INTRODUCTION
One of the main means of personality development and the formation of its basic culture is the content of education. In traditional pedagogy, the content of education is defined as "a set of systematized knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs, as well as a certain level of development of cognitive forces and practical training, achieved as a result of educational work." This is the so-called knowledge-oriented approach to determining the essence of the content of education. With this approach, the focus is on knowledge as a reflection spiritual wealth humanity, accumulated in the process of searches and historical experience. Knowledge, of course, is an important social value, and therefore the knowledge-oriented content of education is of unconditional importance. It contributes to the socialization of the individual, the entry of a person into society. From this point of view, such content of education is a life-supporting system.
The main theories of the formation of the content of education have developed in late XVIII — early XIX centuries They are called the material and formal theory of the formation of the content of education.
As a separate sphere of social life, education has a special structure that ensures its functioning. There are different approaches to understanding the structure educational system. According to I.P. Podlasy, who considers the education system from the outside, it includes educational institutions, educational authorities, documents that ensure the functioning of the educational system (educational standards, curricula and programs, textbooks and teaching aids).
General requirements for the content of education
The content of education is one of the factors of the economic and social progress of society and should be focused on:
ensuring self-determination of the individual, creating conditions for its self-realization;
development of society;
strengthening and improvement of the rule of law.
The content of education should provide:
adequate to the world level of the general and professional culture of the society;
the formation of a student adequate to the modern level of knowledge and level educational program(levels of education) pictures of the world;
integration of personality into national and world culture;
the formation of a person and a citizen integrated into the society of his day and aimed at improving this society;
the formation of a spiritual and moral personality;
reproduction and development of the personnel potential of the society.
Vocational education at any level should ensure that students receive a profession and appropriate qualifications.
The content of education should promote mutual understanding and cooperation between people, nations, regardless of racial, national, ethnic, religious and social affiliation, take into account the diversity of worldview approaches, promote the realization of the right of students to freely choose their opinions and beliefs.
The content of education in a specific educational institution is determined by the educational program (s) approved and implemented by this educational institution independently, as well as by the charter. The main educational program in the existing state accreditation educational institution is developed on the basis of the relevant exemplary basic educational programs and must ensure that students (pupils) achieve the results of mastering the basic educational programs established by the relevant federal state educational standards or educational standards established in accordance with paragraph 2 of Article 7 of this Law.
Authorized federal state bodies ensure the development of exemplary basic educational programs based on federal state educational standards or federal state requirements, taking into account their level and focus.
Approximate basic educational programs, taking into account their level and focus, may include a basic curriculum and sample programs training courses, subjects, disciplines (modules).
An educational institution, in accordance with its statutory goals and objectives, may implement additional educational programs and provide additional educational services (on a contractual basis) outside the educational programs that determine its status.
In educational institutions of secondary (complete) general education, educational institutions of primary vocational and secondary vocational education in accordance with federal state educational standards in the manner prescribed by laws and other regulatory legal acts Russian Federation, laws and other regulatory legal acts of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, students receive initial knowledge about the defense of the state, about military duty of citizens and acquire skills in the field of civil defense, as well as train students - male citizens who have not completed military service, on the basics of military services.
An educational institution, when implementing educational programs, uses the capabilities of cultural institutions.
EDUCATIONAL STANDARDS
One of the modern trends in the development of the content of education is its standardization, which is caused by two circumstances. First of all, the need to create a single pedagogical space in the country, thanks to which a single level of general education will be provided for young people in different types educational institutions. The standardization of the content of education is also due to the task of Russia's entry into the system of world culture, which requires taking into account the trends in the development of the content of general education in international educational practice.
The concept of a standard comes from English word standart, meaning "norm, sample, measure." The standard of education is understood as a system of basic parameters accepted as the state norm of education, reflecting the social ideal and taking into account the possibilities of a real person and the education system to achieve this ideal.
The education standard is the main normative document that interprets a certain part of the Law. The Law of the Russian Federation on Education (1992) stipulates that only the minimum required level of education is standardized by state authorities. Determination of the content of education in excess of this norm is within the competence of educational institutions. That is why three components are distinguished in the state standard of general secondary education: federal, national-regional and school.
The federal component determines those standards, the observance of which ensures the unity of the pedagogical space in Russia, as well as the integration of the individual into the system of world culture.
The national-regional component contains standards in the field of the native language and literature, history, geography, art, labor training, etc. They fall within the competence of the regions and educational institutions.
The standard establishes the scope of the school component of the content of education, reflecting the specifics and focus of a particular educational institution.
The standard of education reflects the obligations, on the one hand, of the state to its citizen, and on the other hand, of the citizen to the state in the field of education. The state requires its citizen to achieve a certain standard of education and guarantees, in turn, the level of educational services necessary for this.
The federal and national-regional components of the education standard include:
a description of the content of education at each of its levels, which the state provides to the student in the amount of the necessary general education; requirements for the minimum necessary training of students within the specified scope of content;
the maximum allowable amount of teaching load for schoolchildren by year of study.
Until now, general education standards in our country and abroad have been presented in the form of programs and requirements for the level of preparation of schoolchildren in individual academic subjects. On their basis, a wide variety of working curricula can be developed.
In the Russian Federation, federal state educational standards are established, which are a set of requirements that are mandatory for the implementation of basic educational programs of primary general, basic general, secondary (complete) general, primary vocational, secondary vocational and higher professional education by educational institutions with state accreditation.
In accordance with the Federal Law of August 22, 1996 N 125-FZ "On Higher and Postgraduate Professional Education" (hereinafter - the Federal Law "On Higher and Postgraduate Professional Education"), the implementation of programs of higher professional and postgraduate professional education can be carried out on the basis of educational standards and requirements independently established by the Moscow state university named after M.V. Lomonosov, St. Petersburg State University, federal universities, universities for which the category "national research university”, as well as other federal state educational institutions of higher professional education, the list of which is approved by decree of the President of the Russian Federation.
The requirements for the conditions for implementation and for the results of mastering the basic educational programs included in such educational standards cannot be lower than the relevant requirements of federal state educational standards.
Federal state educational standards and requirements must provide:
1) the unity of the educational space of the Russian Federation;
2) the continuity of the main educational programs of primary general, basic general, secondary (complete) general, primary vocational, secondary vocational and higher professional education.
Federal state educational standards and requirements include requirements for:
1) the structure of the main educational programs, including the requirements for the ratio of parts of the main educational program and their volume, as well as the ratio of the mandatory part of the main educational program and the part formed by the participants educational process;
2) conditions for the implementation of basic educational programs, including personnel, financial, logistical and other conditions;
3) the results of mastering the main educational programs.
When implementing basic educational programs for students with handicapped health, special federal state educational standards can be established.
The development and approval of federal state educational standards are carried out in the manner established by the Government of the Russian Federation.
Federal state educational standards are approved at least once every ten years.
Federal state educational standards and requirements are the basis objective evaluation the level of education and qualifications of graduates, regardless of the forms of education.
Law on Higher and postgraduate education
Legal regulation of relations in the field of higher and postgraduate professional education
1. Legal regulation of relations in the field of higher and postgraduate professional education is carried out by this Federal Law, other laws and other regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation, as well as laws and other regulatory legal acts of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and municipal legal acts.
2. If an international treaty of the Russian Federation establishes rules other than those provided for by this Federal Law, the rules of the international treaty shall apply.
State policy and state guarantees of the rights of citizens of the Russian Federation in the field of higher and postgraduate professional education
The state policy in the field of higher and postgraduate professional education is based on the principles defined by the Law of the Russian Federation "On Education", as well as on the following principles:
2) continuity and continuity of the education process;
3) integration of the system of higher and postgraduate professional education of the Russian Federation while maintaining and developing the achievements and traditions of the Russian high school into the global system of higher education;
4) competitiveness and publicity in determining priority areas for the development of science, engineering, technology, as well as training of specialists, retraining and advanced training of workers;
5) state support for the training of specialists, priority areas scientific research in the field of higher and postgraduate professional education.
The state ensures the priority development of higher and postgraduate professional education through:
1) funding from the federal budget for training in federal state educational institutions of higher professional education for at least one hundred and seventy students for every ten thousand people living in the Russian Federation;
2) expanding the access of citizens of the Russian Federation to higher education;
4) providing students (students, graduate students, doctoral students and other categories of students) in the state system of higher and postgraduate professional education government scholarships, places in hostels, other measures of social support in accordance with the law;
5) creating conditions for equal accessibility of higher and postgraduate professional education;
7) creating conditions for the integration of higher and postgraduate professional education and science.
Citizens of the Russian Federation are guaranteed to receive free higher and postgraduate professional education on a competitive basis in state and municipal educational institutions of higher professional education within the limits of federal state educational standards, federal state requirements and educational standards and requirements established in accordance with paragraph 4 of Article 5 of this Federal Law, if the citizen receives education of this level for the first time.
Citizens of the Russian Federation are guaranteed the freedom to choose the form of obtaining higher and postgraduate professional education, the educational institution and the direction of training (specialty).
Restrictions on the rights of citizens to receive higher and postgraduate professional education may be established exclusively by federal law only to the extent necessary to protect the morality, health, rights and legitimate interests of others, to ensure the defense of the country and the security of the state.
Documents on higher and postgraduate professional education
Persons who have completed training in educational programs of higher and postgraduate professional education and have passed the final certification are issued documents on the appropriate level of education.
A higher educational institution with state accreditation issues state-recognized documents to graduates on the appropriate level of education with the official symbols of the Russian Federation. The form of a state document is approved by the federal executive body that performs the functions of developing state policy and legal regulation in the field of education.
Lomonosov Moscow State University and St. Petersburg State University issue to graduates documents on the appropriate level of education and (or) qualifications with the official symbols of the Russian Federation, which are certified by the seal of Lomonosov Moscow State University and St. Petersburg State University, respectively. state university and the forms of which are approved by these universities respectively.
Documents on the appropriate level of education and (or) qualifications issued by the Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov, St. Petersburg State University give their holders rights similar to the rights provided for holders of state documents on the appropriate level of education and qualifications.
The following types of documents on the levels of higher professional education are established:
Bachelor's degree;
specialist diploma;
master's degree.
The decision of the state attestation commission on awarding a qualification (degree) to a graduate and issuing him a state-recognized document on higher professional education can be canceled by the federal executive body that approved the chairman of the state attestation commission, only if the established procedure for issuing state-recognized documents is violated through the fault of the student on higher professional education.
Based on the results of defending a dissertation, a diploma of a candidate of sciences or a diploma of a doctor of sciences is issued in accordance with the established procedure.
Educational programs
The educational program determines the content of education of a certain level and direction. In the Russian Federation, educational programs are being implemented, which are divided into:
1) general education (basic and additional);
2) professional (basic and additional).
Main general education programs aimed at solving the problems of formation common culture personality, adaptation of the individual to life in society, to create the basis for a conscious choice and development of professional educational programs.
The main general education programs include:
1) before school education;
2) primary general education;
3) basic general education;
4) secondary (complete) general education.
The main professional educational programs are aimed at solving the problems of consistently improving the professional and general educational levels, training specialists of the appropriate qualification.
The main professional programs include:
1) initial vocational education;
2) secondary vocational education;
3) higher professional education (bachelor's degree programs, specialist training programs and master's degree programs);
4) postgraduate professional education.
The main general educational programs of primary general, basic general and secondary (complete) general education ensure the implementation of the federal state educational standard, taking into account the type and type of educational institution, educational needs and requests of students, pupils and include the curriculum, work programs of training courses, subjects, disciplines (modules) and other materials that provide spiritual and moral development, education and quality of training of students.
The main professional educational programs of primary vocational, secondary vocational and higher vocational education ensure the implementation of the federal state educational standard, taking into account the type and type of educational institution, the educational needs and requests of students and include the curriculum, work programs of training courses, subjects, disciplines (modules) and other materials that ensure the education and quality of training of students, as well as programs of educational and industrial practice, calendar training schedule and teaching materials that ensure the implementation of the appropriate educational technology.
The main educational programs of higher professional education, established in accordance with paragraph 2 of Article 7 of this Law, include the curriculum, work programs of training courses, subjects, disciplines and other materials. They ensure the education and quality of training of students, as well as programs of educational and industrial practice, a calendar study schedule and methodological materials that ensure the implementation of appropriate educational technology.
Federal state requirements are established for the structure of the main general educational program of preschool education and the conditions for its implementation by the federal executive body, which carries out the functions of developing state policy and legal regulation in the field of education.
Federal state requirements are established by the authorized federal executive body for the structure of the main professional educational program of postgraduate professional education (with the exception of doctoral studies).
Regulatory terms for the development of basic educational programs in state and municipal educational institutions are determined by this Law, other adopted in accordance with it federal laws and model regulations on educational institutions of the relevant types and types, or the relevant federal state educational standards, or federal state requirements, or educational standards and requirements established in accordance with paragraph 2 of Article 7 of this Law.
Additional educational program includes working programs of training courses, subjects, disciplines (modules).
To a minimum of the content of an additional professional educational program and the level of professional retraining, the federal executive body responsible for the development of state policy and legal regulation in the field of education may establish federal state requirements in cases provided for by federal laws.
CONCLUSION
The personality is at the center of learning, education. Accordingly, all education, centering on the student, on his personality, becomes anthropocentric in purpose, content and forms of organization.
Modern education, considered as a social institution, system, process, result, is a unity of education and upbringing, which implement the basic principles of changing its paradigm from informational, informing to developing independent cognitive activity of the student. Directions of learning in the educational process reflect the search by psychological and pedagogical science of how to optimize this process, which is intended to provide a personal-activity approach.
Psychological service is an organic component modern system education, ensuring timely identification and the fullest possible use in the education and upbringing of children, their intellectual and personal potential, the child's inclinations, abilities, interests and inclinations.
The pedagogical service is also called upon to ensure the timely identification of reserves pedagogical development children, their implementation in training and education. If we are talking about children who are lagging behind in their development from most other children, then the task of a practical teacher is to identify and eliminate possible causes of developmental delays in time. If it concerns gifted children, then a similar task, associated with accelerating the pedagogical development of the child, is transformed into a problem: ensuring the early identification of inclinations and their transformation into highly developed abilities.
Another difficult task in the psychological service in the education system is to constantly, throughout childhood, control the processes of teaching and raising children in order to improve the quality of education and upbringing. This refers to the need to build these pedagogical processes in strict accordance with the natural and social laws of the mental development of children, with the main provisions of the psychological theory of training and education. Practical purpose The work of the teacher here comes down to evaluating the content and methods of teaching and educating children from the standpoint of this science, used in various children's institutions, to give recommendations for their improvement, taking into account scientific data on the development of children of different ages. Thus, education as a combination of training and upbringing is a means of personal development and the formation of its basic culture at various age levels.
Unfortunately, at present there is no close connection between practice and theory in the legal framework regulating the content of education.
I believe that any regulatory document should regulate the content of education, in the center of which the personality is placed and ensure the availability of knowledge at any stage of education, regardless of the region of the Russian Federation. The relationship of the regulatory framework of the educational system at all levels of government (federal, regional, municipal). The basis for making changes to the education legislation should be based on practice, which is the main demonstration material in the upbringing and education of the individual.
A number of didacticists (V. V. Kraevsky, I. Ya. Lerner) distinguish three main levels of formation of the content of education, which represent a certain hierarchy in its design: the level of general theoretical representation, the level subject, the level of educational material.
Educational plans. At the level of general theoretical representation, the state standard for the content of general secondary education is reflected in the school curriculum. In the practice of general secondary education, several types of curricula are used: basic, model and school curriculum.
The basic curriculum of a general education school is the main state regulatory document, which is integral part state standard this level of education. It serves as the basis for the development of model and working curricula and the source document for school funding.
The basic curriculum as part of the standard of education for the basic school is approved by the State Duma, and for the complete secondary school - by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation.
The curriculum of a general education secondary school is drawn up in compliance with the standards of the basic curriculum. There are two types of school curricula:
The actual curriculum of the school, developed on the basis of the state basic curriculum for a long period and reflecting the characteristics of a particular school (one of the standard curricula can be adopted as the school's curriculum);
A working curriculum developed taking into account current conditions and approved by the school's pedagogical council annually.
The structure of the curriculum of a secondary general education school is determined by the same factors as the content of general education as a whole.
First of all, in the curricula, as well as in the state standard of general secondary education, federal, national-regional and school components are distinguished.
The federal component ensures the unity of school education in the country and includes in full such educational areas as mathematics and computer science, and in part - the world around, art, technology, in which training courses of general cultural and national significance are distinguished.
The national-regional component provides educational needs and the interests of the peoples of our country represented by the subjects of the Federation and includes in full such educational areas as the native language and literature, the second language and partially other areas, in most of which there are training courses or sections that reflect the national identity of culture.
The interests of a particular educational institution, taking into account the federal and national-regional components, are reflected in the school component of the curriculum.
The structure of the school curriculum is largely due to the need to reflect the invariant and variable parts in it. The invariant part (core) of the curriculum ensures that students are introduced to general cultural and nationally significant values in order to form their basic culture. The variable part, taking into account personality traits, interests and inclinations of students, allows you to individualize the learning process.
These complementary and relatively autonomous parts of the curriculum are not completely independent. As a result of their intersection in the curriculum of any educational institution, there are three main types training sessions: compulsory classes that make up the basic core of general secondary education; compulsory classes at the choice of students; extracurricular activities (optional electives).
The secondary school curriculum contains such cross-cutting lines of education as fundamental and technological. They are reflected in the curriculum in different ways depending on the type of school and the level of education. The fundamental component, the basis of which is the general scientific and general cultural preparation of students, is most fully implemented in primary and secondary schools. Technological education at school is a pre-professional general labor training. At the senior level, initial vocational training of schoolchildren is possible within the framework of profile education. The intersection of fundamental and technological areas of the curriculum constitutes polytechnic education.
The school curriculum also includes theoretical and practical training. Their intersection leads to the need to introduce laboratory and practical classes, educational and industrial practices. However, most types of practical classes are not available in the basic school. Therefore, in the curriculum at the first two levels of secondary school, there is no explicit division of education into theoretical and practical. It can take place at the senior stage of secondary school during initial vocational training in the form of work practice for schoolchildren.
The basic curriculum of a secondary general education school, as part of the state standard, covers the following range of standards:
Duration of training (in academic years) - total and for each of its steps;
Weekly study load for basic training courses at each level of general secondary education, compulsory classes at the choice of students, optional classes;
The maximum mandatory weekly study load for students, including the number of hours of study devoted to compulsory elective classes;
The total state-paid workload of a teacher, taking into account the maximum teaching load, extracurricular activities, extracurricular work, division (partial) study groups into subgroups.
Traditionally, the secondary general education school in our country and in many other countries is built on a three-stage basis: primary, basic and complete. At the same time, two levels are actually distinguished in the basic school: the first (transitional from primary) and the second. This is due to the fact that, in terms of age features students in grades V and VI in many respects bear the features of an elementary school. But in terms of organization educational process these classes already belong to the main school in which he reaches maximum value subject differentiation of training courses, the volume of elective classes increases, training is conducted by different teachers (subject teachers), the mandatory workload increases, etc.
Each of the levels of the secondary general education school, solving common problems, has its own specific functions associated with the age characteristics of students. They are reflected primarily in the set of basic training courses and in the ratio of the basic core and classes of students' choice.
The basis of the basic curriculum of a secondary general education school is the implementation of the principle of continuity between its levels, when the studied courses receive their development and enrichment at subsequent levels. This principle finds expression in the linear and cyclic structure of the courses representing the educational field.
Primary School lays the foundations for the functional literacy of students, equips them with the basic skills of communication and educational work, introduces them to the principles of national and world culture, creating a basis for the subsequent development of educational programs of the basic school.
The content of primary education is focused on the initial formation of the main aspects of personality culture: cognitive, communicative, moral, aesthetic, labor, physical. At this age stage, these aspects of culture determine the structure of the curriculum. At the same time, within the framework of the formation of a cognitive culture, two independent courses are distinguished: the world around and mathematics. The selection of mathematics as an independent course is connected with its great role in cognition and communication.
The study of the native language is aimed at the formation of a communicative and aesthetic culture, literature and art - at the development of the moral and aesthetic principles of the individual. Labor and physical culture are represented by the respective educational areas.
If desired, the school can start teaching students a second language already in grades I-IV. For schools with a non-Russian language of instruction, it is Russian as the state language of the Russian Federation, for schools with Russian as the language of instruction, it is the national language of the republic where the school is located, for Russian schools located in the Russian-speaking region, it is foreign. To study these languages, you must use the hours allocated for compulsory elective classes and extracurricular classes.
In the basic school, after which students receive the right to choose a profession, they are given the opportunity to try their hand at various activities and fields of knowledge.
At this stage, the differentiation of education develops, which does not affect the basic core of compulsory courses, which remains the same for schools throughout the country. The main school is not profile differentiated.
The basic curriculum of the basic school includes a functionally complete set of educational areas: native language and literature, second language, art, systems and structures (mathematics), systems inanimate nature(physics and astronomy), matter (chemistry), earth (geography, ecology), self-managed systems (cybernetics, informatics), biological systems, man, society; labor, technique, technology; Physical Culture.
At the transitional stage of the basic school (grades V-VI), the "Nature" block can be represented by systematic courses or the integrated course "Natural Science", at the second stage (VII-IX grades) - by systematic courses in physics, chemistry, geography and biology. These courses, in terms of their status in the curriculum, are equivalent to such courses as mathematics, computer science, labor training, etc., representing separate educational areas.
The basic plan of the senior classes of the secondary school (X-XI grades) includes the same set of educational areas as the basic plan of the main school. However, the senior level (complete general school) is built on the principle of profile differentiation. Compulsory elective classes reach their maximum volume.
Depending on the profile of the school, individual educational areas can be represented here by independent academic disciplines or integrated courses. Time to study independent courses may be increased by hours devoted to compulsory classes of the student's choice. Within the framework of elective classes in the curriculum, those training courses, the compulsory study of which was completed in the basic school, may be resumed, or new ones may appear, related to the profile of the school and (or) providing initial vocational training for students.
For example, at the senior level, it is advisable to continue studying computer science by mastering new information technology. The course of informatics at this level can be significantly differentiated both in volume and in direction. For schoolchildren studying in humanitarian gymnasiums, this can be a course in computer editing and preparing manuscripts for printing (20-30 hours). For mathematical gymnasiums - a course in programming and computational mathematics (for 150 - 200 hours). Similarly, training can be differentiated in other areas.
The scientific and pedagogical validity of the curricula, the reflection in them of the basic laws of education opens up prospects for further improvement in the education and upbringing of schoolchildren.
The basic curriculum of general secondary education legislates the possibility of a more complete reflection of national characteristics and cultural traditions in it, not only in the courses of history, geography, language, art, but also in the courses of biology, labor and physical training of students.
So, the basic curriculum expands the range of opportunities for each student, allows the school to develop their individual interests and inclinations.
Learning programs. The content of education, presented at the level of theoretical understanding in curricula, gets its concretization in academic subjects or training courses (disciplines).
Subject- this is a system of scientific knowledge, practical skills that allow students to learn, with a certain depth and in accordance with their age-related cognitive capabilities, the basic starting points of science or aspects of culture, labor, production.
Since the subject of the joint activity of the teacher and the student in learning are the results scientific knowledge, then the specific difficulty that pedagogy encounters here is connected with the answer to the question of what should pass from the vast variety of scientific knowledge into the content of the academic subject.
The most common and accepted point of view is that the subjects of the general education school should be designed in accordance with the structure of scientific knowledge as a whole. This means that each fundamental scientific discipline must correspond to a subject. Consequently, the completeness and structural orderliness of the subject should be assessed, taking the structure of scientific knowledge as a standard. This approach is generally implemented in the practice of modern general secondary education.
According to another point of view, on the contrary, when determining the content of an academic subject, one should focus primarily on pedagogical considerations proper. At the same time, it is noted that it is not necessary to observe differences between scientific disciplines. This position is justified by the fact that existing system scientific disciplines is largely the result of historical development scientific knowledge and does not correspond to the laws of development of human cognitive abilities, and even more so to the structure of reality itself.
Another difficulty that one has to face in determining the content of an academic subject is related to the answer to the question of what and in what sequence should be studied within the framework of a separate academic discipline. Development pedagogical theory and educational practice allows us to give the following answer to this question:
Certain content singled out as educational knowledge scientific discipline must be studied in the sequence of its historical occurrence;
The sequence of presentation of educational knowledge should reproduce the logical structure state of the art development of scientific discipline;
The orderliness of the deployment of the content of educational knowledge should be a consequence of the patterns of development of the cognitive capabilities of the subject of learning.
So, at the level of an academic subject, the design of the content of education involves working on its individual elements, determining their goals and functions in the holistic context of the standard. At the same level, an idea is formed and concretized about the main forms of implementation of the content of the subject in pedagogical process, consistently fixed in the relevant regulatory documents - curricula.
Training program- a normative document that reveals the content of knowledge, skills and abilities in the subject, the logic of studying the main worldview ideas, indicating the sequence of topics, questions and the total dosage of time for their study. It determines the general scientific and spiritual value orientation of teaching the subject, assessments of theories, events, facts. The program determines the structure of the arrangement of educational material by year of study and within each school class. The completeness of assimilation of program knowledge, skills and abilities by students is one of the criteria for the success and effectiveness of the learning process.
The curriculum thus performs a number of basic functions. The first can be called descriptive, since the program is a means of describing the content of education at the level of the subject. The second is an ideological and ideological function. Its essence lies in the fact that the knowledge included in the program is aimed at shaping the spirituality and scientific outlook of schoolchildren. The curriculum performs this function in conjunction with programs in other subjects, which makes it possible to cover the content of education systematically, in its actual integrity, and create a common worldview. scientific picture world, to form a spiritual and valuable attitude to the phenomena of reality. The third function of the curriculum is regulatory, or organizational and methodological. It organizes the activities of the teacher in preparation for classes: the selection of material, types practical work, methods and forms of teaching. The programs also organize the educational work of students: they determine the nature of their activity in studying the subject at school, at home, in the process of assimilation of free information.
Curricula can be standard, working and copyright.
Model curricula are developed on the basis of the requirements of the state educational standard for a particular educational field. Its creation is the result of a large and painstaking work of representatives of various fields of knowledge: specialists in a particular science, who determine the basic circle of knowledge, skills and abilities; teachers and psychologists who form and distribute material by year of study in accordance with the age capabilities of children; methodologists who develop scientific and methodological support necessary for the effective assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities.
The standard curriculum accumulates historical and pedagogical experience, reflects the requirements of the achievements of pedagogical and psychological sciences. With social, scientific and technological progress and the development of pedagogical science and practice, the need to revise curricula periodically arises.
Standard curricula are approved by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation and are advisory in nature. Based on the standard program, working curricula are developed and approved by the pedagogical council of the school.
They can be developed directly based on the requirements of the state standard for educational areas. IN work program in contrast to the standard one, the national-regional component is described, the possibilities of methodological, informational, technical support of the educational process, the level of preparedness of students are taken into account.
Author's curricula, taking into account the requirements of the state standard, may contain a different logic for constructing an academic subject, their own approaches to the consideration of certain theories, their own point of view regarding the phenomena and processes being studied. Such programs should have external reviews from scientists in the subject area, educators, psychologists, methodologists. If available, the programs are approved by the pedagogical council of the school. Author's curricula are most widely used in teaching courses of students' choice (compulsory and optional). Historically, two methods have developed in the construction of curricula: concentric and linear.
With a concentric method of deploying the content of educational material, the same sections of the program are studied at different levels of education or at different stages of studying the same discipline. This method is often justified by the fact that one or another section of the training course, which is of fundamental importance for the subsequent presentation, nevertheless, due to the age characteristics of the students, cannot be deeply assimilated at this level of education. The disadvantage of the concentric method is the slowdown schooling due to repeated return to the same material. For example, the section of physics "Work and energy" is studied in grades VI and VIII; section of biology "Cell" - in V and X classes.
With a linear method of deploying the content of educational material, there is no repeated return to the previously studied sections of the program. At the same time, the educational material is arranged systematically and sequentially, with a gradual complication, as if along one ascending line. Moreover, new knowledge is presented on the basis of already known and in close connection with it. This method provides significant time savings and is mainly used in the development of curricula in middle and high school. It should be noted that in the new curricula the linear arrangement of the material is strengthened due to some reduction in concentricity.
One should not mechanically separate and contrast these two ways of deploying the content of education, since they mutually complement each other, and the assessment of the curriculum in a particular discipline, built in a concentric or linear way, depends on its place in the curriculum.
In real pedagogical practice, the order in which the content of education is deployed is sometimes made dependent on the abilities and interests of the students themselves. This is possible, for example, when classes with a specific profile of subjects (physical and mathematical, biological, chemical, etc.) are created within the framework of a general education school. In other words, this happens if the individual inclinations and interests of students are taken into account, if an elective principle is introduced into education. For this, various curricula of compulsory and optional disciplines for specialized classes are approved.
The overall structure of the curriculum contains mainly three elements. The first is an explanatory note, which defines the main tasks of the subject, its educational and developmental capabilities, the leading scientific ideas underlying the construction of the subject. The second is the actual content of education: thematic plan, the content of topics, the tasks of their study, basic concepts, skills, possible types of activities. Third - some guidelines relating mainly to the assessment of knowledge, skills and abilities.
The specificity of each subject in terms of content, the nature of the application of knowledge in practice, and the types of activities determines the variability of program structures. Thus, the structure of the chemistry program for grade IX includes a topic, interdisciplinary connections, demonstrations, laboratory work, practical exercises, screen aids; in social science in grade X - topic, repetition, basic concepts, laws, interdisciplinary connections, basic concepts; on technology in the VIII grade - a topic, an approximate list of products, technical and technological information, interdisciplinary communications, practical work, demonstrations; in fine arts in grade III - practical work (compositional activity, color, shape, proportions, structures, space), perception (aesthetic perception of reality, perception of art), basic requirements for knowledge and skills of students, demonstrations, interdisciplinary connections.
In the system of general secondary education, great importance is attached to the formation of general educational skills and abilities. This necessitated the creation of a special program in which, in dynamics, with consistent development and complication for each class, 4 groups of skills and abilities are considered:
Educational and organizational skills and abilities involve the student's mastery of the ways to perform each component of educational activity ( learning task, learning activities, self-control and self-assessment), as well as ways of independent transition from one component or stage academic work to another; ways of external organization of their educational work (workplace culture, rational order of classes, daily routine, etc.); ways to transfer knowledge to your classmates or younger students;
Educational and intellectual skills and abilities include ways to perform mental activity, posing and solving problems, as well as techniques logical thinking(based on formal and dialectical logic);
Educational and information skills consist in mastering the methods and techniques of self-acquisition of knowledge, new, additional information, its storage;
Educational communication skills and skills consist in the student's mastering the methods of constructing oral and written speech, depending on the goals and conditions of communication with another person (teacher, peer) in the course of educational work.
Mastering these skills and abilities allows students to effectively master the educational material in all subjects and creates conditions for their self-education in the present and continuous education in the future.
Educational literature. The design of the content of education at the level of educational material is carried out in educational literature, which includes textbooks and teaching aids. They reflect the specific content of the curricula.
Among all kinds educational literature occupies a special place school textbook, which in its content and structure necessarily corresponds to the curriculum in the subject. Textbooks created on the basis of standard curricula are recommended by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation for all schools in the country.
D. D. Zuev studied the problem of the school textbook. He singled out and comprehensively described its functions:
Information function - providing schoolchildren with the necessary and sufficient information that forms their worldview, giving food for spiritual development and practical development of the world;
The transformational function is that the material in the textbook, being transformed taking into account the age characteristics of students and didactic requirements, becomes accessible to them, but does not exclude the problem and the possibility of its creative development;
The systematizing function implements the requirement of a mandatory systematic and consistent presentation of the material in the logic of the subject;
The function of consolidating the material and exercising self-control by children is manifested in the fact that the textbook provides an opportunity for re-study, verification by the student himself of the correctness of the concepts, ideas, images that have developed in him, the accuracy of the learned rules, laws, and conclusions;
The integrating function is that the textbook helps the child to add to the knowledge presented in it additional information from related sciences;
The coordinating function contributes to the involvement in the process of working on the material of other teaching aids (maps, illustrations, transparencies, nature);
The developmental and educational function consists in the spiritual and value influence of the content of the textbook on students, the formation in the process of working on it of such qualities as diligence, mental activity, and the ability to be creative;
The educational function of the textbook is manifested in the fact that working with it develops such skills as taking notes, summarizing, highlighting the main thing, logical memorization necessary for self-education. (Zuev D.D. School textbook. - M., 1983).
The structure of the textbook includes text and extra-text auxiliary components. All texts are divided into description texts, narrative texts, reasoning texts. The extra-textual components include: the apparatus for organizing assimilation (questions and tasks, memos or instructional materials, tables and font selections, captions for illustrative material and exercises); actual illustrative material; orientation apparatus, including preface, notes, appendices, table of contents, indexes.
The training text (as opposed to the reference text) serves primarily the purpose of clarifying the content, and not just informing. In addition, the educational text should have a certain emotional impact on the student, arouse interest in the subject of study. That is why, especially at the early stages of learning, the textbook language should use semantic metaphors, language stereotypes, etc., which is unacceptable in a strictly standardized scientific language.
Textbooks contain an exposition of the fundamentals of the sciences and at the same time organize an independent learning activities students to master the educational material. In other words, he teaches to learn. In this regard, it is subject to requirements relating not only to the construction of educational texts. These requirements are didactic, psychological, aesthetic, hygienic. The textbook should contain material high degree generalizations and at the same time specific, equipped with basic factual information. It should be a presentation of true science and at the same time be accessible to students, take into account the peculiarities of their interests, perception, thinking, memory, develop cognitive and practical interest, the need for knowledge and practical activities.
The textbook should be moderately colorful, provided with the necessary illustrations in the form of pictures, maps, diagrams, diagrams, photographs.
As already noted, the content of education at the level of educational material, along with textbooks, is revealed in various types of teaching aids: anthologies on literature and history; collections of problems in mathematics, physics, chemistry; atlases on geography, biology; collections of exercises in languages, etc.
Tutorials expand some aspects of the textbook and aim to solve specific learning problems (information, training, testing, etc.).
Prospects for the development of the content of general education. A model for building a 12-year general education school. (see The concept of the structure and content of general secondary education (in a 12-year school). - M., 2001).
The school as the most important social institution reflects the state and trends in the development of society and influences it. In turn, changes in the system of social relations actively influence education, require it to be mobile and adequately respond to the challenges of a new historical stage. The education system must be brought into line with the needs of Russia's development at the turn of the century and in the next two or three decades of the 21st century.
The success of transformations in Russia is largely associated with ensuring the transition from an industrial to a post-industrial information society.
In the emerging contours of the future society, education and intellect are increasingly classified as national wealth, and the spiritual health of a person, the versatility of his development, breadth and flexibility vocational training, the desire for creativity and the ability to solve non-standard tasks are turning into the most important factor in the country's progress.
Under these conditions, the renewal of the general education school becomes necessary to achieve a new quality of general secondary education.
Determinants of transition to 12-year general education.
Preserving the health of children. Over the past 15 years, the workload in basic schools has increased markedly, and its increase, along with other factors, has a negative impact on the health of schoolchildren.
The decrease in the number of teaching hours in some disciplines, while maintaining the same volume of educational material, led to an increase in homework and, accordingly, to overwork of children.
The congestion of the curricula of educational institutions does not allow teachers to vary training, take into account the individual characteristics of students.
The transition to a compulsory 10-year basic and 12-year full secondary school creates conditions for reducing the daily teaching load through the rational use of the time reserves that have appeared, the reduction of educational material, and the use of health-saving technologies.
Improving the quality of general education. According to data from international comparative studies, in last years The Russian school is losing its positions in the level of students' preparation in a number of subjects.
There are no opportunities for generalization in the final grade of the secondary (full) school of previously acquired knowledge about nature, society, man, which does not provide a new quality of education.
It requires the development of the content of the national-regional component of general education, its relationship with the federal and school components.
The transition to a new structure and content of general secondary education is aimed at solving these problems.
Achieving a new quality of education should become a means of socialization of students, the basis of their successful activities. In the conditions of science-intensive and high-tech industries, the requirements for scientific, technological and humanitarian training of young people are significantly increased. The importance of general education is growing as the basis for the development of cognitive abilities, general educational skills and abilities, without which all other stages of lifelong education are ineffective. Improving the quality of mass school education contributes to the development of domestic traditions in working with gifted children.
The updated structure of general secondary education makes it possible to more fully take into account the interests, needs and opportunities of participants in the educational process, rationally redistribute educational material across the levels of education, eliminate existing disproportions in the components of the content of education, and create conditions for the individualization of education.
Competitiveness of domestic education. According to the Declaration of the Council of Europe (1992), the prevailing international practice is 12 years of schooling.
In most developed countries, general secondary education is provided for 12-14 years. Twelve-year general education has been introduced in all countries of Central and Eastern Europe, including the Baltic countries, as well as in Moldova, Ukraine, Belarus, and Uzbekistan. In our country, students must master programs similar in content in basic academic subjects in 10-11 years.
The introduction in Russia of the generally accepted in the world community duration of study in secondary school will prevent an increase in the technological gap with economically developed countries, ensure competitive training of graduates and provide them with additional features to choose an individual educational program.
Influence of demographic and socio-economic factors. According to forecasts, in 2011 schools will not have 21 million students, as now, but only 13 million, which can lead to serious socio-economic consequences, primarily in the field of education. The transition to a 12-year school will mitigate the negative effects of the demographic decline. At the same time, a reduction in the number of schoolchildren will make it possible to avoid additional financial costs for ensuring this transition.
In the new socio-economic conditions, the problems of employment of school graduates and their social adaptation have become more acute. A ten-year compulsory education will make it possible to eliminate situations where a significant part of 15-year-olds find themselves "on the street", forming a "reserve" for involvement in criminal activities. social status a 16-year-old graduate (compared to a 15-year-old) contributes to an informed choice professional activity, a higher degree of readiness for independent living. With a 12-year education, students graduate from school at 18-19 years old and will have all the constitutional rights of Russian citizens.
Continuity of levels of education. The transition to 12-year education creates the prerequisites for solving the problem of the continuity of education levels.
An increase in the period of study in a basic school contributes to an increase in the level of general education and socialization of those entering primary and secondary vocational education institutions.
Profile, in-depth study of a number of disciplines in the senior classes of secondary school allows to ensure sufficient preparation of graduates to continue their education. At the same time, profile training in the senior classes should not replace primary vocational education. In 2009, the number of high school graduates will be approximately 1.3 million, and today the number of places for entering vocational education institutions (primary, secondary and higher) is 1.7 million. This makes it possible to introduce admission to most higher education institutions. educational institutions on new principles of entrance examinations (for example, centralized testing, etc.), which contribute to the realization of equal rights to education, social justice.
The structure of the 12-year general education school. The organizational structure of the 12-year school is based on the periodization of personality development, the main content of which is the typology of the leading types of activities characteristic of different age periods.
In the preschool period, the child masters speech and communication skills, playful and productive activities, during which he forms pre-conceptual forms of thinking and creative imagination; intellectual and artistic abilities are laid and developed. By the end preschool age a cognitive interest is formed in the study of the surrounding world and the "image of oneself", as well as the foundations of volitional regulation, initiative, and independence. Given the psychological and age characteristics of preschoolers, it is unacceptable to transfer to preschool institutions the content and forms of organization of training and education, characteristic of educational institutions.
Stage I - primary general education (compulsory), grades I-IV. The initial age of students is at least 6 years old as of September 1 (duration of training is 4 years). During this period, intensive mental development takes place, the formation of methods of educational activity, the ability to independently acquire knowledge and their application in solving cognitive problems, and the communicative skills of children develop.
In grades I-IV, the formation of personality takes place elementary school student, identification and holistic development of his abilities, the formation of skills, motives and desire to learn. Students learn to read, write, count, master the elements of creative self-realization, the culture of speech and behavior, the basics of personal hygiene and a healthy lifestyle.
Stage II - basic general education (compulsory), V-X classes. The duration of training is 6 years. In adolescence, intensive social development of the individual begins, the formation of moral standards. A teenager can set personally significant goals for himself, he has professional intentions, which are expressed in the primary orientation in various areas of professional activity.
The image of I is formed, which is the basis for self-determination. The basic school provides conditions for the development of knowledge about nature, society, man, develops skills and abilities in various types of subject-practical, cognitive and spiritual activities.
The increase in the age of graduates of the second stage provides more high level their socialization, corresponds to the age limit of expansion civil rights and legal liability. At this age, on the basis of developed forms of educational activity, the mechanisms of self-organization of the individual and general methods of theoretical thinking are formed, the methods of scientific knowledge are mastered, professional and cognitive intentions arise, and primary orientation in various fields of activity is carried out.
The ten-year basic school assumes a relatively completed education, which is the basis for continuing education in a complete secondary general education or vocational school, creates conditions for preparing students to choose a profile and method of further education, their social self-determination and self-education. Taking into account the individual abilities and inclinations of students, educational institutions can provide specialized training.
At the age of 16, students are more conscious about the choice of the profile of education in secondary school, further professional education.
Stage III - secondary (complete) general education (public), XI-XII classes. The duration of training is 2 years. On the basis of mastering the system of knowledge about nature, society and man, schoolchildren aged 16 to 18 years old can form a holistic worldview position, design their future, ways to achieve their goals. At this age, there is a desire for self-realization in public life, the ability to realistically assess their educational and professional opportunities and outline ways for further education and professional self-determination.
At the senior level, education is based on profile differentiation, including through individual educational programs. Profile training can be implemented in the following forms: specialized educational institutions, classes, groups and other forms. At the same time, non-professional general education classes may be preserved.
The definition of training profiles (science, humanitarian, artistic and aesthetic, etc.) is carried out on the basis of the cognitive interests and abilities of students, as well as taking into account the capabilities of the teaching staff of the educational institution, the structure of the regional educational system, traditions and characteristics of the socio-cultural environment.
The profile nature of the senior level is implemented on the basis of the state educational standard of secondary (complete) general education through the formation of individual educational programs.
Thus, the pedagogical functions of the secondary (full) 12-year-old school differ from the existing model in completeness, variability, level and profile differentiation, regionalization, individualization and practice-oriented orientation.
Questions and tasks
1. What is the essence of the content of education?
2. What is the historical nature of the content of education?
3. What are the factors that determine the content of education?
4. Describe the principles for selecting the content of general education.
5. What are the criteria for selecting the foundations of the sciences studied in the modern Russian school.
6. Give an analysis of the state educational standard of general secondary education.
7. Name the types of curricula and analyze the basic curriculum of a secondary school.
8. What is the ratio of science and academic subject?
9. What is the curriculum? What are its functions?
10. What are the types of training programs and how to build them?
11. What are the requirements for textbooks?
12. What are the prospects for the development of the content of general education?
Literature for independent work
1. Law of the Russian Federation "On Education". - M., 1996.
2. Zuev D. D. School textbook. - M., 1983.
3. The concept of the content of general secondary education: Recommendations for the formation of a new content. - M., 1993.
4. The concept of the structure and content of general secondary education (in the 12-year school). - M., 2001.
5. Lednev V. S. The content of education. - M., 1989.
6. Skatkin MN, Kraevsky VV The content of general secondary education: Problems and prospects. - M., 1981.
7. The structure of the content of continuing education and the curricula of a comprehensive school: Interim State Educational Standard / Ed. V.S. Ledneva. - M., 1993.
8. Shiyanov E. N., Kotova I. B. Development of personality in teaching. - M., 1999.
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Syllabus - a normative document that determines the composition of educational subjects; order(subsequence)their study by years of study; weekly and annual number of teaching hours devoted to the study of each subject; structure and duration school year.
In the practice of a modern general education school, several types of curricula are used: basic curriculum, standard federal and regional curricula and the actual curriculum of the school.
Basic Curriculum- this is the main state regulatory document, which is an integral part of State educational standard. The basic curriculum for a basic school is approved by the State Duma, and for a complete secondary school - by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation.
The core curriculum defines:
● total duration of study (in academic years) and for each level;
● the maximum amount of teaching load of students, the composition of educational areas and subjects;
● study time allocated for mastering the content of education by grade, educational area and academic subjects;
● weekly teaching load for basic courses at each level of general secondary education, for compulsory classes of students' choice and for elective classes.
The core curriculum serves as the basis for developing model federal and regional curricula and the source document for financing the educational institution.
Regional Curriculum is developed by regional educational authorities on the basis of the federal basic curriculum. It carries a regulatory burden at the regional level, is the basis for the development of the curriculum of an educational institution.
School curriculum is compiled in compliance with the standards of the basic curriculum. There are two types of such plans: actual curriculum And working curriculum. Based on the state basic curriculum for a long period, a actual curriculum. It reflects the characteristics of a particular school (one of the standard curricula can be taken as it). Taking into account the current conditions, it is being developed working curriculum. It is approved annually the school's pedagogical council.
The structure of the curriculum includes:
● the invariant part ensuring the familiarization of students with general cultural and nationally significant values, the formation personal qualities corresponding to social ideals;
● variable part, ensuring the individual character of the development of schoolchildren and taking into account their personal characteristics, interests and inclinations.
In the curriculum of a general educational institution, these two parts are represented by three main types of training sessions: compulsory classes, constituting the basic core of general secondary education; compulsory classes at the choice of students; extracurricular activities.
As an example, let us cite the basic curriculum of general educational institutions of the Russian Federation.
Basic curriculum of general educational institutions of the Russian Federation
The means of implementing educational standards in practice are educational programs, which are also called curricula. The term "educational program" is official, fixed in the Law of the Russian Federation " About education ».
Educational programs determine the content of education of a certain level and focus. In the Russian Federation, educational programs are being implemented, divided into general educational(main and additional) and professional(main and additional).
General education programs aimed at solving the problems of forming a general culture of the individual, adapting the individual to life in society, creating the basis for a conscious choice and development of professional educational programs.
General educational programs include programs of preschool education, primary general education, basic general education, secondary (complete) general education.
Professional educational programs aimed at solving the problems of consistent improvement of professional and general educational levels, training of specialists of appropriate qualifications.
Professional programs include programs of initial vocational education, secondary vocational education, higher professional education, and postgraduate professional education.
The mandatory minimum content of each basic general education program or the main professional education program (for a specific profession, specialty) is established by the relevant state educational standard, he also determines the normative terms for their development in state and municipal educational institutions.
General educational programs are implemented in preschool educational institutions, educational institutions of primary general, basic general, secondary general education, including special (correctional) educational institutions for students, pupils with developmental disabilities, educational institutions for orphans and children left behind. without the care of parents (legal representatives).
Educational programs of special (correctional) educational institutions are developed on the basis of basic general education programs, taking into account the peculiarities of psychophysical development and the capabilities of students.
The educational programs of preschool, primary general, basic general and secondary general education are successive, i.e. each subsequent program is based on the previous one.
Let's take a closer look at what general education programs are implemented in schools. More often they are called curricula of a certain subject.
Training program - this is a normative document outlining the range of basic knowledge, skills and abilities that must be mastered in each individual subject.
Study programs can be standard, working And copyright.
Typical curricula are developed on the basis of the State educational standard for a particular discipline. They are advisory in nature.
workers curricula are created on the basis of standard, approved the school's pedagogical council. They reflect the requirements of the educational standard and the capabilities of a particular educational institution.
Copyright curricula take into account the requirements of the educational standard, but may have a different logic of presentation of educational material, author's views on the phenomena and processes being studied. They are discussed (defended) at the school teachers' council or meetings of district methodological associations. After that, the programs are approved for use in the educational process. Author's programs are most often developed for elective courses, electives.
The study programs are structurally composed of three main components. The first component is explanatory note , which defines target areas study of this particular academic subject in the system of academic disciplines of a general education school, the main tasks of the academic subject, its educational opportunities, the leading scientific ideas underlying the construction of the academic subject. The second component is the actual content of education: thematic plan, list of sections and topics for the course, basic concepts, skills, possible types of classes. The third component is some guidelines on ways to implement the program.
Historically, there have been two structural ways of presenting educational material in programs: concentric And linear. Recently gaining popularity spiral way presentation. There is also mixed the structure of the presentation of educational material.
Linear way The presentation consists in the fact that the material of each subsequent stage of education is a logical continuation of what was studied in previous years.
At concentric way presentation, the material of this stage of education in a more complicated form is studied at subsequent stages. Concentrism is due to the need to take into account the age characteristics of students.
characteristic feature spiral way presentation of the material is that the circle of knowledge on the original problem is constantly expanding and deepening. Unlike the concentric structure, in which the original problem is sometimes returned even after several years, there are no such breaks in the spiral structure.
There is also mixed way presentation of the material, which is a combination of the above approaches.
The specific content of the educational material is disclosed in textbooks and teaching aids various types: anthologies, reference books, task books, books for additional reading, workshops, collections of texts, dictionaries, maps, atlases, textbooks for students and teachers, educational and methodological complexes, workbooks, etc. The content of educational material on electronic storage devices(videodiscs, videocassettes, computer programs).
Primary importance in the disclosure of the content of the material belongs to the textbook. Textbook - This is a book that lays out the foundations of scientific knowledge in a particular academic subject.
The textbook performs two main functions: it is a source educational information, revealing in an accessible form for students the content provided for by the educational standard; speaks learning tool, with the help of which the organization of the educational process is carried out, including the self-education of students.
The structure of the textbook includes text(how main component) And non-textual(auxiliary) Components.
The texts are divided into descriptive texts, narrative texts, reasoning texts. Also allocate main, additional and explanatory texts.
Main text, in turn, is divided into two components: epistemological and instrumental-practical. The epistemological component includes: basic terms; key concepts and their definitions; basic facts, phenomena, processes, events; experiences; description of laws, theories, leading ideas; conclusions, etc.
The instrumental-practical component includes the characteristics of the main methods of cognition, the rules for applying knowledge, methods of mastering and independent search for knowledge; description of tasks, experiments, exercises, experiments; reviews, sections, systematizing and integrating educational material.
Additional text includes documents; textbook material; appeal to readers; biographical, ethnological, statistical information; reference materials outside the scope of the program.
Explanatory text includes subject introductions to the textbook, sections, chapters; notes, explanations; dictionaries; determinants; explanations for maps, diagrams, diagrams; pointers.
In addition to the educational text, the textbooks contain the so-called out-of-text components. The extra-text components are apparatus for organizing the assimilation of material; illustrative material; orientation device.
The apparatus for organizing the assimilation of the material includes: questions, tasks, memos, instructional materials, tables, font selections, captions for illustrative material, exercises.
Illustrative material includes subject and plot materials, documents, technical maps, diagrams, diagrams, plans, drawings, instructions, methods, graphs, reference books, illustrations.
The orientation apparatus includes a preface, a table of contents, notes, appendices, indexes, signal symbols.
The addition to the textbook is study guides, that deepen and expand its content.
There are certain requirements for educational literature, especially textbooks. The textbook should reflect the logic of science, the logic of the curriculum and the logic of the subject in unity. It should contain highly scientific material and at the same time be accessible to students, take into account the peculiarities of their interests, perception, thinking, memory. The formulation of the main provisions, conclusions should be distinguished by the utmost clarity and precision. The language of presentation of the material should be figurative, fascinating with elements of a problematic presentation. A good textbook is informative, encyclopedic, encourages self-education and creativity.
It is customary to distinguish three main levels of formation of the content of education, which represent a certain hierarchy in its design: the level of general theoretical representation, the level of the subject, the level of educational material.
Syllabus. At the level of general theoretical representation, the state standard for the content of general secondary education is reflected in the school curriculum. In the practice of general secondary education, several types of curricula are used: basic, model and school curriculum.
The basic curriculum of a general education school is the main state normative document, which is an integral part of the state standard in this area of education. It serves as the basis for the development of model and working curricula and the source document for school funding.
The basic curriculum as part of the standard of education for a basic school is approved by the State Duma, and for a complete secondary school - by the Ministry of General and Vocational Education of the Russian Federation.
The curriculum of a general education secondary school is drawn up in compliance with the standards of the basic curriculum. There are two types of school curricula:
the actual curriculum of the school, developed on the basis of the state basic curriculum for a long period and reflecting the characteristics of a particular school (one of the standard curricula can be adopted as the school's curriculum);
a working curriculum developed taking into account current conditions and approved by the school's pedagogical council annually.
The structure of the curriculum of a secondary general education school is determined by the same factors as the content of general education as a whole. First of all, in the curricula, as well as in the state standard of general secondary education, federal, national-regional and school components are distinguished.
The federal component ensures the unity of school education in the country and includes in full such educational areas as "Mathematics" and "Informatics" of national importance.
The national-regional component provides for the needs and interests in the field of education of the peoples of our country represented by the subjects of the Federation and includes in full such educational areas as " Native language and Literature”, “Second Language”, and partially other areas, in most of which there are training courses or sections that reflect the national identity of culture.
The interests of a particular educational institution, taking into account the federal and national-regional components, are reflected in the school component of the curriculum.
The structure of the school curriculum is largely due to the need to reflect the invariant and variable parts in it. The invariant part (core) of the curriculum ensures familiarization with general cultural and nationally significant values, the formation of their basic culture for the purpose. The variable part, which takes into account the personal characteristics, interests and inclinations of students, allows you to individualize the learning process.
These complementary and relatively autonomous parts of the curriculum are not completely independent. As a result of their intersection in the curriculum of any general education institution, three main types of training sessions are distinguished: compulsory classes that make up the basic core of general secondary education; compulsory classes at the choice of students; extracurricular activities (optional electives).
The basic curriculum of a secondary general education school, as part of the state standard, covers the following range of standards:
duration of training (in academic years) overall and for each of its levels;
weekly teaching load for basic training courses at each level of general secondary education, compulsory classes at the choice of students, optional classes;
the maximum mandatory weekly study load for students, including the number of study hours devoted to compulsory elective classes;
the total workload paid by the state, taking into account the maximum teaching load, extracurricular activities, extracurricular activities, division (partial) of study groups into subgroups.
Traditionally, the secondary general education school in our country and in many other countries is built on a three-stage basis: primary, basic and complete.
Each of the levels of the secondary general education school, solving common problems, has its own specific functions associated with the age characteristics of students. They are reflected primarily in the set of basic training courses and in the ratio of the basic core and classes of students' choice.
The basis of the basic curriculum of a secondary general education school is the implementation of the principle of continuity between its levels, when the studied courses receive their development and enrichment at subsequent levels.
Academic subject and curriculum. The content of education, presented at the level of theoretical understanding in curricula, gets its concretization in academic subjects or training courses (disciplines).
An academic subject is a system of scientific knowledge, practical skills and abilities that allow students to master, with a certain depth and in accordance with their age-related cognitive capabilities, the basic starting points of science or aspects of culture, labor, production.
The curriculum is a normative document that reveals the content of knowledge, skills and abilities in a subject, the logic of studying the main worldview ideas, indicating the sequence of topics, questions and the total dosage of time for studying them. It determines the general scientific and spiritual-holistic orientation of teaching the subject, assessments of theories, events, facts. The program determines the structure of the arrangement of educational material by year of study and within each school class. The completeness of assimilation of program knowledge, skills and abilities by students is one of the criteria for the success and effectiveness of the learning process.
Curricula can be standard, working and copyright. Model curricula are developed on the basis of the requirements of the state educational standard for a particular educational field. They are approved by the Ministry of General and Vocational Education of the Russian Federation and are advisory in nature. Based on the standard program, working curricula are developed and approved by the pedagogical council of the school. They can be developed directly based on the requirements of the state standard for educational areas. The work program, in contrast to the standard one, describes the national-regional component, takes into account the possibilities of methodological, informational, technical support of the educational process, the level of preparedness of students.
Author's curricula, taking into account the requirements of the state standard, may contain a different logic for constructing an academic subject, their own approaches to the consideration of certain theories, their own points of view regarding the phenomena and processes being studied. If there is a review from scientists in this subject area, teachers, psychologists, methodologists, they are approved by the pedagogical council of the school. Author's curricula are most widely used in teaching courses of students' choice (compulsory and optional).
Historically, two methods have developed in the construction of curricula: concentric and linear. With a concentric way of deploying the content of educational material, the same sections of the program are studied at different levels of education, but in different volumes and depths, depending on the age of the students. The disadvantage of the concentric method is the slowdown in the pace of schooling due to the repeated return to the same material. For example, the section of physics "Work and Energy" is studied in grades VI and VIII; section of biology "Cell" - in grades V and X.
With the linear method of deploying the content, the educational material is arranged systematically and sequentially, with gradual complication, as if along one ascending line, and the new is presented on the basis of what is already known and in close connection with it. This method provides significant time savings and is mainly used in the development of curricula in middle and high school.
These two ways of deploying the content of education complement each other.
The overall structure of the curriculum contains mainly three elements. The first is an explanatory note, which defines the main tasks of the subject, its educational opportunities, the leading scientific ideas underlying the construction of the subject. The second is the actual content of education: the thematic plan, the content of topics, the tasks of studying them, basic concepts, skills, and possible types of classes. The third is some methodical instructions concerning mainly the assessment of knowledge, skills and abilities.
Educational literature. The design of the content of education at the level of educational material is carried out in educational literature, which includes textbooks and teaching aids. They reflect the specific content of the curricula.
Among all types of educational literature, a special place is occupied by a school textbook, which in its content and structure necessarily corresponds to the curriculum in the subject. Textbooks created on the basis of standard curricula are recommended by the Ministry of General and Vocational Education of the Russian Federation for all schools in the country.
The structure of the textbook includes the text as the main component and non-textual, auxiliary components. All texts are divided into description texts, narrative texts, reasoning texts. The extra-textual components include: the apparatus for organizing assimilation (questions and tasks, memos or instructional materials, tables and font selections, captions for illustrative material and exercises); actual illustrative material; orientation apparatus, including preface, notes, appendices, table of contents, indexes.
The educational text (as opposed to the text of the handbook) serves primarily the purpose of explaining the content, and not just informing about it. In addition, the educational text should have a certain emotional impact on the student, arouse interest in the subject of study. That is why, especially at the early stages of learning, the textbook language should use semantic metaphors, language stereotypes, etc., which is unacceptable in a strictly standardized scientific language.
Textbooks contain an exposition of the fundamentals of the sciences and at the same time organize independent educational activities of students in mastering the educational material. In other words, they teach to learn. In this regard, requirements are made to the textbook, not only concerning the construction of educational texts. These requirements are didactic, psychological, aesthetic, hygienic. The textbook should contain material of a high degree of generalization and at the same time be specific, equipped with basic factual material. It should contain a presentation of true science and at the same time be accessible to students, take into account the peculiarities of their interests, perception, thinking, memory, develop cognitive and practical interest, the need for knowledge and practical activities.
The textbook reflects in unity the logic of science, the logic of the curriculum and the logic of personality development. A good textbook is informative, encyclopedic, lapidary, connects educational material with additional and related literature, encourages self-education and creativity.
The formulation of the main provisions, conclusions should be distinguished by the utmost clarity and clarity. Of particular importance is not only accessibility, but also the problematic presentation, the ability of the textbook to arouse the cognitive interest of students and make them think.
The textbook should be moderately colorful, provided with the necessary illustrations in the form of pictures, maps, diagrams, diagrams, photographs.
As already noted, the content of education at the level of educational material, along with textbooks, is revealed in various kinds of teaching aids: anthologies in literature and history, collections of problems in mathematics, physics, chemistry; atlases on geography, biology; collections of exercises in languages, etc. Textbooks expand some aspects of the textbook and aim to solve specific learning problems (information, training, testing, etc.).
The main state documents that determine the content of education at each of its levels and at each stage include educational standards, curricula and curricula.
Educational standards. One of the current trends in the development of the content of education is its standardization, which is caused by the need to create a single educational space in the country, which will provide a single level of general education received by young people in different types of educational institutions. The state requires its citizen to achieve a certain standard of education and guarantees, in turn, the level of educational services necessary for this.
The standardization of education has long been carried out through the development of unified curricula and programs. However, the term "standard" in relation to education has become used relatively recently.
The word "standard" comes from the English standard, which means "norm", "sample", "measure". The educational standard is understood as a system of basic parameters accepted as the state norm of education, reflecting the social ideal and taking into account the possibilities of a real person and the education system to achieve this ideal.
The educational standard of education is the main regulatory document in the field of education. It concretizes such characteristics of education as the content, its level and form of presentation, specifies the methods and forms of measurement and interpretation of learning outcomes. The new standards define, in addition, the requirements for living conditions for learning.
Functions of educational standards:
1. Function social regulation. The standard is a mechanism that prevents the destruction of the unity of education in the context of a variety of educational services. This makes it possible to achieve some guaranteed quality of training for school graduates within the country. This ensures the equivalence of education.
2. The function of the humanization of education is associated with the approval of its personality-developing essence with the help of standards. A clear definition of the minimum requirements for the general education of students opens up opportunities for differentiation of education, providing for the possibility of mastering the material at different levels. The right to limit the study of a difficult or unloved subject to minimum requirements frees the student from an unbearable total academic load and allows him to realize his interests and inclinations.
3. Control function. The introduction of standards makes it possible to exclude spontaneity and voluntarism in the development of a system of criteria for the quality of education for schoolchildren, to increase the objectivity and information content of control, and to unify assessments. Obtaining reliable information about the real state of affairs in the school will create conditions for making informed management decisions at all levels of education.
4. The function of improving the quality of education. The standard fixes the minimum required volume of the content of education and sets the lower acceptable limit of the level of education.
The standard of education does not designate empirically given educational subjects, but basic educational areas, set of which is scientifically substantiated. Based on the totality of these areas, which constitute the invariant (basic) core of general secondary education, a wide variety of working curricula can be developed.
Educational plans. State educational standards are specified in curricula. The curriculum is a normative document that defines the subjects studied at school, the sequence of studying subjects by year of study and the number of hours allotted for studying each subject by class. In the structure of curricula, the social order that the education system fulfills is clearly expressed.
In the practice of general secondary education, several types of curricula are used: 1) basic; 2) typical; 3) worker, that is, the curriculum of a particular school.
The source document is the basic curriculum. Basic Curriculum secondary school is an integral part of the state standard of a given level of education. It is approved by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus and serves as the basis for the development of standard and working curricula. It is also the source document for school funding.
The basic curriculum of a secondary general education school, as part of the state standard, contains the following standards:
1) duration of study in academic years (general and for each level of general secondary education);
2) weekly study load for basic training courses at each level of general secondary education, compulsory classes at the choice of students, optional classes;
3) the maximum mandatory weekly study load for students, including non-mandatory elective classes;
4) the total workload of a teacher paid by the state, taking into account compulsory and optional classes, extracurricular activities.
Model curricula are developed for all types of general educational institutions on the basis of the basic curriculum and are approved by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus. Corrections are made to them annually, after which the standard curricula are published by the beginning of the academic year in such printed publications as the “Collection of Narmatian Documents of the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus” and “Nastaўnitskaya Gazeta”. Model curricula are advisory in nature.
Working school curriculum is developed in compliance with the standards of the basic curriculum and reflects the characteristics of a particular school. As a rule, one of the standard curricula is taken as the basis for the working curriculum of the school. The curriculum of the school must be approved by the pedagogical council and approved by the school principal by the beginning of the next academic year.
The typical curriculum, as well as the working curriculum of the school, includes:
1) the schedule of the educational process, which determines the duration academic quarters(trimesters), vacations, summer work practices, exams;
2) summary data on the time budget, which indicates the duration of academic quarters and practices in weeks;
3) a list of compulsory disciplines indicating the total number of hours for each year of study. This part of the curriculum is called basic or invariant(in Russia - federal) component and is designed to ensure the formation of a basic culture of students);
4) a list of optional disciplines and elective courses established by the school, indicating the total number of hours allocated for their study. This part of the curriculum is called variable, or school component; its purpose is to take into account the educational needs, interests and inclinations of students, to individualize the learning process in every possible way.
The ratio of the basic and school components is an important indicator of the degree of democracy in the education system. The school component of the content of education reflects the specifics and orientation of a particular educational institution. For example, in Russia, from September 1, 2008, up to 1/3 of the study time is devoted to classes of students' choice.
5) information about the annual summer labor practice of students;
6) information about state exams for the course of basic (9-year) and complete secondary (11-year) school.
Learning programs. The third important state document underlying the activities of the school is the curriculum.
Training program- a normative document that reveals the content of education in a particular subject. The program defines the structure of the arrangement of educational material (the sequence of topics, questions), as well as the total dosage of time for studying them by year of study and within each school class. The completeness of assimilation of program knowledge, skills and abilities by students is one of the criteria for the success and effectiveness of the learning process.
General structure curriculum contains three main elements:
1) an explanatory note, which defines the main objectives of the subject, its educational and developmental opportunities, the leading scientific ideas underlying the construction of the subject;
2) the actual content of education: the thematic plan and the content of each topic. For each topic, as a rule, basic knowledge, skills and abilities, basic concepts and laws, intersubject communications, nomenclature are highlighted (a list of basic names for students to master firmly, unlike other names that students get acquainted with, but memorizing them is not necessary), list of basic equipment;
3) some guidelines, which mainly define the norms for assessing knowledge, skills, and a list of methodological literature recommended for the teacher.
The curriculum fulfills three main features:
1) descriptive: the program is a means of describing the content of education at the level of a subject;
2) ideological and worldview: the knowledge included in the program is aimed at the formation of spirituality and scientific worldview among schoolchildren;
3) regulatory, or organizational and methodological: on the basis of the program, the teacher organizes his activities in preparation for classes, selects material, types of practical work, methods, means and forms of education. The programs also organize the educational work of students: they determine the nature of their activity in studying the subject at school, at home, in the process of assimilation of free information.
Curricula can be standard, working and copyright.
Model Curriculum is developed on the basis of the requirements of the state educational standard for a particular educational field. Its creation is the result of a large and painstaking work of a team of specialists in a particular science, teachers and psychologists. Model curricula are approved by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus and are advisory in nature. On the basis of a typical program, each teacher develops a calendar-thematic planning for the subject for the academic year.
Working curriculum in the Republic of Belarus, it is developed on the basis of a model only in vocational education institutions (vocational education institutions, secondary educational institutions, universities); this document is not used in general secondary schools.
Author's curriculum, taking into account the requirements of the state standard, it may contain a different logic for constructing an academic subject, its own approaches to the consideration of certain theories, its own point of view regarding the phenomena and processes being studied. Such programs should have external reviews from scientists in the subject area, educators, psychologists, methodologists. If available, the programs are approved by the pedagogical council of the school. In the Republic of Belarus, author's curricula are used in teaching elective courses and electives.
Historically, there have been two ways of constructing curricula - concentric and linear. At concentric way of deploying the content of educational material the same sections of the program are studied at different levels of education or at different stages of studying the same discipline. This method is often justified by the fact that one or another section of the training course, which is of fundamental importance for the subsequent presentation, nevertheless, due to the age characteristics of the students, cannot be deeply assimilated at this level of education. The disadvantage of the concentric method is the slowdown in the pace of schooling due to the repeated return to the same material. For example, the section of physics "Work and Energy" is studied in grades VI and VIII; section of biology "Cell" - in grades V and X.
At linear way of deploying the content of educational material there is no repeated return to the previously studied sections of the program. At the same time, the educational material is arranged systematically and sequentially, with a gradual complication, as if along one ascending line. Moreover, new knowledge is presented on the basis of already known and in close connection with it. This method provides significant time savings and is mainly used in the development of curricula in middle and high school.
The curriculum of the Belarusian school is built on a linear principle with elements of concentrism. It should be noted that in the new curricula the linear arrangement of the material is strengthened due to some reduction in concentricity.
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