Laws of Socialism Conversation 1 The other day I was on a private trip to see Anatoly Pavlovich Fedoseyev. He lives in London, like me, in a house that he stuffed with various technical improvements, and it is extremely interesting to visit him, especially for a person who

Sociological regularities of the mass movement The history of the Bolotnaya movement revealed several fundamental regularities and equally fundamental alternatives, between which there was a rather tense struggle. Summing up, it is impossible not to say about them.Three

The struggle of technology development. Development codes

To understand the phenomenon of society, it is necessary to find out the nature of the patterns that unite people into a single whole.

Comparing the evolution of societies, the various stages that human civilization goes through in its development, scientists have identified a number of patterns:

– law of acceleration of history. It says that each subsequent stage takes less time than the previous one. Thus, capitalism is shorter than feudalism, which, in turn, is shorter than slavery. The pre-industrial society is longer than the industrial one. The closer to the present, the stronger the spiral of historical time shrinks, society develops faster, more dynamically;

– law of compaction of historical time. It means that technical and cultural progress has constantly accelerated as we approached modern society;

– law of unevenness reflects the fact that peoples and nations develop at different speeds. Different societies go through historical stages at different times. Therefore, in the modern world there are societies that are at different stages of development. And even within the same society (for example, in America and Russia), industrially developed regions and areas still coexist, where the population has preserved the pre-industrial (traditional) way of life. When, without going through all the previous stages, they are involved in the modern flow of life, not only positive, but also negative consequences can consistently manifest themselves in their development;

– the law of the conscious nature of the life activity of social organisms.

- the law of unity of anthropo-, socio- and cultural genesis, who argues that the origin of man, society and its culture, both from the "phylogenetic" and "ontogenetic" points of view, should be considered as a single, integral process, both in space and in time;

– the law of the decisive role of human labor activity in the formation and development of social systems. History confirms that the forms of activity of people, and, above all, labor determine the essence, content, form and functioning of social relations, organizations and institutions;

- the law of increasing the role of the subjective factor expresses causal relationships between the level of political consciousness of people and the pace of social progress .

Features of the laws of development of society:

1) the presence of general patterns presupposes the peculiarity of the development of individual countries and peoples passing through similar stages of development;

2) the natural nature of history also means the progressive nature of its development, is associated with the idea of ​​progress;

3) the laws of the development of society are the laws exclusively of human activity, and not something external to it;

4) social patterns are knowable; their knowledge depends on the degree of maturity of social relations and opens up the possibility of their use in the practical activities of people;

5) the objective nature of the laws of social development lies in the fact that laws are not created and cannot be repealed by people, that they act regardless of whether they are desirable to people or not, whether people have known them or not. These are the objective connections of the very system of social relations, the objective logic of social development.

Availability general laws social development does not mean that the activity of an individual and society as a whole is completely determined by these laws. Neither man nor society can change these laws, but it is in their power to know these laws and use the knowledge gained either for the benefit or to the detriment of humanity.

Spiritual life and social consciousness.

Spiritual life of mankind spiritual wealth civilizations and cultures, social life is a specific "place of being" of the objectified spiritual, which determines its place in integral being.

A special role in this area is played by spiritual and moral principles, norms, ideals, values, such as, say, beauty, justice, truth. They exist in the form of both individualized and objectified spiritual. In the first case, we are talking about a complex set of motives, motives, goals that determine the spiritual structure of a person, in the second case, about ideas, ideals, norms, values ​​embodied in science, culture, mass consciousness (their documents). Both of these types of spiritual and moral being play a significant role in the development of the individual (as an individualized spiritual) and in the improvement of culture (as an objectified spiritual).

But this is precisely the meaning of the problem of being, that all aspects of being are of equal importance, because each of them highlights being as a whole - as an inseparable, indissoluble unity, as integrity.

As noted above, the attention of mankind and, accordingly, the interest of philosophy in the problem of being is aggravated in crisis, critical eras. And since our time - the 20th and the coming 21st century - is marked by many threats and dangers, it is not surprising that the question of being by a number of major thinkers was recognized as the most significant in philosophical "questioning". M. Heidegger, the author of the book "Being and Time", emphasized: only a person is able to question being, to ask a question about what is the specificity of human being; in this sense, he is entrusted with the fate of being. And from here arises, perhaps, the most important responsibility and the highest task of mankind.

The materialistic understanding of history proceeds from the recognition of the primacy of social being and the secondary nature of social consciousness. material and spiritual aspects public life are not identical already because the real process of life of individuals is not realized and is not fully covered by public consciousness. Production activity, labor is not only the basis of the life of individuals, but also the basis on which individual and social consciousness is formed and developed. Although the formation of social being and social consciousness occurs simultaneously, the main sources of the emergence and development of consciousness are not in itself, but in social being, in the historical practice of people.

The most general laws of the development of social consciousness express its secondary nature, its derivativeness from social being in the life of society. These include three basic laws: 1) the dependence of social consciousness on social being, 2) the relative independence of social consciousness, 3) the active influence of social consciousness on material processes.

1. The law of the dependence of social consciousness on social being.

Since social consciousness reflects social being, it depends on it. As is known, social consciousness does not have its own absolutely independent history; the stages of its development must be derived and explained from the stages of social existence.

Since social being is not homogeneous, but divided into unequal sides - labor and relations, the dependence of social consciousness on social being is dual: it depends on labor as such and on the production relations that have developed on its basis. Therefore, to a certain extent, it is possible to directly translate the content of social life into certain spiritual principles (labor and the moral, ethical, and other principles corresponding to its nature) and indirectly (labor, the economic basis, and the moral, aesthetic, and other principles corresponding to them)

The dependence of social consciousness on social being has two sides. The qualitative side of this dependence is their substantial similarity, or correspondence; quantitative - the degree of this similarity, correspondence. Consciousness reflects social being incompletely, not exactly, at best approximately true. At the same time, it always contains illusions, delusions, errors that arise due to ignoring the real basis of the historical process, slipping on its surface, direct translation of economic principles into spiritual ones. The views of the classes as a whole are also such as their real position in the system of production. The most important pattern of social consciousness is the continuous growth of universal human content.

2. The law of the relative independence of social consciousness.

As a derivative, secondary social consciousness has not absolute, but relative independence. When there is a division of material and spiritual labor, it becomes possible to separate it from social existence, it becomes possible to present social consciousness as completely independent of material existence. The relative independence of social consciousness means that, being dependent on social being, it at the same time has its own laws inherent in its own nature and expressed in a number of tendencies: 1) lagging behind, ultimately, from social being, 2) continuity, 3 ) uneven development of levels and forms of consciousness.

The lag of social consciousness from social life is largely due to the conservatism, vitality of ideas, traditions, feelings, their ability to be active even when they are already outdated, do not correspond to the radically changed reality.

The relative independence of social consciousness is expressed in the continuity of ideas, traditions, feelings, and so on.

At the same time, the retention and accumulation of spiritual culture also depends on the goals or tasks set by this or that class, which, in turn, depend on the depth of awareness by this class of the objective processes taking place in society, and, accordingly, on the possibility and ability to achieve the set goals. goals.

The relative independence of social consciousness is also manifested in the uneven development of forms of social consciousness: economic, environmental, political, legal, moral, aesthetic, religious, scientific and philosophical. This unevenness depends on the degree of closeness of this or that form of consciousness to expedient activity and economic basis. Economic, political, legal consciousness are most closely connected with labor and economic relations, and therefore they change faster than other forms of consciousness.

3. The law of the active influence of social consciousness on material processes.

Being derived from social being, social consciousness is not passive, but has an active influence on non-material, including economic, processes, and under certain conditions can play a decisive role.

From the standpoint of Marxism, social consciousness is active, but it is not social consciousness that has the greatest activity, but social being, material labor. The role of ideas is the higher, the closer they are to reality, the closer they are connected with life, reflect it more fully and accurately, and are the property not of individuals, but of the masses. In addition, the activity of scientific ideas is one thing, religious ones are another. The greater the role of religious ideas in society, the less room is left for the influence of scientific ideas, and vice versa.

The greatest activity of consciousness in general, social consciousness in particular, is manifested in its ability to get ahead of existing existence, to anticipate the future. In its ability to anticipate the future, consciousness realizes its relative independence, because it only reveals the elements, the germs of the future. It is not ahead of social existence, but the present, not the deep tendencies contained in it, but only realized. The idea is ahead of the realized part of being, and not the deep tendencies inherent in it. E. Fromm came to the conclusion that the social character is formed by economic conditions. This character, which is a combination of features characteristic of a particular social group, determines its thoughts, feelings, actions. The economic factor as the leading one has the greatest independence, because the economy develops according to its own objective laws. However, being dependent on the economy, psychology and ideology have an active impact on it.

PUBLIC REGULARITY

PUBLIC REGULARITY

the law is public, objectively existing, repetitive, beings. social phenomena. life or stages of history. process characterizing step by step. stories. In pre-Marxist philosophy and sociology otd. thinkers came to the idea of ​​a natural character istorich. process (Aristotle, the idea of ​​determinism in the history of Bodin, the historical cycle of Vico, the geographical Montesquieu, Condorcet, Herder). Franz. , although he was generally idealistic. positions in the explanation of history, in a peculiar form also approached the recognition of 3. about. At 19 in. problems 3. about. developed in the works French historians of the Restoration era (Thierry, Mignet, Guizot). Huge to develop an idea 3. about. had the views of Hegel, who, in the words of F. Engels, “... was the first to try to show the development, intercom stories..." (Marks K. and Engels F., Works, t. 13, With. 496) . Saint-Simon approached the understanding of the natural character of history; theory of three stages of history. development was put forward by the founder of positivism Comte.

I s t o r and I in o p r o s a. In pre-Marxist philosophy and sociology dep. thinkers approached the idea of ​​a natural character istorich. process. Already in antiquity philosophy, for example. in the works of Aristotle, there was an idea about the connection of various forms of the state with certain stages in the development of society, which, in turn, were associated with changes in the living conditions of a particular people (see Polit., IV 3, 15; V 3–9; Russian translation, St. Petersburg, 1911). In the Middle Ages, the planting Christ dominated. theologians. In the 16th century J. Boden came up with a substantiation of the principle of connection between society and geography, environment, which was a kind of attempt to solve the problem of determinism in history. In the 1st floor. 18th century Vico created the theory of historical. circulation, according to each swarm, reproducing the stages of life otd. of a person (childhood, youth and maturity), naturally goes through 3 epochs: divine, heroic and human, after which the process of degradation begins, the return to the primitive state, and the cycle of development resumes ("Foundations of a new science ...", 1725). Vico's theory was an attempt to consider the history of society as a single natural process. In the same bourgeois in essence, Vico recognized the highest point in the development of mankind, and so on. action was denied. the nature of development.

The development of society as a natural process of improving the mind, culture was considered by representatives. enlightenment of Montesquieu and Condorcet. Montesquieu in his main In his work “On the Spirit of Laws,” he argued that “laws in the broadest sense of the word are necessary relations arising from the nature of things” (Izbr. proizv., M., 1955, p. 163), and tried to decide on Z. about. from a geographical point of view. determinism. The views of Montesquieu were directed against the dominant theological. concept of societies. development. In the works of Condorcet, although the question of social education was not specifically raised, the idea of ​​the progressive development of society was substantiated. Condorcet connected the historical with the progress of the mind, knowledge (see "Sketch of the historical picture of the progress of the human mind", M., 1936, pp. 100–01). Considering the private to be eternal, Condorcet regarded progress in essence as the progress of the bourgeois. society. The idea of ​​development and patterns in history was Ch. the idea of ​​the philosophy of history representative of him. Enlightenment Herder. He believed that there are no actions of isolated individuals, but a coherent process of the activity of peoples, in which one can trace a strictly determined chain of causes and effects. Herder strove to show the principle of historicism and the laws of nature and society, but failed to see the qualities and specifics of natural history.

Franz. 18th century materialists as a whole stood on idealistich. and metaphysical. positions in the explanation of societies, phenomena. At the same time, in the works of Helvetius, the idea of ​​zoology was expressed in a peculiar form. So, he assumed that society goes through a certain. stages: the transition from poverty to wealth, then to an uneven distribution of wealth and despotism, which perishes under the blows of the people, and society resumes (see "About a man ...", M., 1938, p. 253–54). Helvetius and others. French. materialists tried to establish a connection between man and the environment, but did not go beyond the point of view of interaction. In the development of the idea of ​​Z. about. important role played the views of J. J. Rousseau, who argued that there is a connection between the emergence of private property and inequality, and also emphasized the importance of tools for the emergence of civilization. Franz. historians of the restoration era - Thierry, Mignet, Guizot, were able to see the significance of the class struggle in the development of society and considered it as a determinant. societies. regularity. Of great importance for the development of the idea of ​​Z. o. had the views of Hegel; "he was the first to try to show the development, the inner connection of history..." (Engels F., see Marx K. and Engels F., Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 13, p. 496). Hegel argued that regularity prevails in history and that all of it is a single regular process, in which each, being uniquely original, is at the same time only a necessary link in the act. development of mankind. Claiming the historical necessary, he tried to combine it with the recognition of a free human being. activities. He considered history as a process of cognition of the idea of ​​freedom, which is realized through people striving to satisfy their interests. Necessity does not appear directly, but paves the way through chance. But the starting point for Hegel is the self-unfolding of the "world spirit" as the basis for the development of all the phenomena of history. The content of the story - follow. the triumph of the spirit of any definite. people, to-ry on this stage and is the bearer of the "universal spirit" (see Soch., vol. 8, M.–L., 1935, pp. 68–69).

Representatives of utopianism also tried to understand the natural nature of history. socialism. Saint-Simon considered history not as facts, but as determinants. connection of events; he believed that each society, form should be studied not in isolation, but in connection with the previous and subsequent forms (see Izbr. soch., vol. 2, M.–L., 1948, p. 31). Comte, the founder of positivism, tried to discover "universal natural laws in history" and argued that the development of society corresponded to the development of forms of thinking - the so-called. the law of three states, according to Krom, goes through three stages: theological, metaphysical and positive. To a degree, Comte borrowed this law from Saint-Simon (see "Course of Positive Philosophy", St. Petersburg, 1912, p. 2). Thus, Comte's laws appeared in the form of definitions. idealistic schemes brought into history.

Marxism is about the laws of the public. Scientific solution of the issue of Z. o. was given for the first time from the standpoint of materialism. understanding of history. So far, history has been limited to the study of only ideological. societies. relations, they could not detect patterns in human history. society. Separation of productions. relations, as primary and material relations, as economical. foundations of societies. life, allowed for the first time to apply the criterion of recurrence to the phenomena of history. This was the condition for the discovery of Z. o. Most bourgeois. sociologists denies zoology, primarily based on the assertion that in history there is not and cannot be the repetition of phenomena. Representatives of the Freiburg school of neo-Kantianism (Windelband and Rickert) opposed the sciences to the sciences of culture. The sciences of nature, according to neo-Kantians, generalize, generalize, because any natural-scientific. concept expresses . The sciences of culture (i.e. social) only individualize the objects they study, because the historical ones themselves. concepts are individual concepts (see G. Rickert, Limits of the Natural Scientific Formation of Concepts, St. Petersburg, 1904, pp. 444–45, 260–61; W. Windelband, Preludes, St. Petersburg, 1904, p. 320). Therefore, in history only otd. facts in their individuality. While nature. sciences are sciences about laws, societies. sciences are sciences about events. According to Rickert, "the concept of 'historical law' is (in the definition)" (op. cit., p. 225). This is about the historical the process is associated with the idealistic. and metaphysical. opposition between the general and the singular. In fact, the events that take place in history are not only individual. Franz. bourgeois 1789 or the 1st World War are unique in their specific originality. But in the essence of these events, one can detect features that are repeated under certain conditions in other events. Creatures. French traits. bourgeois revolutions to a certain extent were repeated in every bourgeois. revolution, some of the most beings. features of the 1st World War - in every armament. clash of imperialism. state-in. In valid. course of history. process there is a dialectic. the unity of the individual and the general, the repeatable and the unique.

As established by Marxism, in society. of life, the action of laws does not always manifest itself in a "pure" form and directly, but for the most part in the form of a trend due to the contradictory action of different forces. Laws in general "... have no other reality than in approximation, in tendency, on average..." (Engels F., see Marx K. and Engels F., Selected letters, 1953, p. 483; see also V. I. Lenin, Soch., vol. 4, p. 95). Z.'s manifestation about. as trends and means just that the laws determine the main. the line of development of society, without embracing or predetermining a multitude of accidents and deviations; it is through these contingencies and deviations that necessity finds its way as a law. When cognizing this or that phenomenon of social life, it is very important to establish not only its individual features, but also the general that underlies a number of phenomena of this kind. The criterion for highlighting this common in social development is, first of all, the concept of a socio-economic formation, which fixes a common development that is repeated in different countries at the same stage of history. Thus, the development of capitalism in England, despite its specifics. features, has many features in common with the development of capitalism in France or Germany. "Whatever the originality of the emergence and development of capitalism in one country or another, everywhere this system has common features and patterns" (Programma KPSS, 1961, p. 7). The construction of socialism in the USSR and in the countries of the Nar. democracy also, despite a number of specifics. features, has a number of common features that express the regularity of the emergence of a given society. building as defined. socio-economic formations.

Recurrence in history acts, therefore, either as a reproduction of similar, common features in phenomena related to different stages of history (for example, under communism, property that already existed under the primitive communal system is “repeated”), or as the presence of common, obligatory . hell in life different peoples and countries at the same historical stage. development (for example, general patterns of transition from capitalism to socialism in different countries Oh).

Neither in the first nor in the second case does Marxism absolutize repetition. In the historical development, any "repetition" occurs each time on a new, more high level, acquires qualitatively new features from the point of view of both content and form, which is associated with the inclusion of a repeating phenomenon in new system relations. "... Events that are strikingly similar, but taking place in different historical settings," wrote Marx, "lead to completely different results" ("Correspondence of K. Marx and F. Engels with Russian political figures", 1951, p. 223). Recognition of repetition therefore does not contradict, but, on the contrary, presupposes the irreversibility of historical. process. This distinguishes the Marxist from all theories of "cyclicity", "circulation", etc., where repetition in the course of the development of world history is understood precisely as the repetition at a new stage of what has already been given in the past.

Therefore, Z.'s understanding of o. is not reduced only to the recognition of the repetition of societies. phenomena. The regular nature of history also means the nature of its development. Recognition Z. about. closely related to historical understanding. progress.

Correlation between the laws of nature and society. Opening Z. about. made it possible to present the development of society as natural-historical. process. There is something known between the laws of societies. development and the laws of nature. The laws of society are less durable, they also differ from the laws of nature and in their complexity, like the laws of the highest. The attempts of some bourgeoisie are untenable. philosophers and sociologists transfer the laws of nature to societies. phenomena. The most characteristic in this regard is organic. the theory of Comte and Spencer, which suggested considering society as biological. , where social institutions are likened to the organs of an animal. Another attempt of this kind is, transferring to society a number of provisions of Darwin's theory, considering, in particular, such as competition, with t. sp. "struggle for existence". Finally, Bogdanov's theory of "energy balance" represents an attempt of the same kind, which examines the relationship between society and nature from the v. sp. "balance theory" as a certain balance of the energy of nature and society. All these theories are methodological. vice, to-ry consists in a misunderstanding of the specifics of societies. life. The most important difference between the laws of the development of society is that they manifest themselves not as the actions of blind elemental forces, but only and exclusively through the activities of people. They are the laws of this activity. Therefore, in relation to the laws of societies. development is very specific. the question of the relationship between the objective nature of laws and cos-nat. people's activities.

The laws of society and the conscious activity of people. The objective nature of the laws of societies. development lies in the fact that laws are not created and cannot be repealed by people, that they act regardless of whether they are desirable to people or not, whether people have known them or not. These are the objective connections of the system of societies itself. relations, objective societies. development. In history, there are people who are gifted with will and consciousness, to-rye themselves create their own history. Everyone acts consciously, setting himself a definite. . But societies. the result, which is obtained by adding up all individual actions, goals, etc., does not coincide with the intention of each. This is due to two circumstances: firstly, each, being born, already finds the established forms of societies ready. relations and therefore, at least at first, people must act in these already established forms. Secondly, people, making conscious actions, can see, at best, only the immediate consequences, to which they will lead, but they cannot foresee distant societies. the consequences of their actions. This is beings. a feature of a society where development is carried out through a clash of antagonistic interests. classes. Z. o. in such a society it develops as a kind of resultant of the totality of the actions of all members of society (see Letter from Engels to I. Bloch September 21–22, 1890, in the book: K. Marx and F. Engels, Selected letters, 1953, p. 422 –24).

In pre-Marxist philosophy, there was no correct solution to the question of the relationship between the objective laws of history and consciousness. people's activities. In a number of theological concepts of societies. development, eg. in the writings of Augustine, was formulated historical. fatalism, according to Krom istorich. development is predetermined by fate, fate, and human activity cannot change anything in history. Another direction in sociology is associated with voluntaristic. concept (see Voluntarism) of societies. development (eg, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche) and consists in denying the objective nature of laws and recognizing the decisive importance of human. or deities. will in history. Some bourgeois. scientists (Stammler) argued that Marxism contains, because at the same time both the role of objective laws and the role of consciousness are recognized. people's activities. Modern bourgeois critics of Marxism follow the same line: some of them (K. Hunt) accuse Marxism of the fact that, while recognizing the historical. necessity, dooms a person to the role of a passive contemplator of events. Others (S. Hook) argue that the Communists of their practical. activities refute determinism. Attacking, they seek to portray him as a voluntaristic. concept. But in reality, Marxism-Leninism provides a truly dialectical solution of the problem. Engels pointed out that people make history when determined. circumstances, so their success is recognized. activity can be ensured only if this activity is carried out in accordance with objective laws. In this case, the activity of people acquires a huge revolution. strength. Relying on the objectively existing zoology, people actually find sources and forces for its transformation.

General and specific laws of the development of society. History, materialism distinguishes between different degrees of generality of the laws operating in history. From this t. sp. 3 groups of laws can be distinguished. 1) Laws in force throughout the human. history, in all societies.-economic. formations. This is the so-called. "general sociological laws", which include, for example, the law of conformity of productions. relations character produces, forces, the law of the determining role of societies. being in relation to societies. consciousness, etc. 2) Laws that have been in force over a long period of history - at the entire stage of the existence of class societies.-economic. formations. This is, for example, the law of the class struggle as the driving force of societies. development, the law of social revolution as a form of transition from one class-antagonistic. formations k, etc. 3) Laws in force during any one society.-economic. formations called specific. laws. For example, specific the law of capitalism is the law of anarchy of production and competition, specific. the law of socialism is the law of planned, proportional development of production. To specific. laws along with laws otd. formations also include the laws of transition from one socio-economic. formation to another (for example, the laws of transition from capitalism to socialism, the laws of the formation of a communist formation). The study of these laws is of great practical importance. meaning. The rise of the communist formation differs from the formation of any other formation precisely in that here the role of consciousness increases unprecedentedly. activities of the masses, and for the success of this activity, specific the laws underlying this process. It should also be distinguished among the specific. laws such, to-rye operate throughout the entire formation, and such, to-rye act on the otd. stages of development of this formation. Thus, the law of distribution according to work operates only in the first phase of communist development. formations - under socialism and during the period of transition from socialism to communism. Specific the laws of the development of formations are at the same time general laws for different countries passing through the same historical period. development. It is in this sense that one speaks of the general laws of building socialism, of the general laws of the formation of communist. formations, etc.

In this regard, the question of the relationship between general and specific. laws is of fundamental importance in the ideological. struggle of the international communist movements with revisionism and dogmatism. Methodology, the flaw in the concept of dogmatism is the overestimation of the general laws of societies. development; Revisionists are characterized by the denial of the general laws of building socialism in various countries. In the Declaration (1957) and the Statement (1960) of the Meetings of representatives of the communist. and workers' parties, in the Program of the CPSU (1961) the views of the revisionists were exposed, the general patterns of building socialism were revealed, and their significance was shown.

Knowledge and use of the laws of society. Just like the laws of nature, the laws of societies. developments can be known, but there are a number of peculiarities in their knowledge. Marx pointed out that in general, in any science, any process is easiest to study at the point of its highest development. In societies. sciences knowledge of the laws of societies. development depends on the degree of maturity of societies. relations. The underdevelopment of societies. relations gives rise to the immaturity of the theories of societies. development (for example, the socialism of Saint-Simon, Fourier and Owen). The discovery of the essence of class relations and the laws of the class struggle became possible only under capitalism, when class relations had developed sufficiently. feature of the laws of society. development is determined by the specificity of the method of their study. Society researcher. phenomena is deprived of the opportunity to reproduce the phenomenon, which he studies, or to put. "... When analyzing economic forms, neither a microscope nor chemical reagents can be used. Both should replace abstractions" (Marks K., Capital, vol. 1, 1955, p. 4). Finally, in the knowledge of societies. laws with special force manifests itself as a class researcher, which determines the direction of work, the selection of material and the solution of problems. Speaking of political economy, Marx pointed out that it was here, in connection with the peculiar nature of the material of scientific. encounters enemies such as Furies of Private Interest.

Knowledge of the laws of society. development opens the possibility of their use in practice. activities of people to transform society. People cannot create or abolish the objective laws of history, but they are not powerless in relation to the operation of these laws. By changing the conditions in which this or that law operates, people can modify the forms and results of its action, put it at their service. In an antagonistic setting different societies have different attitudes towards the same law. Thus, the oppressed classes are antagonistic. formations are always interested in the development of the class struggle (the objective law of social development), while the exploiting classes are only interested in its development up to a certain point. stage. The bourgeoisie led class struggle against the feudal lords, but it "curtailed" and sought to prevent the most acute forms of its manifestation, as soon as it turned out to be directed against itself. Any attempt to ignore the laws of societies. development leads to a kind of "retribution" (just as the unwillingness to reckon with the objective laws of nature dooms the practical aspirations of man to failure).

In the socialist society for the first time in history there are favorable opportunities for consciousness. use of objective laws. Under socialism, the ratio of spontaneity and consciousness in society changes. development, the value of consciousness increases. activities of people, the ability (for society as a whole) to anticipate distant societies. consequences of people's actions. Private ownership of the means of production determines the fundamentally spontaneous development of society; societies. ownership of the means of production, on the contrary, is an objective necessity and possibility for the planned development of society. The objective law of planned, proportional development requires that, in accordance with it, people consciously plan the development of production. The plans for the development of the national economy express the goal of the socialist. production Under socialism, for the first time in the history of economic laws do not act as actions of elemental forces. However, this does not mean that under socialism all obstacles to consciousness have been eliminated. use Z. about. Under socialism there is no reaction. social classes, but there is also a backward, to-rye hinder the successful use of objective laws. The leading role of the Communist The party's personality manifests itself in the fact that the party, in a timely and resolute manner, widely deploying criticism and self-criticism, removes these obstacles and, relying in its policy on the known objective laws of history, directs the development of society. During the period of extensive construction of communism, the study of the main. patterns of economic, political. and the cultural development of socialism and its development into becomes the most important task of societies. Sciences.

The laws of development of society and modern. bourgeois and s o c and o l o g and i. The question of the laws of societies. development is one of the most pressing issues of today. struggle between two worldviews: Marxist and bourgeois. A characteristic feature of modern bourgeois philosophy and sociology is the rejection of the recognition of natural science, of the possibility of knowing and using objective laws. This is due to the change in the social role of the bourgeois class in modern times. era. At the time when she played a progressive historical. role, the theories of its ideologists contained the recognition of the idea of ​​Z. o. From Ser. 19th century, starting with the neo-Kantians, bourgeois. philosophers and sociologists are turning back on this issue. Modern When analyzing sociology and phenomena, followers of neo-Kantianism continue to assert that history also uses different types of concepts and that all general concepts of history are only "ideal types" (M. Weber), which are not a reflection of an objectively existing general, but are only the most convenient for a sociologist, tools for systematizing facts. This is a peculiar form of the denial of Z. o. Neopositivism also denies Z. o. Proclaiming the need for a "positive" science, based only on empirical. facts, O. Neurath, for example, comes to the conclusion that the historical. knowledge is impossible, because it does not allow experimental verification. K. Popper refers to the fact that since in history there are not laws, but trends, we cannot get accurate conclusions, because trends do not give grounds for them and, therefore, theoretical. generalizations are impossible in history. Neo-positivist sociologists (Landberg, Dodd, Lazarsfeld) essentially reduce sociology to a description of human forms. behavior, because the general concepts expressing beings, social connections, seem to them meaningless, because. they cannot be verified. Denial of Z. about. also takes place among representatives of other philosophies. directions. Based on philosophy. prerequisites of existentialism, R. Aron comes to the conclusion that it is as if the study and causal history are impossible on the grounds that "historical science, which would be obligatory for everyone, does not exist" ("Lá philosophie de l" histoire", in Sat. : "L" actvite philosophique contemporaine en France et aux Etats-Unis ", t. 2, P., 1950, p. 321). He replaces the concepts of necessity and regularity with the concepts of possibility and probability. Some representatives of the bourgeoisie. historical thoughts in connection with the development of general problems of the methodology of history are trying to raise the question of Z. o. metaphysically and idealistically. So, for example, English the historian Toynbee, recognizing the presence of Z. o., interprets it in the spirit of the old theories of circulation ("the theory of parallel civilizations" - see "A study of history", v. 9, 1955).

In the works of the majority of bourgeois sociologists, general problems are not posed. In bourgeois sociology dominates, the most important sign of which is the refusal to penetrate into societies. phenomena, from the desire to reveal the objective laws of their development. Burzh. sociology appears as a combination of a large number of empirical. research department private phenomena of societies. life. And although sometimes these studies contain valuable facts. material, they are essentially mere descriptions of facts. The limitation of bourgeois empirical sociology is obvious for some bourgeois. sociologists who are trying to put forward some kind of theoretical. empirical research (Lazarsfeld, Koenig). Proponents of microsociology (Gurvich) are even trying to create "new philosophical foundations" of sociology. theory (the so-called "dialectical hyperempiricism"). But no empirical results. research with idealistic premises. philosophy does not open the way to scientific. Z.'s research about. The "laws" recognized by such a theory differ little from the a priori constructions of the old philosophy of history and traditional sociology - they are not the objective laws of the development of history.

The idea of ​​negation Z. o. has deep class roots. Recognition of an objectively existing Z. o. would mean for bourgeois. ideologists recognition istorich. the need for the collapse of capitalism and its replacement by socialism. At the same time, the course of history refutes the theories of the bourgeoisie. sociology: objectively existing Z. about. overthrows the theories that deny it.

Historical development testifies to the truth of the Marxist theory of societies. development. "Marxism-Leninism, having discovered the objective laws of social development, showed the contradictions inherent in capitalism, the inevitability of their revolutionary explosion and the transition of society to communism" (Programma KPSS, 1961, p. 7). The emergence and growth of the socialist camps, colonial system imperialism, the approaching inevitable collapse of imperialism is a vivid action of the laws of history known by Marxism.

Lit.: Marx K., Capital, vol. 1, M., 1955, p. 8–20; vol. 3, M., 1955, ch. 9; his own, Holy Family, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 2, ch. 6; him, To the Critique of Political Economy, [M.], 1952, p. 212–22 (Method of political economy); his, [Letter] to P. V. Annenkov - 28. XII. 1846, in the book: Correspondence of K. Marx and F. Engels from Russian. political figures, 2nd ed., [M.], 1951, p. ten; Engels F., Ludwig Feuerbach and the end of classical German philosophy, M., 1955, section 4; his own, Anti-Dühring, M., 1957 (Introduction. I. General remarks. Section three. Socialism - II. Essay on theory); his, [Letters]. F. A. Lange - 29. III. 1865, I. Bloch - 21–22. IX. 1890, K. Schmidt - 12. III. 1895, K. Schmidt - 5. VIII. 1890, G. Starkenburg - 25.I.1894, in the book: Marx K., Engels F., Izbr. letters, [M.], 1953; his, Karl Marx. "On the Critique of Political Economy"; K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 13; VI Lenin, What are "friends of the people" and how do they fight against the Social Democrats?, Soch., 4th ed., vol. 1, p. 115–30; his, Economic Populism and his in the book of Mr. Struve, ibid., vol. 1, p. 389–91; his own, Capitalism in agriculture, ibid., vol. 4, p. 95; his, Against the Boycott, ibid., vol. 13, p. 21–22; his, Materialism and Empiriocriticism, ibid., vol. 14, ch. 6, p. 306–41; his, Another Destruction of Socialism, ibid., vol. 20, p. 179; his own, Karl Marx, ibid., vol. 21, p. 38–41 (Materialistic understanding of history); his own, Prophetic words, ibid., vol. 27, p. 456; Plekhanov G.V., On the development of a monistic view of history, Izbr. philosophy Prod., vol. 1, M., 1956; Lafargue. P., Economic determinism of K. Marx, 2nd ed., M.–L., ; Khrushchev N. S., Report of the Central Committee of the CPSU to the XX Party Congress, M., 1956, p. 36–45; his own, On the control figures for development National economy USSR for 1959–65 Report at the Extraordinary XXI Congress of the CPSU, M., 1959; his, Report of the Central Committee of the CPSU to the XXII Party Congress, M., 1961; his own, On the Program of the CPSU, M., 1961; Documents of the Meetings of representatives of the communist and workers' parties, held in Moscow in November 1957, M., 1957; Documents of the Conference of Representatives of Communist and Workers' Parties, Moscow, November 1960, M., 1960; Program of the CPSU, M., 1961; Fundamentals of Marxist philosophy, M., 1959, part 2, ch. 9, § 3; Asmus V. F., Marx and bourgeois historicism, M.–L., 1933; Tugarinov V.P., On the relationship of objective laws of social development, "Vestn. Leningrad State University. Ser. Social Sciences", 1954, No 9, no. 3; Asatryan M.V., On the question of the knowledge and use of the laws of social development, "Bulletin of Moscow State University. Series of Economics, Philosophy, Law", 1956, No 1; Bikkenin H. B., On the problem of the correlation of general and specific laws of development, ibid., 1957, No 3; Momdzhyan X. N., On the ideology of social pessimism, "Bulletin of the history of world culture", 1957, No 2; Kon IS, Philosophical idealism and the crisis of the bourgeois historical. thoughts, M., 1959; Lyuboshits L.I., General and specific economic laws, M., 1959; Glezerman G. E., On the laws of social development, M., 1960; Historical materialism and modern bourgeoisie. Sat. Art., M., 1960; Schaff A., The objective nature of the laws of history, trans. from Polish., M., 1959; Spengler, O., Der Untergang des Abendlandes, Bd 1, 33–47 Aufl., Münch., 1923 (Russian translation, vol. 1, 1923); Neurath O., Empirische Soziologie, W., 1931; Vober. M. M., Karl Marx "s interpretation of history, Camb. -, 1948; Weber M., Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Wissenschaftslehre, 2 Aufl., Tübingen, 1951; Popper. K. R., The open society and its enemies, v. 1 -2, , L., 1952; his own, Misère de l "historicisme, P., ; Ginsberg M., The idea of ​​progress; a revaluation, L., ; Russel, B., History as an art, Aldington (Kent), 1954; Aron R., L "opium des intellectuels, P., ; Hook S., Historical determinism and political in Soviet communism, "Proc. amer. Philos. Soc", 1955, v. 99; Hunt R. N. C., The theory and practice of communism, 5 ed., L., 1957; Acton H. B., The illusion of the epoch., Boston, .

G. Andreeva. Moscow.

Philosophical Encyclopedia. In 5 volumes - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia. Edited by F. V. Konstantinov. 1960-1970 .

• Encyclopedic Dictionary - see Public pattern. Philosophical encyclopedic Dictionary. Moscow: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ch. editors: L. F. Ilyichev, P. N. Fedoseev, S. M. Kovalev, V. G. Panov. 1983... Philosophical Encyclopedia

regularity- (social) repetitive, essential connection of the phenomena of social life or stages of the historical process ... Research activities. Dictionary

History of rum. people is characterized by a continuous struggle for nat. independence, towards paradise, has been especially strengthened since the end of the 14th century. due to frequent tours. invasions and subsequently - with the establishment of the yoke of the Ottoman Empire. This struggle merges with… … Philosophical Encyclopedia

Necessary, essential, stable, recurring relationship between phenomena. 3. expresses the connection between objects, the constituent elements of a given object, between the properties of things, as well as between the properties within a thing. There are 3.… … Philosophical Encyclopedia

Law, a necessary, essential, stable, recurring relationship between phenomena. Z. expresses the connection between objects, the constituent elements of a given object, between the properties of things, and also between the properties within a thing. But not every relationship...

I Law is a necessary, essential, stable, recurring relationship between phenomena. Z. expresses the connection between objects, the constituent elements of a given object, between the properties of things, and also between the properties within a thing. But not every... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Are there regularities in the existence and development of society? Describe sources and driving factors development of society. Expand the main positions on this issue. What is the difference historical development society from evolution in nature? Express your point of view

Answer: The idea of ​​the existence of special laws that govern historical development began to take shape only in modern times. There was an understanding that the historical process, flowing in time and space, is carried out:

• a) in time - by various stages of historical development, epochs, formations, events (wars, revolutions);
• b) in space - nationalities, national territories, states.

Social space and social time are objective forms of the historical process. At present, a single world space is being actively formed, a single world history. Thus, history - the real social life of people - is manifested in specific interrelated events, facts, processes. But is there a connection between them? Is there a pattern or is it a chaotic heap of manifestations of social life? Most thinkers of the 19th century believed that a pattern operates in the development of society, although it is based on various manifestations.

O. Comte argued that "the development of society is carried out in accordance with the great basic law of the intellectual evolution of mankind", and astronomical laws;

G. Spencer - by objective biological laws;

W. Ward - by the laws of people's mental activity, that is, by the requirements of desires and motives;

G. Tarde - by the laws of imitation;

K. Marx - the laws of development of material production.

The variety of approaches to explaining the patterns of development of society convinces us that social laws, if they exist, differ significantly from the laws that operate in nature.

Under the law (social law) is understood the necessary, repetitive, essential connection of phenomena, which is established between the subsystems of the social system and within the subsystem. Does she exist?

In the XX century. the number of supporters of the idea that social laws operate in society began to decrease. The idea matured that in social life there are not laws, but a tendency is manifested - the direction in which development is going, the line of development.

Distinctive features of the trend:

firstly, if the law is always valid, then the trend develops at a specific time;

secondly, unlike the law, the trend is always conditional

(it develops under certain conditions and ceases to exist when these conditions disappear);

thirdly, the term for the implementation of a trend is always limited (distinctly manifested in one era, it may be completely absent in another).

Describing the historical process as a whole, it should be noted that history is interrelated events that form a single integral system, characteristic features which are:

• a) irreversibility;
• b) progress;
• c) succession;
• d) unevenness;
• e) unity and diversity.

The irreversibility of the historical process excludes the movement back (reversibility) and rejects the eternal cycle of historical events.

Progressiveness indicates that the historical process, despite slowing down, braking, rollbacks (characteristic of regression), nevertheless, as a whole, is developing progressively.

Continuity is the most important characteristic that determines the progressive nature of the historical process. It ensures the connection of times and, thereby, the unity of the history of mankind in the temporal space.

Unity is a historical process in any country, subject to the same laws. Unity does not exclude the diversity of the historical process.

Diversity - each nation has a certain level of material and spiritual culture, which determines the multivariate nature of development.

Society is a complex self-organizing, self-developing system in which all its elements and interactions are closely interconnected and are in continuous change. The internal source of the development of society is the resolution of contradictions that arise in the process of changes in society. If we do not resolve the contradictions, they will accumulate and become aggravated, which can lead to stagnation and then to the destruction of the social system.

The historical process is not carried out automatically, it is created by people in the process of creating the material and spiritual conditions for the existence of society, resolving contradictions both within society itself and between society and nature.

The main driving force behind the development of society is the very diverse activity of all members of society, participants in the historical process. To driving forces stories include the motivating forces of activity: vanity and altruism, a passion for enrichment, a craving for knowledge, a tendency to idleness, etc. The fundamental basis of all these forces are human needs. A need is a need for something necessary for human life. Human needs are varied. According to A. Maslow, the presence of the following five main levels of human needs can be distinguished:

• 1) physiological needs (a person's need for food, water, sleep, housing, muscle activity, sexual satisfaction);
• 2) safety needs (avoid illnesses, injuries, maintain health and performance, be confident in the future);
• 3) the need for communication;
• 4) the need for respect and self-respect;
• 5) the need for self-realization.

The subjective expression of needs is interest. Already Aristotle rightly pointed out that a person is motivated to action by interest. Interest is, in essence, a steadily directed internal motive for activity, colored by emotional-value relations. The goal is a conscious image of the anticipated result, the achievement of which is directed by the activity. Faith, love, hatred, etc., are also the motivating forces of people's activity. Man is a conscious being, he transforms the world in accordance with his needs, guided in his activities by certain goals.

The hypothesis that the properties and characteristics acquired by parents in the course of their life activity are inherited by their children was first put forward by the famous French biologist J.B. Lamarck. However, after the advent of the teachings of Ch. Darwin, its inconsistency was established, and with the development of genetics and the synthetic theory of evolution, a complete fallacy was also proved, since only biologically inherited, and not acquired during life, properties and characteristics of parents are transmitted to offspring.

Thus, there is a fundamental difference between evolution in living nature and progress in society, because the source of evolution in nature is heredity, and progress in society is achieved through the acquisition of knowledge, experience, traditions and culture of people living today and previous generations. Sometimes the acquisition of such experience is called social inheritance, but this experience is not inherited, as G. Spencer suggested, but is mastered through imitation, training and education. It is on the property of imitation that people have retained from the animal kingdom that, in principle, their abilities for learning, education and other more complex features of behavior and life are based, thanks to which development in general is also carried out in social life.