Auxiliary historical disciplines. Special historical disciplines

History translated from Greek language means a story about the past, about what has been learned. History is the process of development of nature and society. History is also called a complex of social sciences (historical science) that study the past of mankind in all its specificity and diversity. History is part of the group of humanities that study a particular region (African studies, Balkan studies), people (Sinology, etc.) or a group of peoples (Slavic studies).

World (universal) history is a history that studies the period of mankind from the appearance of the first Homo sapiens until now.

The history of homeland is a history that studies the history of individual countries and peoples (the history of Russia, the history of Germany).

The history is divided into the following sections chronologically:

the history of primitive society is a history that studies the period in human history before the invention of writing, after which the possibility of historical research based on the study of written sources becomes possible.

ancient history is history that studies the period of human history distinguished between the prehistoric period and the beginning of the Middle Ages in Europe.

medieval history is history that studies the period of human history following Antiquity and preceding the Modern Age.

new history is a history that studies the period in human history located between the Middle Ages and Modern times.

modern history - history that studies the period of humanity since 1918

Branches of history:

economic history is a branch of history that studies phenomena and processes related to evolutionary development and the interaction of those aspects of human activity that are in one way or another connected with the economy.

military history is a branch of history that studies wars that occurred in a particular historical era; also the history of any one war or even a single campaign.

historical geography is a branch of history that studies history through the “prism” of geography; it is also the geography of a territory at a certain historical stage of its development.

historiography - branch historical science studying its history (accumulation of historical knowledge, interpretation of historical phenomena, change of methodological directions in historical science, etc.).

Organic parts of history as a complex of sciences:

archeology is a science that studies the history of society using the material remains of people’s lives and activities - material (archaeological) monuments.

ethnography (ethnology) is the science of ethnic groups (peoples), studying their origin and settlement, life and culture.

History is part of the group of humanities that study a particular region (African studies, Balkan studies), people (Sinology, etc.) or a group of peoples (Slavic studies).

Historical sources– all objects that directly reflect the historical process and make it possible to study the past of mankind.

Historical sources are conventionally divided into several groups:

by type of information recording:

written - epigraphic documents, birch bark letters, manuscripts, printed materials.

material - instruments of production and material goods created with their help: buildings, weapons, jewelry, dishes, works of art - everything that is the result of human labor activity.

Unlike written ones, they do not contain a direct account of historical events and most often do not contain any inscriptions.

film and photo documents – documentary film, background and photographic materials.

Fine – icons, parsuns, paintings, posters, etc.

from the point of view of studying any science:

ethnographic - information that has survived to the present day: data on everyday life, morals, customs, which are often absent from written sources. Such information is collected, studied and processed by ethnography.

folklore - monuments of oral folk art, i.e. legends, songs, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings, etc. Such information is collected, studied and processed by folkloristics.

linguistic - information about the origin of geographical names, personal names, proper names of ships, vessels, proper names of gods and deities, etc. Such information is studied by linguistics.

Individual historical sources can only conditionally be assigned to one group or another. Thus, some ethnographic sources are studied by both archeology and ethnography; Anthropological sources stand on the border between natural science and history. The development of society constantly leads to a particularly rapid expansion of the varieties of written documents and the emergence of completely new types of historical sources. For example, the invention and use of sound recording cameras and films led to the formation of a special group of film, phono and photographic materials.

Auxiliary historical disciplines - these are subjects that study certain types or individual forms and contents of historical sources.

We can include the following sciences as auxiliary historical disciplines:

Paleography – an auxiliary historical discipline (a special historical and philological discipline) that studies the history of writing, the patterns of development of its graphic forms, as well as monuments of ancient writing in order to read them, determine the author, time and place of creation. Paleography studies the evolution of the graphic forms of letters, written signs, the proportions of their constituent elements, the types and evolution of fonts, the system of abbreviations and their graphic designation, writing materials and tools. A special branch of paleography studies the graphics of secret writing systems (cryptography).

Diplomatics – an auxiliary historical discipline that studies historical acts (legal documents). She examines ancient documents of a diplomatic and legal nature: charters, acts and similar texts and their originals. One of its tasks is to distinguish forged acts from real ones.

Genealogy - an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the family relationships of people, the history of clans, the origin of individuals, the establishment of family ties, the compilation of generational lists and family trees. Genealogy is related to heraldry, diplomacy and many other historical disciplines. Since the beginning of the 21st century, due to scientific progress, genetic genealogy, using human DNA analysis, has been gaining popularity.

Heraldry - a special historical discipline that deals with the study of coats of arms, as well as the tradition and practice of their use. It is part of emblems - a group of interrelated disciplines that study emblems. The difference between coats of arms and other emblems is that their structure, use and legal status comply with special, historically established rules. Heraldry precisely determines what and how can be applied to the state coat of arms, family coat of arms, and so on, and explains the meaning of certain figures.

Sphragistics – an auxiliary historical discipline that studies seals (matrices) and their impressions on various materials. Initially developed as a part of diplomacy, dealing with determining the authenticity of documents.

Historical metrology – an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the measures used in the past - length, area, volume, weight - in their historical development. Often units of measurement did not form the metric system; they are classified as traditional measurement systems. Historical metrology studies the history of the genesis and development of various measurement systems, the names of individual measures, their quantitative relationships, and establishes their real values, that is, their correspondence to modern metric systems. Metrology is closely related to numismatics, since many peoples in the past had measures of weight that coincided with monetary units and had the same name.

Numismatics – an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the history of coinage and monetary circulation. Social functions of numismatics: identification of numismatic cultural monuments; the study of characteristic facts, connections and processes that contribute to a more in-depth understanding of history and fill gaps in historical science.

Chronology – an auxiliary historical discipline that establishes the dates of historical events and documents; sequence of historical events in time; a list of any events in their time sequence.

Historical geography – an auxiliary historical discipline that studies history through the “prism” of geography; It is also the geography of a territory at a certain historical stage of its development.

Archival studies – a scientific discipline that studies and develops theoretical, methodological and organizational issues of archival science and its history.

Archeology - a historical discipline that studies the historical past of mankind from material sources.

Ethnography - part of historical science that studies ethnic peoples and other ethnic formations, their origin (ethnogenesis), composition, settlement, cultural and everyday characteristics, as well as their material and spiritual culture.

Historiography is an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the history of historical science. Historiography tests how accurately the scientific method is applied when writing a historical work, focusing on the author, his sources, the separation of facts from interpretation, as well as on style, the author's preferences and the audience for which he wrote this work in the field of history.

Historical computer science – an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the methods of using information technologies in the study of the historical process, the publication of historical research and the teaching of historical disciplines, as well as in archival and museum affairs.

CHRONOLOGY. TIME ACCOUNTING. JULIAN AND GRIGORIAN CALENDARS.

Chronology(from Greek χρόνος - time; λόγος - teaching):

an auxiliary historical discipline that establishes the dates of historical events and documents;

sequence of historical events in time;

a list of any events in their time sequence.

"Calendar"- from the Latin ‘Calendarium’ - “debt book”, and ‘Calendae’ is the first day of each month in ancient Rome, on which interest on debts was supposed to be paid regularly; - hence the figurative meaning of this word as a time counting system.

When calculating time in history, two parameters are needed:

measures of time in relation to each other - this is a “calendar” in in the narrow sense;

the distance from a conventionally chosen reference point is “chronology” or “era”.

Together, these two parameters make up the time keeping system or “calendar in the broadest sense.”

Calendars in the narrow sense are of three types:

solar - measures of time in them from the Sun - Earth relationship: DAY, YEAR and its derivatives - CENTURY (CENTURY) and MILLENNIUM.

lunar - measures of time in them from the ratio Moon - Earth - Sun - WEEK, MONTH

lunisolar - combine time measures of the 1st and 2nd types.

Calendars of the 3rd type are more widely used, and the first two are usually used in the sphere of religion. Calendars of the 3rd type are JULIAN and GREGORIAN, the use of which is typical for European and Russian history.

Julian calendar- a calendar developed by a group of Alexandrian astronomers led by Sosigenes. The calendar was introduced by Julius Caesar from January 1, 45 BC. e. The year according to the Julian calendar begins on January 1, since it was on this day from 153 BC. e. The consuls elected by the comitia took office.

The Julian calendar replaced the old Roman calendar and was based on the astronomical culture of Hellenistic Egypt. In Kievan Rus, the calendar was known as the “Peacemaking Circle”, “Church Circle”, Indiction and “Great Indiction”. The Julian calendar in modern Russia is usually called the old style.

Gregorian calendar- a time calculation system based on the cyclic revolution of the Earth around the Sun; the length of the year is taken to be 365.2425 days; contains 97 leap years per 400 years.

The Gregorian calendar was first introduced by Pope Gregory XIII in Catholic countries October 4, 1582, instead of the previous Julian: the next day after Thursday, October 4, became Friday, October 15.

PRINCIPLE OF HISTORICISM. PARADIGMS OF HISTORICAL SCIENCE. GENERAL HISTORICAL PERIODIZATION.

Historicism- scientific method, the principle of considering the world, natural and socio-cultural phenomena in the dynamics of their change, formation over time, in a natural historical development, involving the analysis of objects of research in connection with the specific historical conditions of their existence.

Periodization of history- a special kind of systematization, which consists in the conditional division of the historical process into certain chronological periods. These periods have certain distinctive features, which are determined depending on the chosen basis (criterion) for periodization.

PERIODIZATION OF THE HISTORY OF PRIMITIVE SOCIETY. MONUMENTS OF PRIMITIVE CULTURE ON THE TERRITORY OF RUSSIA.

Stone Age:

Stone Age - ancient period in the history of mankind, when the main tools and weapons were made mainly of stone, but wood and bone were also used. At the end of the Stone Age, the use of clay spread (dishes, brick buildings, sculpture).

Periodization of the Stone Age:

Paleolithic:

The Lower Paleolithic is the period of the emergence of the most ancient species of people and the widespread spread of Homo erectus.

Middle Paleolithic - the period of displacement of erecti by evolutionarily more advanced species of people, including modern man. Neanderthals dominated Europe throughout the Middle Paleolithic.

Upper Paleolithic - the period of dominance of the modern species of people throughout the territory globe during the last glaciation.

Mesolithic and Epipaleolithic; the terminology depends on the extent to which the region has been affected by the loss of megafauna as a result of glacier melting. The period is characterized by the development of technology for the production of stone tools and general culture person. There is no ceramics.

Neolithic - the era of appearance Agriculture. Tools and weapons are still made of stone, but their production is being brought to perfection, and ceramics are widely distributed.

Copper Age:

Copper Age, Copper-Stone Age, Chalcolithic(Greek χαλκός “copper” + Greek λίθος “stone”) or Chalcolithic (Latin aeneus “copper” + Greek λίθος “stone”)) is a period in the history of primitive society, a transitional period from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age. Approximately covers the period 4-3 thousand BC. e., but in some territories it exists longer, and in some it is absent altogether. Most often the Chalcolithic is included in bronze age, but is sometimes considered a separate period. During the Eneolithic, copper tools were common, but stone ones still predominated.

Bronze Age:

Bronze Age- a period in the history of primitive society, characterized by the leading role of bronze products, which was associated with the improvement of the processing of metals such as copper and tin obtained from ore deposits, and the subsequent production of bronze from them. The Bronze Age is the second, later phase of the Early Metal Age, which replaced the Copper Age and preceded the Iron Age. Generally, chronological framework Bronze Age: 35/33 - 13/11 centuries. BC e., but they differ among different cultures. In the Eastern Mediterranean, the end of the Bronze Age is associated with the almost synchronous destruction of all local civilizations at the turn of the 13th-12th centuries. BC e., known as the Bronze Collapse, while in western Europe the transition from the Bronze to the Iron Age dragged on for several more centuries and ended with the emergence of the first cultures of antiquity - ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.

Bronze Age periods:

Early Bronze Age

Middle Bronze Age

Late Bronze Age

Iron Age:

The Iron Age is a period in the history of primitive society, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools. Bronze Age civilizations go beyond the history of primitive society; other peoples' civilization takes shape during the Iron Age.

THE LARGEST GREEK POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CENTERS IN THE NORTHERN BLACK SEA REGION. SCYTHIANS.

Ancient Greek colonies of the Northern Black Sea region:

Borysthenes (on the island of Berezan at the mouth of the Dnieper) - the first Greek colony in the Northern Black Sea region, later its center moved north to Olbia; founded approx. 647 BC e.

Tire (now Belgorod-Dniester, founded c. 502 BC); UNESCO is included in the list of the 10 oldest cities in the world, the oldest city (existing) in Ukraine.

Olbia (region of Ochakov, founded in the first quarter of the 6th century BC, one of the largest policies in the region);

Kerkinitida (now Evpatoria, founded around 550 BC by the Ionians. In the 4th - 2nd centuries BC it was under the rule of Chersonese, then captured and practically destroyed by the Scythians.);

Chersonese Tauride (now in its place is Sevastopol; founded by the Heracleans around 528 BC) is the most important city in southwestern Taurida; weakened by the struggle with the steppe nomads and the Bosporus, it became dependent on Rome, and later became the possession of Byzantium. His successor was the Principality of Theodoro.

Kalos-Limen (near the town of Chernomorskoye) - founded in the 4th century BC. e. by the Ionians. At the end of the 4th century BC. e. was captured by the Chersonesos; became the arena of confrontation between the Greeks and the steppe peoples - the Scythians and Sarmatians. Destroyed by the Sarmatians in the 1st century AD. e.

Feodosia - founded in the middle of the 6th century BC. e., from 355 BC. e. - captured by the Bosporan kingdom. After the Hun invasion - an Alan, then a Khazar settlement, which gradually became deserted. The revival began in 1267, when this place was bought from the Tatars by the Genoese as a trading post and where the city was revived under the name Kafa;

Panticapaeum (later the center of the Bosporus Kingdom (now Kerch, founded at the very end of the 5th century BC or the first quarter of the 5th century BC) with adjacent policies and settlements that were also part of the Bosporan kingdom:

• Tiritaka

  Mirmekiy

• Cimmerick

  Zenonov Chersonesos

  Heraclius

• Parthenius

On the Asian side of the Cimmerian Bosporus:

Hermonassa - founded by the Milesians in the first quarter of the 6th century BC. e.

Kepi ​​- founded by the Milesians in the 580s - 570s BC. e.

Corcondama

Patraeus - founded no later than the third quarter of the 6th century BC. e.

Phanagoria - founded shortly after 543 BC. e., the largest city on the Asian side of the Kerch Strait;

Historians do not draw knowledge about the past from nowhere. Exists a large number of branches of historical science that help advance the study of specific periods What are these branches, and how do they help historians understand the past?

Classification of historical disciplines

For most of them, the term “auxiliary historical disciplines” is used. Conventionally, they are divided into two groups. The first group includes those engaged in studying different types sources from any one side. These are auxiliary historical disciplines such as archaeography, genealogy, archival science, paleography, historical metrology, epigraphy, papyrology, chronology, textual criticism. So, for example, chronology deals with the study of chronology systems, for which various types of written sources are used. Historical metrology studies the units of measurement of weight, length and other quantities that existed in various countries. Without it, we would hardly be able to imagine what a pound, a pound or a talent is, which is reported in many written sources known to us. Epigraphy specialists are interested in short inscriptions - on stones, handicrafts, walls of buildings, etc.

The second group includes disciplines that study specific types of sources, but at the same time consider them from different angles. Examples include numismatics, sphragistics, heraldry, and faleristics. Each of them studies narrow Numismatics banknotes(paper and metal), sphragistics - seals, heraldry - coats of arms, faleristics - types of awards.

There is another term - special historical disciplines. These are branches that are considered completely independent parts of historical science. The most famous of them is archaeology. This is a science with its own terms and periodization and a wide range. This also includes historiography, which studies the process of development. Also, special historical disciplines include ethnography, source studies, historical geography. In general, this term has not yet been established in science - it is used both to replace the word “auxiliary” and for independent disciplines. Historians define the independence of a particular discipline in different ways.

The role of auxiliary and special disciplines in research

What role do special and auxiliary historical disciplines play in the process of learning history? In fact, these are the building blocks of historical knowledge. Any professional historian must acquire special knowledge in order to successfully study a specific period. Thus, a specialist in the history of the Middle Ages will have to master both narrow written manuscript monuments and broader source studies. Auxiliary historical disciplines provide us with knowledge, thanks to which we gradually present the overall picture of a particular period. For example, the presence of inscriptions on craft products of the era Kievan Rus indicates that literacy was widespread not only among the nobility, but also among ordinary people. Finds with stamps in the burials of nomads in the Black Sea steppes make it possible to determine the directions of trade carried out by these nomadic peoples. Genealogy gives us knowledge about the dynastic contacts of rulers among the aristocracy. A huge role in historical research is played by chronology, which studies chronology systems in different countries. Without it, we simply would not be able to determine the sequence and time of events in historical documents.

In general, the division of historical disciplines into auxiliary and special ones is very arbitrary. After all, each of them is an integral part of historical science, helping scientists learn more about the past.

Chapter 6. Chronology

Chronology- an auxiliary historical discipline that studies time systems and the history of their development, got its name from Greek words chronos- time and logo- word, doctrine, science. As a historical discipline it is only part general science about time, the other part of which is called mathematical, or astronomical, chronology. The task of the latter is to establish exact astronomical time based on the study of the patterns of movement of celestial bodies.

The purpose of historical chronology is to determine the time(s) of historical events and documents. She explores various time systems in their development and interaction, determines, clarifies and verifies source dates, and brings them into line with the modern time system.

Chronology has developed into a specific system of knowledge from observations of celestial phenomena and associated changes in nature. It originated in the ancient Eastern civilizations of Babylon and Egypt, achieved great success in Greece and Rome and received further development in the medieval era as in Western Europe, and in the East, especially in Central Asia.

In Rus' already in the 12th century. chronological articles appeared by Kirik Novgorod, deacon and domestik (choir director) of the Novgorod St. Anthony Monastery. Until the 18th century The development of the main issues of chronology was carried out mainly in terms of establishing schedules of church holidays - compiling “Easters”.

Scientific interest in chronology was determined in the 18th–19th centuries. in connection with the general intensive development of historical research. Major historians V.N. Tatishchev, N.M. Karamzin, A.A. Shakhmatov and others in their works repeatedly addressed particular chronological issues related primarily to the dating of historical events and sources.

The first scientific chronological reference books appear in the 1st half of the 19th century, for example, “ Chronological tables» P.V. Khavsky. In the 2nd half of the 19th century. Monographic studies by M. Lalosh devoted to the history of calendars are published. D.M. Perevoshchikov and N.I. Cherukhin develop chronological formulas for determining and translating dates. The publication of the Complete Collection of Russian Chronicles, which began in the 40s, played a major role in the development of Old Russian chronology. XIX century At the beginning of the 20th century. In connection with the question that has arisen about the need for calendar reform (the transition from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar), works on the chronology of N.D. appear. Stepanova and D.O. Svyatsky.

Chronology develops especially intensively in the 20-30s. XX century in the works of A.M. Bolshakova, G.P. Saara, V.K. Nikolsky, N.V. Ustyugov and others. In the post-war period, the works of N.G. were extremely important. Berezhkov according to the chronology of Russian chronicles.

In higher educational institutions chronology as an integral part general course auxiliary historical disciplines have been studied since the mid-30s. In 1939, N.V.’s chronology course was published as a manuscript. Ustyugov, in 1944 - tutorial L.V. Tcherepnin, in 1960 and 1967. - E.I. Kamentseva. Then manuals appear, the authors of which are M.Ya. Syuzyumov, I.P. Ermolaev, A.P. Pronshtein and V.Ya. Kiyashko.

Time units. Elementary ideas about time arose at the dawn of human history. The transition to agriculture and cattle breeding determined the need to record time and record it in certain units. All the basic time units developed by mankind - the day, month and year - are determined by astronomical factors: a day - the period of revolution of the Earth around its axis, a month - the period of revolution of the Moon around the Earth, a year - the period of revolution of the Earth around the Sun.

There are differences between sidereal and solar days. A sidereal day is equal to the time interval between two successive positions at the same point in the sky of a certain star that has no apparent motion of its own. The solar day is determined by the similar position of the Sun. Since the Sun moves relative to the stars in the same direction as the Earth, the sidereal day is shorter than the solar day by about 4 minutes. Over the course of a year, a difference of about a day accumulates between them. However, the Earth moves around the Sun at different speeds, therefore, the solar day is not a constant value. To facilitate the calculation of time, a fictitious concept of the average sun has been introduced, i.e., the movement of the Sun is conventionally considered to be uniform. Average sunny day- the main unit of time.

The monthly calculation of time is based on observations of the phases of the moon's movement. The period of time between two successive new moons is called a month, or synodic month(from the Greek word synodos- rapprochement, convergence), since at the moment of the new moon the Sun and the Moon “come closer”. The duration of a synodic month is 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes 2.9 seconds.

Observations of the periodic change of seasons (seasons) associated with visible movement The sun (in fact, with the movement of the Earth around the Sun), led to the fixation of the largest unit of time - astronomical, or tropical, year. Twice a year the Sun and the Earth are in such a mutual position in which the sun's rays evenly illuminate the earth's hemispheres and day is equal to night on the entire planet. These days are called the days of the spring (March 21) and autumn (September 23) equinox. The time interval between successive positions of the center of the Sun's disk at the vernal equinox is called the tropical year. Its duration is 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 46 seconds.

The average day is incommensurate with the tropical year and the synodic month, which, in turn, is incommensurate with the tropical year. Based on these units, it is impossible to create an absolutely accurate time keeping system. Humanity was faced with a difficult task - to develop time systems that would bring some conventional year as close as possible to the true tropical year. The entire history of the creation of various calendar time-keeping systems clearly illustrates the progress of solving this problem.

As a result of the conditional coordination of the day and month, a lunar time counting system was created, which is considered the oldest. By coordinating the day and year with each other, humanity created solar system timing. The combination of these two systems led to the formation of the lunisolar calendar system, in which the days and months are consistent with the years. The emergence of smaller units of time - hours, minutes, seconds - is associated with the ancient Babylonian duodecimal counting system.

Calendars. A certain time counting system is called calendar. The name comes from the Latin word Kalends- the first day of the new month. Latin word calendarium literally translated means a debt book, since in Ancient Rome there was a rule to pay debt interest on the first day of the month.

According to currently available data, the first calendar systems arose in the 4th–3rd millennium BC. e. The oldest were probably lunar calendars, in which months of 29 and 30 days alternated. The lunar year had 12 months, or 354 days, so the year in this calendar was 11 days ahead of the tropical one. As a result, the lunar calendar turned out to be very inconvenient for peoples whose economic life was based on agriculture, since the beginning of the new year did not fall on a specific day, but moved according to the seasons. To bring the year of the lunar calendar closer to the tropical year, they began to periodically introduce an additional (13th) month. Thus, the lunisolar calendar was created.

The oldest solar calendar appeared in Egypt, probably in the 4th millennium BC. e. Important role The floods of the Nile played a role in the economy of the ancient Egyptians. It was noted that the beginning of the Nile flood coincided with the appearance in the sky before sunrise of the star Sirius (in Greek it was called Sothis) on the days of the summer solstice. This star from the constellation Canis Major could be seen in the east for a few minutes before sunrise. However, although very slightly, the appearance of Sirius was still gradually delayed in relation to the solstice.

The length of the Egyptian year was 365 solar days. It consisted of 12 months, 30 days each, plus another 5 additional days, which the ancient Egyptians dedicated to repentance for sins and the memory of deceased relatives. This year was shorter than the tropical one by approximately 1/4 day, therefore, in Ancient Egypt New Year's Day did not fall on a specific day, but gradually moved. Hence the calendar received the name wandering.

Since the difference between the tropical and Egyptian years was equal to 1/4 of a day, then in 4 years it was already one day, in 120 years - a month, and after 1460 years - one year. In other words, 1460 tropical years are equal to 1461 Egyptian years. This period (1461) is called the Great Year, or the period of Sothis. 1461 years later, the beginning of the Egyptian year again coincided with the rising of Sirius and the solstice. The calendar existed in Egypt before the Sothis period became known. Most likely, the connection of the calendar with Sothis was established in the Old Kingdom. Since the V Dynasty (c. 2750–2625 BC), in written sources the word year is written with the sign Sothis. The V dynasty is characterized by a pronounced solar cult. The Egyptian calendar was used in ancient times by the Armenians.

Lunar calendars were Babylonian, Hebrew, etc., lunisolar calendars were Babylonian, Chinese, ancient Greek, ancient Roman, etc. The solar calendar was initially widespread in a few countries - in Egypt, in some areas of India and Central America. In China, for example, the lunar calendar was converted into a lunisolar calendar by introducing seven additional months (30 days each) every 19 years. This made it possible to make the start day of the year fixed.

The modern international calendar is solar. The lunar calendar is still used in Muslim countries. The Christian Church uses it when calculating the day of Easter. Two types of lunar calendars are known: free (wandering), common in Muslim countries, and bound (lunar-solar), common in Turkic-Mongolian countries.

The improvement of the Egyptian calendar followed the path of periodically introducing an additional day per year. In 26 BC. e. A calendar reform was carried out in Alexandria, known as the Euergetes reform. As a result of this reform, the Egyptian year became constant: it consists of 12 months, 30 days each, and 5 (and every four years 6) additional days; the beginning of the year became fixed - September 11 (September 12 after a leap year that does not coincide with the Julian).

Julian calendar. In Ancient Rome from the 7th century. BC e. A lunisolar calendar was used, which had 355 days, divided into 12 months. The superstitious Romans were afraid of even numbers, so each month consisted of 29 or 31 days. The New Year began on March 1st.

In order to bring the year as close as possible to the tropical one (365 and 1/4 days), an additional month was introduced every two years - marcedonium (from the Latin word Marces- fee), initially equal to 20 days. All cash payments for the past year were supposed to end this month. However, this measure failed to eliminate the discrepancy between the Roman and tropical years. Therefore, in the 5th century. BC e. Marcedonium began to be administered twice every four years, alternating 22 and 23 additional days. Thus, the average year in this 4-year cycle was equal to 366 days and became longer than the tropical year by approximately 3/4 days. Using their right to introduce additional days and months into the calendar, the Roman priests - pontiffs (one of the priestly colleges) confused the calendar so much that in the 1st century. BC e. There is an urgent need for its reform.

Such a reform was carried out in 46 BC. e. on the initiative of Julius Caesar. The reformed calendar became known as the Julian calendar in his honor.

The Alexandrian astronomer Sosigenes was invited to create a new calendar.

The reformers faced the same task - to bring the Roman year as close as possible to the tropical one and thereby maintain constant correspondence of certain days of the calendar with the same seasons.

The Egyptian year of 365 days was taken as a basis, but it was decided to introduce an additional day every four years. Thus, the average year in a 4-year cycle became equal to 365 days and 6 hours.

The number of months and their names remained the same, but the length of the months was increased to 30 and 31 days. An additional day began to be added to February, which had 28 days, and was inserted between the 23rd and 24th, where marcedonium had previously been inserted.

As a result, in such an extended year a second 24th day appeared, and since the Romans counted the day in an original way, determining how many days remained until a certain date of each month, this additional day turned out to be the second sixth before the March calendars (before March 1). In Latin this day was called bis sectus- second sixth (bis- twice, again: sexto- six).

In Slavic pronunciation, this term sounded slightly different, and the word leap year appeared in Russian, and the elongated year began to be called a leap year.

In Ancient Rome, in addition to the calends, the fifths of each short (30 day) month or the seventh of a long (31 day) month - nones and the thirteenths of a short or fifteenth long month - ides had special names.

The new Julian calendar took on the following form: January (januarius- named after the two-faced god Janus), February (februarius- month of purification), March (Martius- named after the god of war Mars), April (aprylis- probably got its name from the word apricus- warmed by the sun), May (mayus- named after the goddess Maya), June (junius- named after the goddess Juno), July (Julius- named after Julius Caesar), August (augustus- named after Emperor Augustus), September (September- seventh), October (October- eighth), November (november- ninth), December (december- tenth).

So, in the Julian calendar, the year became longer than the tropical one, but by an amount significantly less than the Egyptian year, and was shorter than the tropical year. If the Egyptian year was ahead of the tropical year by one day every four years, then the Julian year was behind the tropical one by one day every 128 years.

In 325, the first Ecumenical Council of Nicaea decided to consider this calendar mandatory for all Christian countries. The Julian calendar is the basis of the calendar system that most countries in the world now use.

In practice, a leap year in the Julian calendar is determined by the divisibility of the last two digits of the year by four. Leap years in this calendar are also years whose designations have zeros as the last two digits. For example, among 1900, 1919, 1945 and 1956. 1900 and 1956 were leap years.

Gregorian calendar. In the Julian calendar, the average length of the year was 365 days 6 hours, therefore, it was longer than the tropical year (365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 46 seconds) by 11 minutes 14 seconds. This difference, accumulating annually, led after 128 years to an error of one day, and after 1280 years - already to 10 days. As a result, the spring equinox (March 21) at the end of the 16th century. fell on March 11, and this threatened in the future, provided the equinox remained on March 21, with the relocation of the main holiday christian church- Easter from spring to summer. According to church rules, Easter is celebrated on the first Sunday after the spring full moon, which falls between March 21 and April 18. Again the need arose for calendar reform. The Catholic Church carried out a new reform in 1582 under Pope Gregory XIII, after whom the new calendar received its name.

A special commission of clergy and astronomers was created. The author of the reform project was the Italian scientist - doctor, mathematician and astronomer Aloysius Lilio. The reform was supposed to solve two main problems: firstly, to eliminate the accumulated difference of 10 days between the calendar and tropical years, and secondly, to bring the calendar year as close as possible to the tropical one, so that in the future the difference between them would not be noticeable.

The first task was solved administratively: a special papal bull ordered October 5, 1582 to be counted as October 15. Thus, the spring equinox returned to March 21.

The second problem was solved by reducing the number of leap years in order to reduce average duration years of the Julian calendar. Every 400 years, 3 leap years were removed from the Gregorian calendar, namely those that ended centuries, provided that the first two digits of the year designation were not evenly divisible by four. Thus, 1600 remained a leap year in the Gregorian calendar, and 1700, 1800 and 1900. became simple, since 17, 18 and 19 are not divisible by four without a remainder.

The new Gregorian calendar created was much more advanced than the Julian calendar. Each year now lagged behind the tropical one by only 26 seconds, and the discrepancy between them in one day will accumulate in 3323 years.

The Gregorian calendar was initially introduced in Italy, France, Spain, Portugal and the Southern Netherlands, then in Poland, Austria, the Catholic states of Germany and others European countries. In those states where the Orthodox Christian Church dominated, the Julian calendar was used for a long time. For example, in Bulgaria the new calendar was introduced only in 1916, in Serbia - in 1919. In Russia, the Gregorian calendar was introduced in 1918.

In the 20th century the difference between the Julian and Gregorian calendars had already reached 13 days, so in 1918 it was prescribed to count the day following January 31 not as February 1, but as February 14.

After 1918, some changes were made to the Gregorian calendar. The main ones took place between 1929 and 1940. They were not caused by “production”, as was stated in Soviet historiography, but by ideological needs.

The essence of the calendar break was to disrupt the traditional seven-day week with Sunday, the seventh day, to tear people away from the church and faith in God, to unhinderedly destroy churches, and persecute believers. To this end, in 1929, under the pretext of “production necessity,” a resolution was adopted on the transition to continuous production in enterprises and institutions of the USSR - “continuous production.” Since 1930, the calendar year has had 360 days. Five days were considered general non-working days: January 22 - a day of mourning in connection with the death of Lenin; 12 May; November 7, 8. All workers were divided into five groups. Each had a five-day rest day for the entire year, that is, they worked for four days and rested on the fifth day. What is the “production necessity” here? But the five-day period confused people, since the bulk of the people were traditionally accustomed to visiting churches on Sundays. In 1931, an “intermittent” six-day production week was introduced. Constant days off were established: 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, etc., which again did not coincide with traditional Sundays. In 1940, a year before the start of the Great Patriotic War, when the ideology of society as a whole was changed, churches were destroyed, dissidents were killed or served their sentences in prisons and camps, the need for “productive necessity” disappeared. A six-day period was introduced work week with a day off on Sunday.

This week has been preserved to this day, taking into account the fact that since 1967, Saturday also began to be considered a non-working day. Currently, in addition to Saturdays and Sundays, non-working days are considered January 1, 7, February 23, March 8, May 1, 2, May 9, June 12, November 4.

Relationship between the Julian and Gregorian calendars. In the practice of a historian, there is often a need to convert dates from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar. For the right decision For this task, it is necessary to understand the essence of the difference between these calendars, between the old and new styles. The difference between them is not a constant value, but is constantly increasing. In the 16th century, when the reform of 1582 was carried out, it was 10 days, and in the 20th century. was already equal to 13 days. How did this “accumulation” happen? There are fewer leap years in the Gregorian calendar than in the Julian calendar, so a year had to come that was a leap year according to the Julian calendar, but was simple according to the Gregorian calendar. We can only talk here about years that complete centuries, since all other years, the last two digits of which are divisible by 4 without a remainder, are leap years in both calendars. For example, 1588, 1592, 1596 were leap years in both calendars. But 1600 was also a leap year in them: both in Julian, since its designation ends with two zeros, and in Gregorian, since the first two digits of its designation are divisible by 4 without a remainder. Consequently, in the 17th century. the difference between them remained the same - 10 days. 1700 was a leap year according to the Julian calendar, but simple according to the Gregorian calendar, since 17 cannot be divided by 4 without a remainder. Thus, the difference between the calendars increased to 11 days. Similarly, the next increase in the discrepancy between them occurred in 1800 (up to 12 days), and then in 1900 (up to 13 days). In 2000, the difference will remain the same, since this year will be a leap year in both calendars, and will reach 14 days only in 2100, which will be a leap year according to the Julian calendar, but simple according to the Gregorian calendar.

Eras and their types. Eroi (from the Latin word aera- initial number) is called the initial moment (point) of chronology. It is possible that this term originates from the first four letters of the Latin phrase ab exordio regni Augusti- from the beginning of the reign of Augustus. Such an era of Augustus existed at one time in Alexandria.

Any calendar system needs a starting point for time reference. The starting point of chronology could be any an important event in the history of a certain human collective. Depending on the nature of this event, astronomical, political and religious eras are distinguished. TO astronomical, for example, the era of Kali in India. The counting of time for this era was carried out from February 18, 3102 BC. e., when a special mutual position of some planets was recorded. Towards political eras include those whose starting point is the dates of the founding of cities, the accession to the throne of various rulers, etc. Such, for example, is the era of the post-consulate, the starting point of which was the election of the last Roman consul Flavius ​​Basil the Less in 541. The counting of years was carried out “post consulatum Basilia” (“after Vasily took office as consul”). This counting system was also used in Byzantium and was prohibited by a special decree of Emperor Leo the Philosopher (886–912). Religious eras The starting point is religious events - the birth of Jesus Christ, the death of Buddha, the migration of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina.

The modern international era is the era from the Nativity of Christ (in the literature it is designated: before R.H., after R.H., before or after our, or new, era). It was created in 525 by a Roman monk, papal archivist Dionysius the Small - a Scythian by origin. In the VI century. the era from the Nativity of Christ spreads in Western Europe, and by the 19th century. - in all Christian countries. In Russia it was introduced by Peter I on January 1, 1700.

Russian time counting system. The oldest calendar The East Slavic tribes had an agricultural one, since the basis of their economy was agricultural production. The complete period of change of seasons was called summer. Weather records in Russian chronicles began with the words into the summer, which means per year. Many ritual pagan holidays, which later became Christian, were associated with the agricultural calendar. These are, for example, Maslenitsa - a holiday of farewell to winter and welcoming spring, Radonitsa and Rusalia - spring and summer memorial holidays, etc.

In Rus', the year began on March 1, when agricultural work resumed. An inextricable connection with nature and agricultural cycles is shown by the ancient Russian names of the months: January was called Prosinets (the light part of the day noticeably increased, it became lighter), February - Sechen (this name reflected the practice of shifting agriculture, it was the time of deforestation), March - dry (dried out). felled trees, and in some places the earth), April - birch, or birch zol (beginning of birch flowering in the southern regions, the transformation of burned trees into ash), May - grass (time of appearance of grass), June - isok (grasshopper), July - cherven, or sickle (harvest time), August - dawn (from glow- August lightning, flashes), September - ryuen (from the verb rumble- roar) or heather (most likely from the heather that blooms in autumn), October - leaf fall, November was called gruden (gruda - frozen road track), December - jelly.

Together with Christianity, the Julian calendar and the Roman names of the months, recorded in one of the oldest monuments of Russian writing - the Ostromir Gospel, spread to Rus'. Many ancient Russian names of months have been preserved in the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages.

IN Ancient Rus' It was known to count time in weeks, seven days each. This is where the Old Russian name for the week comes from - week. Unlike many ancient calendars, in which the days of the week were named after the planets dedicated to the ancient gods - Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn, the ancient Russian names of the days reflected their ordinal position relative to Sunday, called the week (from not to do- do not work, as it was a day of rest). The next day is Monday (after the week), then Tuesday (second day after the week), Wednesday (middle, middle of the week), Thursday (fourth), Friday (fifth day after the week). The Sabbath takes its name from the Hebrew word sabbath(sabbath), meaning rest.

It is not known exactly what day the week began in Ancient Rus'. In church practice, the week usually began on Monday and ended on Sunday.

The day in Ancient Rus' was divided into two halves of 12 hours, but another division is also known. So, in Muscovite Rus' in the 16th–17th centuries. day was called a day, which was divided into light (day) and dark (night) parts. These parts were equal or approximately equal only for a few days in spring and autumn, but in total they always amounted to 24 hours. The division of hours into minutes and seconds has been known since the 12th century. The hours were counted from sunrise. It is not known exactly when mechanical watches were invented, but in the 14th century. in Rus' they already existed. Since only the hours of the daylight hours were counted, their number depended on the time of year, ranging from 7 to 17 hours. As a result, it can be very difficult to establish a correspondence between the ancient and modern accounts - the first hour could correspond to 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 hours of the modern account, i.e., the time of sunrise.

March and September calendar styles. Translation of ancient Russian dates to modern chronology. The chronology system is determined by the era and style, i.e., the beginning of the year. In Ancient Rus', the Byzantine system was adopted from the creation of the world, which existed until 1700. The year began in March or September. Having adopted the era from Byzantium, Rus' retained the original Slavic, spring beginning of the year. The change from the March style to the September style occurred at the end of the 15th century.

One of the most important tasks of chronology as an auxiliary historical discipline is the development of principles for harmonizing various dating systems and transferring (reducing) dates from one system to another.

When translating the dates from the creation of the world indicated in the sources, the following must be taken into account. First of all, it is necessary to establish the true date, since when indicating the source, the numbers indicating the millennium and century could have been omitted. For example, in the 15th century. often only the last two digits of the date were indicated - “in the summer of 77”, and in the 17th century. the numbers denoting the millennium were omitted - “in the summer of 150.” Similar abbreviations when indicating dates are often used even now, for example: “Patriotic War of the 12th year,” etc.

Having established the full date from the creation of the world, one should subtract 5508 from it, since according to the Byzantine era the creation of the world occurred 5508 years before the birth of Christ. However, the year from the Nativity of Christ established in this way will be an exact date only under certain conditions. The fact is that when subtracting the number 5508, one very important circumstance is not taken into account, namely the beginning of the year indicated in the source.

The existence of the September and March styles complicates the conversion of dates from the Byzantine system to the modern one. In addition, the March style in Rus' had two more varieties - ultra-Martovsky and circus-Martovsky years.

Historians have special tables at their disposal that reflect the relationship between the September, March and Ultra-March years with the modern January year. However, the historian needs to understand the essence of the relationships between styles and the rules for converting dates to modern system timing.

Let's look at these rules specific example. Suppose that the source indicates the date - April 30, 6510. If this year began in March, then, consequently, it was delayed in comparison with January by two months (January, February), and the remaining ten months (from March to December) they coincided. Thus, for dates within coinciding months, when determining the desired January year (X), 5508 should be subtracted from the specified date from the creation of the world. In our example X= 6510–5508 = April 30, 1002. If the source indicates a date within January and February, for example January 30, then the calculation will change slightly. In this case, January and February, which ended the March year 6510, already belonged to the next (X + 1) January year. In this case X= (6510–5508) + 1 = January 30, 1003. It follows that to correctly determine the date falling in January and February in a March year, one should subtract from it not 5508, but one less - 5507.

Another example. The source indicates the date April 30, 7150. It is known that this year began in September. In relation to it, the January year was four months behind - September, October, November and December. Eight months coincided between them - from January to August. Since the date indicated in the example falls on one of the coinciding months, the general rule, i.e. 5508 must be subtracted from 7150, and the desired date will thus be April 30, 1642. But if any event occurred, for example, on October 30 of the same September 7150 year, then it falls on the previous January year that has not yet ended year (X - 1). Therefore, in this case X= (7150–5508) - 1 = October 30, 1641. Thus, to determine the date falling in the period from September to December inclusive, in the September year one should subtract from it not 5508, but one more - 5509.

In Ancient Rus' there was also ultramartovsky (from the Latin word ultra- on the other side) style used in the 12th–14th centuries. parallel to the March one. Unlike the latter, the ultra-March year was not two months behind the January year, but ahead of it, starting ten months earlier. In this it is similar to the September year. The common months in the January and Ultra-March years were January and February. Therefore, if some event occurred within these two months, to convert the date, you need to subtract 5508. Since the first ten months (from March to December) of the ultra-March year fell on the previous January (X - 1) year, to determine the date of the event, what happened from March to December inclusive, you need to subtract one more from it - 5509. The Ultra-Martian style proceeds from the fact that not 5508, but 5509 years passed from the creation of the world to the Nativity of Christ.

New Year's Day in Rus' was not a firmly established date and could fall either at the beginning of March or at the end of February, coinciding with the first spring full moon. Such years are called circus-March, or circus-ultra-March (from the Latin word circus- around). The rules for converting dates for these years remain the same as for the March and Ultra-March styles. You just need to take into account that the required number should be subtracted from January to the day the New Year, or from New Year's Day to December inclusive.

Suppose that in 6610 the March year began on March 11th. Ten months coincide with the January year (from March to December). In this case, not all March numbers coincide, but only from 11 to 31. Therefore, 5508 should be subtracted only when converting dates falling on the period from March 11 to December 31, and from January to March 10, 5507 should be subtracted. Dates are determined accordingly , indicated in the ultra-March style, but adjusted for one year.

If the source does not indicate the month of events, then it is impossible to establish its absolute exact date using the January calendar.

When translating dates, you should always remember that they are determined according to the Julian calendar, or the old style. To express the established date according to the new style, it is necessary to introduce an appropriate amendment, i.e., increase it by the necessary difference between the old and new styles. This amendment is necessary to date events that occurred after the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in 1582.

Indicts. This is the name of the number indicating the ordinal place of the year in the current 15-year cycle. The calculation of time by indicts in Rus' was borrowed from Byzantium. Apparently, such an account developed in Roman Egypt on the basis of periodic revision of tax lists (probably the term itself comes from the Latin word indication- announcement, proclamation, or indico- I announce, I appoint). In Ancient Rome, under Emperor Diocletian, every 15 years the empire revalued property for proper taxation. The introduction of indictive timekeeping in Byzantium is associated with Emperor Constantine, who introduced a new reckoning on September 23, 312. The date of the month was not chosen by chance - it was the birthday of the first Roman emperor, Octavian Augustus. In 462, for practical reasons, the start of the countdown of indicts was moved to September 1. The starting point of the indicts was the creation of the world. In 537, Emperor Justinian introduced dating by indictment as mandatory. In the Holy Roman Empire it was used until its collapse in 1806. The year indict is determined by dividing the date from the creation of the world by 15 September calendar style. The remainder of the division is shown by the index. For example, it is required to establish the indictment of 6777 from the creation of the world. 6777:15 = 451 and 12 in the remainder, therefore, 451 full 15-year cycles have passed since the creation of the world, and 12 is the serial number of the year in the current 452nd cycle, i.e. the index 6777. If the date is divisible by 15 without a remainder, then the indict is equal to the divisor, i.e. 15. It should be taken into account that only the September years had one indict, while the January, March and Ultra-March years had two indicts. There are special tables for determining dates using indicators. In written sources, the indict either replaces the date or supplements it. In the latter case, it becomes possible to check the correctness of the source on the date. For example, in the Blessed Letter of the Rostov Archbishop Ephraim to Elder Cassian in 1448 it is stated: “And the letter was written in Moscow in the month of April on the 11th day in the summer of 6956 indictment 11.” In the usual way we date the letter to 1448 and check it. 6956:15 = 464 and 11 remaining. The indictment indicated in the document corresponds to the date 6956 from the creation of the world. If the source provides only an indictment, but according to others indirect signs If a certain chronological framework of the source is established, for example, the reign of a prince, then establishing a date by indictment sharply narrows the range of possible dates.

Circles of the sun. In Ancient Rus', time was counted by 28-year cycles of the sun. Its starting point, as in counting with indicts, was the creation of the world.

Since any calendar year (simple and leap year) does not contain an integer number of weeks, the same numbers fall on different days of the week every year. This movement of numbers has certain patterns. A simple year contains 52 weeks and 1 day, a leap year contains 52 weeks and 2 days. A simple year begins and ends on the same day of the week: if January 1 simple year fell on a Wednesday, then December 31st will be a Wednesday. In a leap year, December 31 in this case would fall on Thursday, January 1, 1979 would be Monday, which means January 1, 1980 would fall on Tuesday, but in 1981 it would not be on Wednesday, but on Thursday, since 1980 leap year, in 1982 - on Friday, in 1983 - on Saturday, in 1984 - on Sunday, but in 1985 not on Monday (as in 1979), but on Tuesday, since 1984 Leap year Continuing these calculations further, we can easily verify that the strict order of moving numbers by day of the week will be repeated every 28 years. This 28-year period is called the cycle of the sun, and the ordinal place of the year within it is the circle of the sun of a given year.

The circle of the sun is determined similarly to the indict - dividing the date from the creation of the world by 28. The remainder of the division shows the circle of the sun for a given year. By the beginning of our era, 196 complete solar cycles had passed (5508: 28 = 196 and 20 remaining). The circle of the sun in 5508 is equal to 20. Therefore, to facilitate the calculation of the circle of the sun for the date from the Nativity of Christ, 20 must be added to it and the sum divided by 28. For example, the circle of the sun in 1980 is equal to 12 - (1980 + 20): 28 = 71 and 12 left.

Indications from sources on the circles of the sun help in determining the day of the week, and in some cases are of great independent importance for checking dates.

Vrutseleto. This is the name of Sunday in a given year, indicated by one of the first seven letters of the Russian alphabet. Using vrucelet you can determine the day of the week for any day of the month.

In church calendars, they proceeded from the assumption that March 1, 1 from the creation of the world, fell on Friday, and the nearest Sunday, March 3, was designated by the first letter of the Russian alphabet, A. The subsequent days of the week were designated by the other six following letters, but in reverse alphabetical order: Monday - Z, Tuesday - S, Wednesday - E, Thursday - D, Friday - G, Saturday - V. The letters B (beeches) and Zh (live) are missing here, since they did not have a digital meaning in Ancient Rus'.

So, vrutseleto of a given year is the letter on which Sunday falls. Every year the vrutseleto changes, moving to the next letter (in a leap year, one letter at a time). The order established above for moving the numbers of the month by day of the week (circles of the sun) is also applicable to the change of vruceleto, therefore a certain circle of the sun corresponds to its own vruceleto. This correspondence is easily established using special tables.

Determining days of the week using formulas. Sources often contain indications of the day on which this or that event occurred. This gives additional opportunity to check the date specified in the source. There are several mathematical formulas to determine the day of the week.

The formula of the outstanding Russian astronomer Academician D.M. Perevoshchikova: X is equal to the remainder of the division of the expression [(H - 1) + + 1/4(H - 1) + (T- 1)]:7, where

X- serial number of the day of the week, counting from Sunday (Sunday - 1, Monday - 2, etc., Saturday - 0);

N- the number of the year according to the era of the Nativity of Christ;

T- the number of days from the beginning of the year up to and including the searched day.

Example. The revolution of 1905 began on Sunday January 9th. Substituting the corresponding digital data into the formula, we should get X = 1. Let's check this: X = [(1905 - 1) + 1/4(1905 - 1) + + (9–1)]:7 = :7 = 2388: 7 = 341 and 1 remaining.

The formula of the Slavist and philologist Academician E.F. Karsky: X is equal to the remainder of the division of the expression [H + 1/4(H - 1) + (T + 5)]:7. Values X and the letters in this formula are the same as in the previous one.

Let's determine the value X according to this formula for the same date January 9, 1905 X =:7 = 2395:7 = 342 and 1 in the remainder.

Formula N.I. Cherukhina: X equal to the remainder of the division of the expression [(5xH):4 + M+ T]:7, where

X- serial number of the day of the week, counting from Monday (Monday - 1, Tuesday - 2, etc., Sunday - 0);

N- the date of a given year according to the era from the Nativity of Christ;

M- the digit of a given month (these numbers for a simple year, starting from January, are the following - 4, 0, 0, 3, 5, 1, 3, 6, 2, 2, 4, 0, 2; for a leap year, starting from January , - 3, 6, 0, 3, 5, 1, 3, 6, 2, 4, 0, 2);

T- the specified day of the month.

Let's check this formula using the same example. According to this formula, there should be no remainder after division. X= [(5x1905): 4 + 4 + 9]: 7 = = [(9525: 4) + 13]: 7 = (2381 + 13): 7 = 2394: 7 = 342. There is no remainder.

All these formulas allow you to determine the day of the week only according to the modern era and for the January year of the Julian calendar (according to the old style).

Historian N.G. Berezhkov derived a universal formula for determining the day of the week according to the era from the creation of the world and according to the era from the Nativity of Christ for both the January and September, March and Ultra-March years. According to this formula X is equal to the remainder of the division of the following expression: X= [N + 1/4(N - P)+ T+ r]: 7, where

X is the serial number of the desired day of the week, counting from Sunday (Sunday - 1, Monday - 2, etc., Saturday - 0);

N- digital designation of the year;

T- the number of days from the beginning of the year up to and including the searched day;

r- 3 in the ultra-March year, 4 in the March year, 5 in the September and January years.

According to this formula, in our example (January 9, 1905), the remainder should be equal to 1. Let us substitute the corresponding digital values ​​into this formula: X =: 7 = (1905 + 476 + + 9 + 5): 7 = 2395:7 = 342 and 1 is left.

According to the formulas of D.M. Perevoshchikova, E.F. Karsky and N.G. Berezhkov can determine the day of the week using the Gregorian calendar, but the values X in this case there will be others: Monday - 1, Tuesday - 2, etc., Sunday - 0.

Setting dates for holidays church calendar . In historical sources, instead of an exact date, there are often indications of a church holiday that falls on the event in question. Russian church holidays are divided into two groups: moving (movable) and fixed (non-moving). Movable holidays do not have a permanent fixed date and fall from year to year on different numbers calendar Fixed holidays are celebrated on the same dates of the month. Of the still ones, you can often find the following: Epiphany - January 6, Candlemas - February 2, Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary - March 25, St. George's Spring Day - April 23, St. Nicholas Spring Day - May 9, Ilyin's Day - July 20, Transfiguration of the Lord - 6 August, Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary (Lady Day) - August 15, Semyonov Day, or “summer guide” - September 1, Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary - September 8, Entry into the Temple of the Blessed Virgin Mary - November 21, Saint George's Day - November 26, St. Nicholas Day autumn - December 6, Christmas - December 25, etc. All dates here are given according to the Julian calendar.

There are also references in the sources to certain fasts (“goveino”, “govenie”), for example, the Assumption Fast (from August 1 to 15), Filippov, or Rozhdestvensky Fast (from November 15 to December 25).

As for the moving holidays, they all depend on Easter, being separated from it by certain permanent dates (before Easter or after it). For example, Great Lent - 40 days before Easter, Palm Sunday - 7 days before Easter, Fomino Sunday - 7 days after Easter, Ascension of the Lord - Thursday, 39 days after Easter.

The mobility of Easter itself is explained by the fact that it is calculated according to the lunar calendar. All questions related to its definition are called Paschalia. Easter should be celebrated on the first Sunday after the first full moon of spring, which is the full moon between March 21 and April 18. Accordingly, the first Sundays after the full moon can fall in the period from March 22 to April 25 according to the old style, which is called the Easter limit.

To determine the day of Easter, special tables of the “conversion of the great indiction” are used. The Great Indiction is the serial number of the year within a 532-year period. The movement of Easter day according to the calendar numbers in a certain order is repeated every 532 years, since 28 (solar cycle) when multiplied by 19 (lunar, Metonic cycle) gives 532. Counting is carried out from the creation of the world. The calendar style does not play any role when calculating the day of Easter, since it occurs only in March or April, i.e., when establishing the correspondence of the date to the January year from the Nativity of Christ, in any case, 5508 should be subtracted from the date from the creation of the world.

To determine the day of Easter, the formula of the German mathematician K. - F. Gauss is used. It was developed by him at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. to determine Easter according to the Gregorian calendar, since the Catholic western church It is for this reason that Easter is celebrated. But with certain amendments it is also suitable for determining the day of Orthodox Easter. This formula was proven only in 1870 by another German scientist, professor at the University of Basel Hermann Kinkelin.

To determine Easter using this formula, it is necessary to find the value of several quantities denoted by Latin letters a, b, c, d, e:

A equal to the remainder of dividing the digital designation of a given year by 19;

b equal to the remainder of dividing the same number by 4;

With equal to the remainder of dividing the same number by 7;

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From the book Auxiliary Historical Disciplines author Leontyeva Galina Aleksandrovna

Chapter 6. Chronology Chronology is an auxiliary historical discipline that studies time systems and the history of their development. It gets its name from the Greek words chronos - time and logos - word, teaching, science. As a historical discipline it is only

From the book History with a Question Mark author Gabovich Evgeniy Yakovlevich

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From the book The Death of Stalin. What does Brezhnev have to do with this? author Kostin Alexander Lvovich

Chapter 4. Chronology of the leader’s illnesses It has long been noted that power and health powerful of the world This is closely interconnected, which was described very convincingly and very interestingly, for example, by Academician E.I. Chazov. In his book “Health and Power” he described in detail the illnesses and illnesses of former

Today there are about 2.5 thousand different sciences in the world. Most of them can be divided into two categories: natural (studying the laws of nature) and humanitarian (studying human society). Some sciences originated in ancient times, others appeared relatively recently. History is a humanitarian discipline that dates back more than 2 millennia. Her father is considered to be Herodotus, a scientist who lived in Ancient Greece in the 5th century BC. He is the author of the treatise "History", which describes the events of the Greco-Persian wars and the customs of the people who lived in those times. The work of Herodotus is the oldest piece of literature containing reliable information about the development of society.

The importance of auxiliary historical disciplines

The subject of historical science is the study of the past human society and determining the patterns of its development. Modern scientists examine past times from various angles: they study everyday life, the domestic and foreign policies of states, their culture, diplomatic and financial relations, the activities of political and public figures, and so on. Auxiliary historical disciplines facilitate the study of the human past. These include archaeology, numismatics, heraldry, sphragistics, paleography, metrology, chronology, etc. Quite a few interesting information managed to obtain thanks to historical geography. Without a thorough study of the listed sciences, it is difficult to understand the past of mankind.

Ancient excavations

Archeology is a science that studies the history of ancient people using preserved monuments (cemeteries, sites, settlements, weapons, household items, jewelry). To search for objects, scientists first conduct field research, then it is the turn of excavations. Found archaeological sites are carefully studied in laboratory conditions: they are classified, their age and scope of application are determined. Objects recovered from excavations are of great scientific importance as they help shed light on the origins and development of human society.



The concept of paleography

Paleography is a discipline whose object of study is ancient writing and everything connected with it. Ancient texts written on papyri, parchment and paper are the most important sources of information containing descriptions of real events centuries ago. However, not a single ancient handwritten material will be of interest to historical science if it is not deciphered. Paleographers study the text, determine its author, the date of writing, as well as the age and authenticity of the document itself.



With the development of this auxiliary discipline, scientists were able to study history much deeper and more detailed. Ancient world. For example, about the social revolution in Egypt that occurred in 1750 BC. e., was learned from a manuscript found at the end of the 19th century in the Saqqara necropolis. A detailed study of the document showed that it dates back to the 18th century. BC e. and describes real historical events.

Heraldry and sphragistics, their connection

The science of coats of arms is called heraldry. In ancient times, all noble persons and families had their own emblems. Later they began to appear in cities and states. The shape of the coats of arms, the drawings and inscriptions applied to them had their own deep meaning, corresponding to the established foundations of society. It is enough for a specialist to look at the sign offered to him in order to determine which clan or state it belonged to and what its evidence indicates. appearance. Ancient manuscripts were often decorated with coats of arms, so deciphering them requires knowledge not only of paleography, but also of heraldry.



The science of coats of arms has a close relationship with sphragistics, a discipline that studies seals and their display on different surfaces. Sometimes it is also called sigillography. Initially she was integral part diplomacy, which deals with determining the authenticity of historical documents, but gradually separated from it and became independent discipline. The close connection between heraldry and sphragistics lies in the fact that the same images were used in the manufacture of coats of arms and seals.

Numismatics and metrology

When studying auxiliary historical disciplines, you must definitely pay attention to numismatics - the science of coins and their circulation. The study of ancient money can convey to modern people information about destroyed cities that have not survived to this day, important historical events and great people of past eras. When minting old coins, the same symbols were used as on seals and coats of arms, so here too there is a connection between individual historical disciplines.



Metrology is the study of measures of weight, area, volume and distance used in the past. It helps to analyze the features of economic development of states in different eras. Since the names of measures of weight and money counting in ancient times often coincided, metrology should be studied together with numismatics.

Historical chronology and geography

Determine the location of occurrence ancient civilizations, directions of migration of peoples, borders of countries and cities, change climatic conditions and their influence on human settlement will be helped by historical geography. Old maps that have survived to this day allow us to more deeply understand the atmosphere and events of ancient eras.



Among the auxiliary historical disciplines it is also worth mentioning chronology - a science whose subject of study is timekeeping systems and ancient calendars different nations. It also determines the dates of events that occurred and the sequence in which they occurred.

The above sciences are studied in detail in the history departments of universities. In higher educational institutions a course is taught on auxiliary disciplines, archeology, historical geography and other sciences are taught separately. A large amount of literature on the topic is published today for students. There are textbooks and methodological manuals, and monographs. G. A. Leontyeva, “Auxiliary Historical Disciplines” is the most popular book among history students. This textbook consists of several parts, each of which is devoted to a separate science. In it you can find information about heraldry, chronology, paleography, metrology and other sciences. Thanks to the easy presentation of the material, students can comprehensively study auxiliary historical disciplines. The textbook is considered the most modern today; it allows you to gain in-depth knowledge of the subject, which will subsequently help a person carefully examine all materials and objects.

Detailed solution paragraph Introduction to history for 10th grade students, authors V.I. Ukolova, A.V. Revyakin Profile level 2012

• Gdz test and measurement materials on History for grade 10 can be found

Define the concepts and give examples of their use in historical science:

civilization is a stable socio-cultural community, consisting of a culturally and linguistically united group of countries at a certain stage of development;

historical anthropology - concept historical development and a method of cognition based on the awareness of the unity of material and spiritual culture, as well as through cross-cultural research, with the focus of research being on primitive societies;

modernization is the transition from a traditional society to an industrial one.

1. In what senses is the concept “history” used?

On the one hand, history is the totality of past events. By default, what happened to humanity, but there is also the history of the planet Earth itself (geology studies it), the history of the Universe (astronomy tries to understand it), etc.

On the other hand, history is our idea of ​​this very past, its awareness and analysis. Such a picture is precisely created by the science of history.

The historian studies not the past itself, but the evidence about that past. As a rule, these are written sources that were written by someone, that is, events and phenomena are passed through the prism of the author’s perception. Material evidence is more objective, but it carries much less information; usually, the same written sources are still needed to interpret it.

Not all written sources created and not all material evidence reach us. Time usually makes subjective selection itself, although there are exceptions. Thus, the Spanish colonialists purposefully destroyed the books of the Aztecs, hoping that having lost the heritage of their pagan ancestors, they would more easily accept Christianity. From ancient sources, we have come down mainly to those that were copied in the Middle Ages, and then texts were specially selected according to certain criteria, so we largely see the picture created as a result of this selection.

The historian analyzes the data obtained based on existing methods. In history, as in any science, they develop: researchers of the past did not have the tools that they have today. This also applies to help natural sciences(radiocarbon dating, methods for recreating a face from a skull, etc.), and directly analyzing the text, which has been increasingly improved over generations of scientists.

In addition, any historian analyzes the past through the prism of his time. The most striking example is the ideological influence on history that many political regimes have tried to exert in recent centuries. But there are also less obvious examples. Often the result depends on the personal preferences of the researcher, his gender and other conditions.



4. List the types of historical sources. What is their feature? Illustrate your answer with examples.

Historical sources.

1. Material. These are usually finds during archaeological excavations. They are the most objective, but without the help of written sources they are sometimes difficult to interpret. This is why, for example, we know so little about the Cretan (Minoan) culture - there is a lot of material evidence left from it, but the writing of that people has not been deciphered, the language is not understood.

2. Written.

a) Works of art. They rather reflect the author’s idea, but the author lives in certain historical conditions, which he involuntarily reflects in the work. Therefore, in the absence of other sources works of art can be of great help to scientists. For example, numerous studies are based on the poems of Homer, although they most often study the era of the creation of the poems, and not the Trojan War.

b) Religious texts. It is difficult to extract information from them, but some contain it. So the Bible is the main source for studying the past of the Jewish people. However, one should take into account the specifics of the source and understand that the presentation of events in such texts was not the main goal.

c) Memoirs. They tell directly about historical events. However, nothing prevents the author from distorting reality in order to whitewash himself or for any other purposes. It should also be borne in mind that memoirs are usually written many years after the events described, and human memory is complicated thing, which is only just beginning to be understood today. An example is the memoirs of Georgy Konstantinovich Zhukov: with the discovery of archival funds dedicated to the Great Patriotic War, more and more places are emerging where the marshal, to put it mildly, distorted reality, posing as a great strategist who knew and predicted everything in advance.

d) Letters. Unlike memoirs, they are usually written immediately after the event. But the question of the author’s sincerity remains. Examples are the letters of Marcus Tullius Cicero (the texts of many of them have survived): they are not used to reconstruct an event if the information reported is not confirmed in parallel sources, but they contain a lot of valuable information about the life and morals of the Romans of the 1st century BC .

d) Press. Many of their contemporaries learned about the events from publications in newspapers and magazines, and historians can also use them. However, the “objectivity” of the press is well known: it is most concerned with either circulation or the opinion of the authorities, depending on the type of state in which the publication is published. In addition, the publication often appears before all the details of the event become known. As an example, we can mention the differences in the coverage of the events in Tiananmen Square in Beijing in 1989 by US and Chinese newspapers, and not only the assessments, but the published “veils” were different.

f) Chronicles, chronicles, etc. Contrary to popular belief, the authors had reasons not to distort what they knew. However, the question arises about their awareness. A typical example is Herodotus’s “History”. When the author describes events close to his time, he conveys them quite accurately, but when describing the first centuries of the Greco-Persian conflict (which he traces back to the beginning of history itself), he uses overt mythology.

g) Official documents. They usually reflect reality objectively because they are compiled for practical purpose, and not for passing on information to descendants. However, they have their own specifics and individually usually contain little information. Thus, it makes sense to study the tablets from the economic archives of Sumerian temples only in their significant complex. From a separate entry that says, for example, how much grain a particular person contributed as a tax, little can be understood.

There are many other types of written sources.

3. Folklore. It should be remembered that events in folklore are described through the prism of folk memory. In addition, these works went through a long journey of oral transmission before they were written down. For example, it would be strange to study the reign of Vladimir the Saint according to the description of Vladimir the Red Sun in Russian epics. However, they provide valuable information about people’s perception of certain events, about the worldview of the people.

4. Photos.

a) Artistic photos. They help in studying the history of culture, as well as life and material objects. For example, pre-war, albeit artistic, photographs show buildings that were later destroyed during the fighting, and fashion magazines of past decades are the best source for studying this very fashion.

b) Documentary photos. Typically, they are objective, but require interpretation based on other types of sources. For example, photographs of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin during public speaking help us understand what kind of expression he had, why he led so many people. But if we did not know from other sources who the speaker was and what his role in history was, we would not be able to understand the value of these frames.

5. Cinema and phono sources.

a) Artistic. This type includes art films, recordings of musical compositions, etc. From them you can study the history of culture, as well as life and even worldview, and also obtain other valuable information. For example, shortly after the Russian Revolution, most of the horse stunts in Hollywood films were performed by emigrated Cossacks. Therefore, there you can see examples of horse riding that are described in written sources, but rarely caught on film.

b) Archival records. This type mainly includes recordings of television and radio programs. They are also useful for learning about both culture and worldview. For example, in such recordings we can see interviews with politicians of past years, analyze their demeanor, style of speech, etc.

V) Documentaries and programs. In such films we see authentic footage. Sometimes they are preserved only in this form - the originals are lost. But in this case, you need to understand that the material passed through the prism of the perception of the film’s author. He did not edit the footage and audio fragments, but selected those that seemed most interesting to him and best reflected his idea.

d) Documentary footage and audio recordings. These are recordings made during the events, not processed by anyone. They are the most objective, but require patience, because in order to find the one most informative minute, sometimes you need to look through the clock. An example is the numerous materials from the Great Patriotic wars, made by operators directly during combat operations, directly in the thick of things.

5. Can a historian be objective? Confirm your opinion.

The historian usually strives for this, but cannot be completely objective. If only because human perception of even what he directly sees and hears is not completely objective. And the scientist understands historical events with the help of sources that have an author with his own biased perception. Information passes through the prism of perception of several people. Moreover, these people differ in their worldview, which is why they often understand the same things differently. In addition, we must not forget about the censorship of time - not everything created in a certain period has reached us, many sources died for a variety of reasons. Therefore, our knowledge is largely mosaic.

6. Write an argument on the topic “Three reasons why people study history, and what studying history will do for me personally.”

Historical science in its primitive form arose in Ancient Greece. It exists as a mature science at least, from the 18th century. Areas of knowledge that are not needed by humanity are measured out over such a period of time. Suffice it to recall phrenology - a science that tried to understand a person’s character, intelligence and mental state by the protrusions of his skull (which supposedly indicated the greater or lesser development of certain parts of the brain). Phrenology was quite popular at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, but eventually died out. Nothing like this happened in history.

People study history for the following reasons.

1) This is interesting. Any science begins with interest, otherwise there is no point in doing it.

2) The opportunity to avoid past mistakes. Lately The phrase “History teaches only that it teaches nothing” is becoming more and more widespread, but still, after the horrors of World War II, humanity learned not to divide people into full-fledged and inferior on any grounds, after the end of colonialism it realized the importance of the independent life of everyone from nations, etc.

3) Formation of your own historical memory. A common past plays a big role in the formation of a nation, patriotic feelings and much more.

Personally, what attracts me to history is the ability to literally immerse myself in other eras. It's like living another life and then returning to yours. Immersion in history without knowing it is like bad Hollywood movies - only the weapon changes, while the musket is held like a modern rifle. But a different era means not only a different city around and people in different costumes, but also a different behavior, a different picture of the world in their heads, different interests, expectations and aspirations. All this is very interesting.

1. Highlight the social functions of history. What role does history play in politics? Give examples of the ideologization of history.

Social features:

Cognitive function;

Predictive function (although the failures of such forecasts throughout the twentieth century shook the position of this function);

Self-identification of nations and civilizations;

Educational function.

History was used in a distorted form by many regimes. So the Soviet Union was dominated formational approach, according to which highest form historical development was communism, in the previous one – socialism. Based on this concept, the USSR, like the rest of the countries of the socialist camp, was declared more developed than the “decaying West.”

Hitler's Germany focused on civilizations that developed rapidly, and then began to degrade, after which they disappeared. Nazi scientists argued that development was ensured by the Aryan ethnic element, and degradation began when Semites began to dominate the civilization.

Using history for ideological purposes inevitably distorts history because the reality of the past is too complex to illustrate simple political ideas. Mixing ideology and history always harms historical science.

2. Name modern concepts historical development. Make a summary of the 3rd paragraph of the paragraph in the most rational form.

1. Civilization concepts.

a) Concepts of French enlighteners.

b) Civilization as a stage of development of society.

c) Civilization as a cultural and historical community.

d) Linear-stage theories of civilization.

e) A. Toynbee’s concept and its development.

2. Historical (cultural) anthropology.

a) Study of primitive societies.

b) School of “Annals”.

c) New sections: history of mentality, everyday life, etc.

d) Comparativeness in history.

3. Theories of modernization.

a) Understanding modernization as accelerating development.

b) Understanding modernization as a transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern era.

c) Understanding modernization as a transition from a traditional society to an industrial one.

d) The second and third echelons of modernization.

3. Think about why there is no single definition of the concept of “civilization.”

Because this word with a Latin root originally had a very broad and relatively vague meaning, and in everyday life it has retained it to this day. However, it was very popular. In science, a definition must unambiguously imply one specific meaning. Each author of the concept took one aspect of the everyday meaning of the word “civilization” and included it in his constructions. There are many civilizational concepts, and therefore there are many definitions of the concept “civilization”.

4. Explain the concept of “modernization”. In what historical situations is it appropriate to use this concept, and in what is it not? Give examples.

It is easiest to use this concept in the narrowest sense of the word. Modernization is the path from a traditional society to an industrial one. In this sense, the abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861 is a significant step towards modernization.

The concept of modernization as a transition from Dark Ages to our time. In this sense, modernization also means reforming the Western Christian Church (meaning the Reformation, there is perestroika catholic church during the fight against Protestants). In the same sense, the transition of an already industrial society to a post-industrial one (in which the main part of GDP is the service sector and the majority of the employed work in this sector) is also modernization.

Modernization as accelerated development is associated with the concept of progress. This included the introduction of steam engines, the invention of firearms, and much more.



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