way of manifestation of human essence;

2) communication is a factor in the formation of a person and society;

3) communication is the most important condition for the success of collective activity;

4) communication is a condition of human existence, one of its basic needs.

Characteristics of communication

The process of cognition and understanding by one person of another in the course of communication acts as an obligatory component of communication and is called perceptual side communication. Explanation unique phenomena knowledge and understanding by people of each other as a whole is called social perception .

The process of perception by one person of another unfolds in the following sequence (or affects the formation of the image of a person):

1. The actual process of perceiving the observed behavior:

1) perception of external signs:

- appearance design (color, silhouette, price, neatness of clothes);

- physical qualities.

2) perception of behavior:

- actions performed (social status, self-presentation);

- expressive reactions (gestures and postures).

2. Interpretation of perceived behavior in terms of causes of behavior and expected consequences.

3. Emotional assessment (the formation of a certain attitude to the observed "like - dislike".

4. Building a strategy for your own behavior.

The result of the process of social perception is determined by how the situation was perceived and interpreted by the observer, since depending on this one or another will be applied. mechanism of social cognition (mechanism of perception).

Mechanisms of social cognition can be bred into three groups according to the social situation in which they are usually used.

1.In situations of role interaction, in which the partner is perceived as a carrier of a certain role, as belonging to a certain group, the following are observed:

- first impressions, which are triggered by factors: the superiority of the partner, the attractiveness of the partner, the similarity of the perceived person with the observer. These schemes are based on "halo effect": if the first impression of a person is generally positive, the observer tends to overestimate him; if negative, underestimate him;

– stereotyping(from the Greek stereos - spatial, solid; typos - imprint) - the process of classifying forms of behavior and interpreting their causes by referring to already known or seemingly known phenomena or categories, i.e. stereotypes developed by the group. On the one hand, the stereotype allows you to quickly and fairly reliably interpret, make understandable and predictable human behavior; on the other hand, it can be distorted and dogmatic. A stereotype capable of generating a new reality of relationships and the inner world of a perceived person is called "anticipation stereotype" (or "Pygmalion effect"), i.e. the observed builds his strategy of behavior depending on the subjective opinion of the observer about him, trying to fit into the model of behavior that he was offered.

As special cases of stereotyping are:

– physiognomic reduction(Greek . physis- nature, gnomon - knowing; from lat. reducere - bring back, return) - an attempt to judge the internal psychological characteristics of a person, his actions and predict his behavior based on the typical features of his appearance for a certain group;

- intragroup favoritism(lat. favor- favor, disposition) - the tendency to favor the members of one's group in the assessment in comparison with representatives of other groups.

2.In situations of interpersonal interaction, which can be defined as dialogical and understanding-oriented, are observed:

– identification(lat. identificare- identify) - an attempt to understand the mood of a person, his attitude to the world and himself, putting himself in his place, merging with his "I"; when identifying with another, its norms, values, behavior, tastes, habits are assimilated;

– empathy(gr. empatheia- empathy) - the process of comprehending the emotional state of another person; a special kind of attention to another person; ability and property of the individual; in empathy, intuition plays an important role, the unconscious experience of experiences and empathy;

– social reflection(lat. reflexio- reflection) - knowledge of another person and oneself through what he thinks (as I think) about me;

– attraction(lat. attraction- attraction, attraction) - understanding of a communication partner based on sympathy for him; attraction does not guarantee an objective view of a person, it gives an understanding of his feelings, states, ideas about life; a special kind of installation on another person, in which the emotional component predominates. Attraction levels: sympathy, friendship, love.

3.In situations of misunderstanding partner, with which it is supposed to establish certain relations or joint activities, there is causal attribution(lat. cause reason, lat. causalis- pertaining to a cause, causal; lat. attribute- attached, attributed) - a system of ways of attributing to another person (in case of a lack of information about him) the characteristics or reasons for his behavior; the nature of attributions depends on whether the object of perception itself is a participant in an event or its observer. Accordingly, attributions are distinguished: personal(the reason is attributed personally to the one who performs the act); object(the cause is attributed to the object to which the action is directed); circumstance (situational)(the reason is attributed to the circumstances).

Interpersonal communication(lat. communication- communication, communication) is a process of information exchange, which leads to its development and change in the general information field created by communication partners.

A person who in the process of communication conceives and transmits information to a partner is called in social psychology communicator; a partner who receives and interprets information, - recipient.

The emergence of common information does not automatically lead to mutual understanding. In the process of searching for a common information field, mechanisms and phenomena begin to work, both contributing to and hindering mutual understanding (the so-called understanding mechanisms ).

1. Feedback mechanism providing and improving mutual understanding.

Feedback- information about how the recipient perceives the communicator, how he evaluates his behavior and words.

There are the following variants of human communication in terms of the feedback used in it:

1) a cultural option, socially approved, taken as a model of communication, in which it is impossible to demonstrate true feelings to another person, requiring tact and restraint; this option often complicates the communication process;

2) an open variant, which implies openness of statements about one's state, explicit reactions to the words and actions of another, simultaneously allowing for multiple and varied interpretations;

3) direct feedback - an option that involves the direct naming of those feelings that arose in connection with the words and actions of a partner, the search for unambiguous analogies, comparisons that are understandable to another; direct feedback really helps to improve mutual understanding, while at the same time allowing partners to be open in expressing their feelings.

2. Communication barriers– mechanisms of protection from unwanted information and, as a result, from unwanted impact:

1) communication barrier- a psychological obstacle placed by the recipient in the way of unwanted, tedious or dangerous information:

a) avoidance, for example, physical (avoiding contact with an unwanted person), psychological (forgetting information, "withdrawal");

c) misunderstanding, distortion beyond recognition of information, giving it a neutral meaning;

2) phonetic barrier- an obstacle that occurs when the participants in communication speak different languages ​​and dialects, have significant defects in speech and diction, a distorted grammatical structure of statements;

3) semantic barrier- an obstacle arising from the mismatch, significant differences that exist in the systems of meanings for communication (the problem of jargons and slangs);

4) stylistic barrier- an obstacle that occurs when the communicator's speech style and the communication situation or the communicator's speech style and the current psychological state of the recipient do not match;

5) logical barrier- an obstacle that arises in cases where the logic of reasoning offered by the communicator is either too complicated for the perception of the recipient, or seems to him frivolous, contradicts his inherent manner of evidence.

3. Purposeful communicative influence- a process that includes the internal communicative attitude of the author of the message to the recipient and himself, the verbal and non-verbal features of the message itself, the characteristics of the communicative space of communication.

There are (A. U. Kharash) two types of communicative processes: authoritarian and dialogic.

Communication skills- this is the ability and skills of communicating with people on which its success depends. The diversity of a person's life experience, his education, as a rule, has a positive effect on the development of communication skills.

Interactive side of communication is a term denoting the characteristics of the components of communication associated with the interaction of people and with the direct organization of their joint activities.

The most common is the division of all possible types of interaction into two opposite types:

1) cooperation(consent, adaptation, association) - coordination of the individual forces of the participants (ordering, combining, summing up these forces); distinguish (A. N. Leontiev) such features of joint activity:

a) division of a single process of activity between participants;

b) change in the activities of each;

2) competition(conflict, opposition, dissociation) - interactions that “shatter” joint activities, representing a certain kind of obstacle to it.

The specific content of various forms of joint activity is a certain ratio of individual "contributions" that are made by participants. There are such possible forms (models) as:

1) joint-individual activity - each participant does his part of the common work independently of others;

2) joint-consecutive activity - a common task is performed sequentially by each participant;

3) jointly interacting activity - there is a simultaneous interaction of each participant with all the others.

Each system of interaction is associated with the existing interaction between the participants relations. Interpersonal relationships determine interaction type(cooperation or rivalry) that arises under given specific conditions, and degree of expression Values ​​of this type (successful or less successful). The emotional basis inherent in the system of interpersonal relations, which gives rise to various assessments, orientations, attitudes of partners, in a certain way “colors the interaction”. Social interaction is based on three interpersonal needs: connection, control and openness.

When analyzing interaction, it is important that each participant realizes his own contribution to the overall activity, which, in turn, helps to adjust his own strategy. Interaction strategy determined by the nature of social relations represented by the social activity performed, interaction tactics- a direct representation of the partner.

The most famous interaction strategies – aggression and altruism.

Aggression Any act or series of acts whose immediate purpose is to cause physical harm or psychological discomfort to a partner. Aggressive actions act as: 1) a means to achieve some significant goal; 2) a way of psychological relaxation; 3) a way to satisfy the need for self-realization and self-affirmation.

Altruism(lat. alter- other) - the principle of behavior, meaning the ability of a person to voluntarily help another with certain costs for himself. Basic driving force altruism is the desire to improve the well-being of another individual. The explanation of altruism can be: empathy, the elimination of one's own negative feelings, the preservation of the human gene pool, the norm of mutual responsibility.

The general approach of a person to building interaction with other people reflects communication style.

Communication style- a course of action, extracted from one specific type of situation and manifested in specific cases. Distinguish:

1) ritual style of communication, generated by intergroup situations, representing and confirming a person as a member of society;

2) manipulative communication style, generated by business situations (most often), considering communication partners as a set of functional qualities suitable for achieving the goal.

Allocate (M. Predrag) such manipulation levels:

- the level of argumentation (methods: fundamental, insertion, comparison, "pieces", questioning, "out of patience");

- speculative level (method of exaggeration, discrediting, "psychological addiction", delay);

– manipulative level (methods: “putting your foot through the door”, “they are tearing me apart”, “slamming the door”, “light ball”, “Kazan orphan”);

3) humanistic style of communication, generated by interpersonal situations, allowing to satisfy the needs of a person in communication, understanding, empathy, sympathy.

An approach to the structural description of the interaction is presented in transactional analysis (E. Bern) - a direction that proposes regulation of the actions of participants in the interaction through the regulation of their positions, as well as taking into account the nature of situations and the style of interaction. From the point of view of transactional analysis, each person has a certain set of behavioral patterns associated with different states of the "I" (Ego). The repertoire of these states corresponds to one of three positions, which are conditionally designated: Parent - states similar to the images of parents, Adult - states that are autonomously aimed at assessing reality, Child - states that are still active from the moment of fixation in early childhood and are archaic remnants . These positions are not associated with the corresponding social role: they are only a purely psychological description of a certain strategy in interaction. Man in social group at each moment of time reveals one of the states of "I". All three aspects of the personality - "I am a Child", "I am an Adult", "I am a Parent" deserve equal respect, since each state in its own way makes a person's life full and fruitful. The purpose of transactional analysis is to find out which state of the "I" is responsible for the transactional stimulus and which state of the person carried out the transactional reaction. Hidden additional transactions with a well-defined and predictable outcome are called games.

E. Bern considers communication as one of the basic human needs. Each person seeks to get the greatest satisfaction from communication, experiencing the need for recognition, “strokes” - positive self-assessments. The more accessible a person is for contacts, the more he feels satisfied with himself and life in general, happiness.

Neuro-Linguistic Programming (R. Bandler, J. Grinder) considers communication as the result of a complex interaction between the processes of perception and thinking, representing syntonic communication model. Syntonic the communication model is based on the idea that a person learns the world through a program representation, creating his own model of the world.

Each person has his own subjective model of the world, and the reason for this limitation is: neurophysiological sensations, social limitations, individual psychological limitations.

Representative system(representation system, modality, sensory channel) is a system through which a person perceives and utilizes information coming from the outside world. Depending on the dominance of one or another way of receiving and processing information, representative systems can be represented in three main categories: visual ( perception through visual images) auditory(perception through auditory impressions), kinesthetic ( perception through auditory impressions). Representational systems are not mutually exclusive. Determined that representative system externally manifested in the movement of the eyes, the choice of words used in communication, in the features of breathing and posture.

visuals characteristic: fast pace of speech, high timbre of voice, upper breathing, increased muscle tension, look up, words: look, picture, perspective, foresee, review, illusion, spectacle, bright.

Audialam characteristic: a very expressive and resonant timbre of the voice, head balancing, “telephone posture”, words: speak, hear, sound, stress, declare, piercing, consonant, intelligible, monotonous.

kinesthetics characteristic: low timbre of voice, lower breathing, muscle relaxation, low head position, lowered gaze, some carelessness to things, words: feel, hard, palpable, tension, hurt, contact, rough, bind, grab.

Knowledge of the partner's leading representative system makes it easy to establish contact and mutual understanding. The effectiveness of communication is influenced by the ability to be congruent and the ability to adapt. To be congruent means to be equal to a partner, to be involved, consonant with him. Adjustment involves adapting one's behavior to the way another behaves.

Adjustment algorithm: posture, gestures, speech, main representational system, leading representational system, verbal access cues, non-verbal access cues, breathing.