Research methods in psychology are those techniques and means by which psychologists obtain reliable information used to build scientific theories and develop practical advice. The strength of science largely depends on the perfection of research methods, on how valid and reliable they are, how quickly a given branch of knowledge is able to absorb and use all the newest, most advanced that appears in the methods of other sciences. Where this can be done, there is usually a noticeable breakthrough in the knowledge of the world.
All of the above applies to psychology. Thanks to the application of the methods of natural and exact sciences, psychology, starting from the second half of the last century, stood out as an independent science and began to develop actively. Until that moment, psychological knowledge was obtained mainly through self-observation (introspection), speculative reasoning, and observation of the behavior of other people. The analysis of the facts obtained by such methods served as the basis for the construction of the first scientific theories explaining the essence of psychological phenomena and human behavior. However, the subjectivity of these methods, their lack of reliability were the reason that psychology for a long time remained a non-experimental science, divorced from practice, capable of assuming, but not proving, causal relationships that exist between mental and other phenomena.
In science, there are general requirements for the objectivity of scientific psychological research. The principle of objective psychological research is implemented by a variety of methodological means.
- , consciousness are studied in the unity of internal and external manifestations. However, the relationship between the external flow of the process and its internal nature is not always adequate. The general task of all methods of objective psychological research is to adequately reveal this relationship - to determine its internal psychological nature from the external course of an act.
- Our psychology affirms the unity of the mental and the physical, so psychological research often includes a physiological analysis of psychological processes. For example, it is hardly possible to study emotional processes without analyzing their physiological components. Psychological research cannot study mental phenomena in isolation from their psychophysiological mechanisms.
- The material foundations of the psyche are not reduced to its organic foundations, the way people think is determined by their way of life, the consciousness of people is determined by social practice. Therefore, the methodology of psychological research should be based on the analysis of human activity.
- Psychological patterns are revealed in the process. The study of development is not only a special field, but also a specific method of psychological research. The point is not to fix different levels of development, but to study driving forces this process.
Psychology, like any science, uses a whole system of different methods. IN domestic psychology The following four groups of methods are distinguished:
1. include:
a) comparative genetic method (comparison of different species groups according to psychological indicators);
- cross-sectional method (comparison of selected same psychological indicators in different groups of subjects);
- longitudinal method - the method of longitudinal sections (multiple examinations of the same persons for a long time);
- an integrated method (representatives of various sciences participate in the study, while, as a rule, one object is studied by different means). Studies of this kind make it possible to establish connections and dependencies between phenomena. different type, for example, between the physiological, psychological and social development of the individual.
- auto-training;
- group training;
- methods of psychotherapeutic influence;
- education.
Features of the experimental research method:
- The researcher himself causes the phenomenon he is studying and actively influences it.
- The experimenter can vary, change the conditions under which the phenomenon occurs.
- In the experiment, it is possible to repeatedly reproduce the results.
- The experiment makes it possible to establish quantitative regularities allowing mathematical formulation.
The main task of a psychological experiment is to make mental regularities accessible to objective observation. In the structure of the experiment, it is possible to designate a system of research stages and tasks:
I- theoretical stage of research (problem statement). At this stage, the following tasks are solved:
- the formulation of the problem and the topic of the study, the title of the topic should include the basic concepts of the subject of the study,
- definition of the object and subject of research,
- determination of experimental tasks and research hypotheses.
On the this stage clarification of known facts on the topic of research, obtained by other scientists, is carried out, which makes it possible to determine the range of solved problems and unsolved problems and formulate hypotheses and problems of a particular experiment. This stage can be considered as a relatively independent research activities theoretical character.
II - methodical stage research. At this stage, the experimental methodology and experimental plan are developed. There are two sets of variables in an experiment: independent and dependent. The factor that the experimenter changes is called the independent variable; The factor that the independent variable causes to change is called the dependent variable.
The development of an experimental plan involves two points:
- drawing up a work plan and a sequence of experimental procedures,
- mathematical model of experimental data processing.
III - pilot stage. At this stage, direct experiments are carried out. The main problem of this stage is to create in the subjects an identical understanding of the task of their activity in the experiment. This problem is solved through the reproduction of the same conditions for all subjects and instructions, which aims to bring all subjects to a common understanding of the task, acting as a kind of psychological attitude.
IV- analytical stage. At this stage, a quantitative analysis of the results (mathematical processing), scientific interpretation of the facts obtained is carried out; formulation of new scientific hypotheses and practical recommendations. Regarding the mathematical coefficients of statistics, it should be remembered that they are external in relation to the essence of the studied mental phenomena, describing the probability of their manifestation and the relationship between the frequencies of the compared events, and not between their essences. The essence of phenomena is revealed through the subsequent scientific interpretation of empirical facts.
The expansion of the use of the experiment moved from the elementary processes of sensation to the higher mental processes. The modern experimental method exists in three forms: laboratory, natural and formative experiment.
Three considerations are put forward against the laboratory experiment. The artificiality of the experiment, the analyticity and abstractness of the experiment, the complicating role of the experimenter's influence are pointed out.
A peculiar version of the experiment, representing, as it were, an intermediate form between observation and experiment, is the method of the so-called natural experiment proposed by the Russian scientist A.F. Lazursky (1910). His main tendency is to combine the experimental nature of the study with the naturalness of the conditions. Instead of translating the phenomena under study into laboratory conditions, researchers try to find natural conditions that suit their goals. A natural experiment that solves the problems of psychological and pedagogical research is called a psychological and pedagogical experiment. Its role is exceptionally great in the study of the cognitive abilities of students at various age stages.
Another variation of the experimental method is called formative experimentation. In this case, the experiment acts as a means of influencing, changing the psychology of people. Its originality lies in the fact that it simultaneously serves as a means of research and a means of forming the phenomenon under study. The formative experiment is characterized by the active intervention of the researcher in the mental processes he is studying. As an example of a formative experiment, one can consider the modeling of psychological and pedagogical situations. This method is based on the design of new education and training programs and ways to implement them.
- all methods of group training are focused on teaching group interaction;
- these methods are based on the student's activity (through the inclusion of research elements in the training).
If traditional methods are focused mainly on conveying ready-made knowledge, then here the research participants themselves must come to them.
All the many forms of socio-psychological training can be divided into two large classes:
- games focused on the development of social skills (for example, the ability to conduct a discussion, resolve interpersonal conflicts). Among game methods, the method of role-playing games is the most widely used;
- group discussions aimed at the skills of analyzing communication situations - analyzing oneself, a communication partner, a group situation as a whole. The group discussion method is most often used in the form of case studies.
Forms of group training are very diverse. Classes can be recorded on tape or videotaped. The last form of training is called "video training". This audio and video recording is used by the training leader for review by the group members and subsequent group discussion.
Currently, the practice of group training is a booming branch of applied psychology. Socio-psychological training is used to train specialists of various profiles: managers, teachers, doctors, psychologists, etc. It is used to correct the dynamics of marital conflicts, improve relations between parents and children, correct socio-psychological maladjustment of adolescents, etc.
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The methods of psychology are a set of techniques and methods by which researchers can obtain information and expand the knowledge necessary to create scientific theories in psychology and form practical recommendations. Together with the definition of the concept of "method", the terms "methodology" and "methodology" are used. The method is implemented in a methodology, which is a set of rules necessary for research, describes a set of applied tools and objects that are used in certain circumstances and are regulated by the sequence of the researcher's influences. Each psychological technique based on information about age, gender, ethnicity, professional and religious affiliation.
Methodology is a system of principles and methods of organization scientific research, which determines the ways to achieve theoretical scientific knowledge, and methods for organizing practical activities. The research is based on the methodology, which reflects the worldview of the researcher, his views and philosophical position.
The phenomena that are studied by psychology are very complex and diverse, they are very difficult for scientific knowledge, because the success of this science depended on the improvement of research methods.
The subject, tasks and methods of psychology have changed throughout the development of science. To use your psychological knowledge correctly, you need to know the basic methods of psychology. The receipt of reliable information depends on the observance of special principles and the application of specific techniques.
The methods of psychology are briefly understood as ways of studying real facts surrounding reality. Each method is accompanied by only the appropriate type of techniques that meet the goals and objectives of the study. Based on any one method, you can create several methods.
Subject, tasks and methods of psychology These are the three important aspects on which all science rests. IN different time the subject of psychology was defined in different ways, now it is the psyche, the study of its patterns and mechanisms of formation personality traits. The tasks of psychology follow from its subject.
The methods of psychology can be briefly described as ways of studying the psyche and its activities.
Research methods in psychology
The exploratory methods of psychology are briefly described as methods by which reliable knowledge is obtained that is necessary to create concepts and test theories. Through certain norms and techniques, the most effective method practical application of knowledge in the field of psychology.
general characteristics methods of psychology used in the study, is to distribute them into four groups: organizational, empirical, methods of correction and data processing.
Organizational basic methods of psychology:
Comparative genetic: comparison of different types of groups according to certain psychological criteria. He received the greatest popularity in zoopsychology and child psychology. The evolutionary method, which was formed in line with the comparative one, consists in comparing the mental development of an animal with the developmental features of individuals that are at the previous and subsequent levels of animal evolution;
The cross-sectional method is a comparison of the characteristics of interest from different groups (for example, the study of the psychological characteristics of children of different ages, with different levels of development, different personality traits and clinical reactions);
Longitudinal - repetition of the study of the same subjects for a long time;
Complex - representatives of different sciences who study the same object in different ways participate in the study. In a complex method, one can find connections and dependencies between different phenomena (mental and physiological phenomena, social and psychological).
The cross-sectional method in psychology has both advantages and disadvantages. The advantage of transverse sections is the speed of the study, that is, the possibility of acquiring results within a fairly short time. Despite the great advantage of this type of research methods in psychology, it is impossible to demonstrate the dynamics of the development process with its help. Most of the results on the laws of development are very approximate. Regarding the method of transverse sections, the longitudinal one has a large number of advantages.
Longitudinal methods of research in psychology help to process data in certain age periods. With their help, you can establish the dynamics of the individual development of the child. Thanks to longitudinal methods of psychology research, it is possible to identify and resolve the issue of age-related crises in human development. A significant disadvantage in a longitudinal study is that it requires a large amount of time required to organize and conduct it.
Empirical methods are the main methods of psychology in research, since it separated into a separate science:
Objective observation (external) and self-observation (internal);
Analysis of activity products;
Experimental (natural, formative, laboratory) and psychodiagnostic (questionnaires, tests, questionnaires, interviews, sociometry, conversation) methods.
Psychology of the introspective direction considered self-observation to be the main way of cognition in psychology.
In the process of objective observation, the researcher inquires about the individual motives, experiences and sensations of the subject, the researcher directs him to perform appropriate actions, deeds, so that he observes the patterns of mental processes.
The method of observation is used when there is a need for the least interference in the natural behavior, interpersonal relationships of people, in the case of striving to obtain a holistic picture of everything that happens. The observation must be carried out using objective methods.
Scientific observation is directly related to ordinary life observation. That is why, in the first place, it is desirable to create the basic conditions that satisfy observation, so that it becomes a scientific method.
One of the requirements is the presence of a clear goal of the study. According to the goal, you need to define a plan. In observation, as in the scientific method, the most essential features are planned and systematic. If observation proceeds from a well-conscious goal, then it must acquire a selective and partial character.
Praximetric methods have been developed mainly in line with the psychology of work in the study of various mental aspects, human actions, operations and professional behavior. These methods are chronometry, cyclography, professiograms and psychograms.
The method of analyzing products of activity is used in many areas of science: from general psychology to age and is a comprehensive study of the results of labor, as the materialization of mental activity. This method is applied equally to both the child's drawing and school essay or a work of a writer or a painted picture.
The biographical method in psychology is life path person, a description of his biography. When a personality develops, it changes, rebuilds life orientations, views, experiencing certain personal transformations during this.
Modeling in psychology has a variety of options. Models can be structural or functional, symbolic, physical, mathematical or informational.
The third group of methods of psychology is represented by methods of processing the obtained results. These include - a more organic unity of qualitative and quantitative meaningful analysis. The process of processing the results is always creative, exploratory and involves the selection of the most adequate and sensitive tools.
The fourth group of methods of psychology is interpretive, which theoretically explain the property or phenomenon being studied. Here are complex and systemic sets of different variants of structural, genetic and functional methods, which close the general cycle of the process of psychological research.
Speaker of the Medical and Psychological Center "PsychoMed"
Psychology accomplishes its tasks through the use of certain techniques, methods that act as methods of psychological research.
Methods of psychology- the main ways and methods of scientific knowledge of mental phenomena and their laws.
The methods of psychological research also reveal a dependence on the basic theoretical principles underlying the subject of psychology and the specific tasks that it solves.
Like everyone else natural Sciences, psychology has two main methods for obtaining psychological facts: the method of observation (descriptive method) and the method of experiment.
Each of these methods has a number of modifications that clarify, but do not change their essence.
Methods of psychological research must meet the following requirements:
- objectivity , i.e., the unification of external and internal manifestations of the psyche, based on the objective nature of the mental.
- reliability , i.e., the quality of a research method that allows you to get the same results with repeated use of this method.
- validity , i.e., a measure of the compliance of the research results with objective external criteria.
In psychology, there are four groups of methods (according to Ananiev):
1. Organizational methods:
Comparative method– comparison of different groups by age, activity, etc.
Longitudinal - repeated examination of the same persons over a long period of time
Complex - representatives of different sciences take part in the study, while one object is studied in different ways.
2. Empirical methods:
- Observation- a method of psychology, which consists in fixing the manifestations of behavior and obtaining judgments about subjective mental phenomena. This method is indispensable where standardized procedures have not been developed or are unknown. At the same time, the researcher does not need the consent or other form of participation of the observed to conduct the observation. This method is of particular importance for the study of the psychological characteristics of children, since the child as an object of study presents greater difficulties for experimental study than an adult.
- Self-observation- observation, the object of which are mental states, the actions of the subject himself.
Experimental methods:
The main method of psychological research is experiment - based on accurate accounting of variable independent variables that affect the dependent variable. The experiment is:
Laboratory - proceeds in special conditions, special is used. equipment.
Natural - proceeds under normal conditions. It is used in the study of cognitive abilities at different age stages.
Ascertaining - sometimes some aspects of human activity are modeled in it.
- psychodiagnostic methods:
- Test- a standardized psychological test, as a result of which an attempt is made to evaluate a particular mental process or personality as a whole. Tests can be:
By form:
Individual and group.
Oral and written (according to the form of the answer).
Blank, subject, instrumental, computer (according to the material of the operation).
Verbal and non-verbal (according to the nature of the stimulus material).
Intelligence tests.
Ability tests.
Achievement tests.
Personality tests.
- Questionnaire- a questionnaire for receiving answers to a pre-compiled system of questions.
- questionnaire- this is a group of psychodiagnostic methods in which tasks are presented in the form of questions and statements. They are designed to obtain data from the words of the subject.
Personality questionnaires can be considered as standardized self-reports, which are group and individual in form. Most often written, blank or computer. According to the nature of the answers to the questions, they are divided into questionnaires with prescribed answers (closed questionnaires "yes", "no", "don't know") and with free answers (open).
Questionnaires-questionnaires serve to obtain any information about a person that is not directly related to his psychological characteristics (for example, to obtain data about his life history). They imply a rigidly fixed order, content and form of questions, a clear indication of the forms of answers. Answers can be given by the respondent alone with himself (correspondence survey), or in the presence of the experimenter (direct survey). Questionnaires-questionnaires are classified according to the content and design of the questions asked. Distinguish between questionnaires open questions(the respondent speaks in free form), questionnaires with closed questions (all answers are provided in advance) and questionnaires with semi-closed questions (the respondent can choose an answer from those given or give his own). Questions are often combined.
- Sociometry– method of psychological research interpersonal relationships in a group, team in order to determine the structure of relationships and psychological compatibility.
- Interview– method social psychology, consisting in the collection of information obtained in the form of answers to the questions posed.
- Conversation- one of the methods of psychology, providing for the direct or indirect receipt of information through communication.
- product analysis- (content analysis) is a quantitative and qualitative analysis of documentary sources (autobiographical letters, diaries, photographs of film recordings, works of art, media materials mass media, newspapers, magazines), allowing to study the products of human activity. In order to overcome the subjectivity of the researcher when studying documents, a special method of "content analysis" was developed. The main procedure of content analysis is related to the translation of qualitative information into the language of the account. There are two types of units: semantic (qualitative, units of analysis) and counting units (quantitative).
- biographical methods- the study of personality according to the available documents of her biography.
- Projective Methods- This is a group of methods designed to diagnose personality. They are characterized by a global approach to assessing the personality, rather than highlighting individual features. The most significant feature projective methods is the use of indefinite symbols in them, which the subject himself must supplement, interpret, develop, etc. The subject is asked to interpret the content of plot pictures, complete unfinished sentences, interpret indefinite outlines, etc. unlike intellectual tests, answers to tasks of projective methods cannot be right or wrong; a wide range of different solutions is possible. It is assumed that the nature of the answers is determined by the characteristics of the subject's personality, which are "projected" onto the answers.
The following groups of projective methods are distinguished:
Methods of structuring: the formation of incentives, giving them meaning;
Design methods: creation of a meaningful whole from the designed details;
Methods of interpretation: interpretation of any event, situation;
Supplement techniques: completion of a sentence, story, story;
Methods of catharsis: implementation of gaming activities in specially organized conditions;
Methods for studying expression: drawing on a free or given topic;
Techniques for studying impression: preference for some stimuli (as the most desirable) over others.
- Psychophysiological methods. They diagnose natural features human, due to the basic properties of his nervous system. (B.M. Teplov - V.D. Nebylitsyn in the framework of "differential psychology"). Unlike tests, they have a clear theoretical justification: the psychophysiological concept of individual differences, properties of the nervous system and their manifestations. Individual differences, due to the properties of the nervous system, do not imply the content of mental development. They find their manifestation in the formal-dynamic features of the psyche and human behavior (in speed, pace, endurance, performance, noise immunity, etc.).
Psychophysiological methods are devoid of an evaluative approach to the individual, since it is impossible to say which properties of the nervous system are better and which are worse. When determining the diagnostic significance of the results, all those criteria that have been developed in the framework of traditional testology (standardization, reliability, validity) are used. These methods are instrumental: electroencephalograms and other special equipment are used. But recently, pencil and paper techniques (blank techniques) have been developed.
- Survey. This is a method of collecting primary data based on verbal communication. The art of using this method is to know how to ask, how to ask questions, how to make sure you can trust the answers you get. Interrogation methods can be conducted orally or in writing, individually or in a group, questions can be formulated directly or indirectly, they can be open or closed.
One of the most common types of survey is the interview.
- Interview. This is a conversation conducted according to a certain plan, which involves direct contact between the interviewer and the respondent. In form, it can be free, standardized, partially standardized. Most often, the interview has the following structure:
introduction: setting for a conversation, for cooperation;
free statements of the subject;
general questions (“Can you tell me something about the school?);
detailed research;
relieving tension and expressing gratitude for participating in the conversation.
Depending on the intended purpose, the interview is divided into diagnostic and clinical. A diagnostic interview is a method of obtaining information about personality traits used in the early stages of psychotherapy. It can be managed and unmanaged (confessional). A clinical interview is a method of therapeutic conversation that helps a person to become aware of his inner difficulties, conflicts, hidden motives of behavior.
3. Data processing methods:
Quantitative - statistical
Qualitative - differentiation of material into groups, analysis.
4. Interpretation methods:
Genetic - analysis of the material in terms of development with the allocation of individual phases, stages, etc.
Structural - establishes structural links between all personality characteristics.
In psychology, close, but not identical, concepts are widely used: individual, personality, individuality. One can talk about a person as a person from a certain stage of his life. Personality is an ontogenetic acquisition of a person, the result of a complex process of his social development, which occurs in close connection with the development of society.
Personality- the human individual as a subject of interpersonal and social relations and conscious activity. The process of personality formation is long, complex and has a historical character. Since personality is a product community development, it is studied by various sciences: philosophy, sociology, psychology, pedagogy, medicine, but each in a certain aspect. So, psychology studies the patterns of development and formation of personality.
1.2. Methods of psychology
The concept of a method. The term "method" has at least two meanings.
1. Method as a methodology - a system of principles and methods for organizing and building theoretical and practical activities, an initial, principled position as an approach to research.
The methodological basis of scientific psychology is epistemology (the theory of knowledge), which considers the relationship between the subject and the object in the process cognitive activity, the possibilities of human knowledge of the world, the criteria for the truth and reliability of knowledge.
The methodology of psychological research is based on the principles of determinism, development, the connection between consciousness and activity, the unity of theory and practice.
2. Method as a special technique, a way of conducting research, a means of obtaining psychological facts, their comprehension and analysis.
The set of methods used in a particular study (in our case, in a psychological study) and determined by the methodology corresponding to them is called methodology.
The scientific requirements for methods of psychological research, or principles, are as follows.
1. Principle objectivity assumes that:
a) in the study of mental phenomena, one should always strive to establish the material foundations, the causes of their occurrence;
b) the study of personality should proceed in the process of activity characteristic of a person of a given age. The psyche is both manifested and formed in activity, and it itself is nothing but a special mental activity, during which a person cognizes the world around him;
c) each mental phenomenon should be considered in different conditions (typical and atypical for this person), in close connection with other phenomena;
d) conclusions should be based only on the facts obtained.
2. Genetic principle (the study of mental phenomena in their development) is as follows. The objective world is in constant motion, change, and its reflection is not frozen and motionless. Therefore, all mental phenomena and personality as a whole must be considered in their emergence, change and development. It is necessary to show the dynamics of this phenomenon, for which it follows:
a) identify the cause of the change in the phenomenon;
b) study not only already formed qualities, but also those that are just emerging (especially when studying children), since the teacher (and psychologist) must look ahead, foresee the course of development, and correctly build the educational process;
c) take into account that the rate of change in phenomena is different, some phenomena develop slowly, some - faster, and different people this pace is very individual.
3. Analytical-synthetic approach in research suggests that, since the structure of the psyche includes a variety of closely related phenomena, it is impossible to study them all at once. Therefore, individual mental phenomena are gradually singled out for study and are comprehensively considered in various conditions of life and activity. This is a manifestation of the analytical approach. After studying individual phenomena, it is necessary to establish their relationship, which will make it possible to identify the relationship of individual mental phenomena and find that stable that characterizes a person. This is a manifestation of the synthetic approach.
In other words, it is impossible to understand and correctly assess the mental characteristics of the personality as a whole without studying its individual manifestations, but it is also impossible to understand the individual characteristics of the psyche without correlating them with each other, without revealing their interconnection and unity.
Methods of psychological research. The main methods of psychological research are observation and experiment.
Observation is the oldest method of knowledge. Its primitive form - worldly observations - is used by every person in his daily practice. But everyday observations are fragmentary, they are not carried out systematically, they do not have a specific goal, therefore they cannot fulfill the functions of a scientific, objective method.
Observation- a research method in which mental phenomena are studied in the form in which they appear in ordinary situations, without the intervention of the researcher. It is aimed at external manifestations of mental activity - movements, actions, facial expressions, gestures, statements, behavior and human activities. According to objective, outwardly expressed indicators, the psychologist judges the individual characteristics of the course of mental processes, personality traits, etc.
The essence of observation is not only the recording of facts, but also scientific explanation their causes, in discovering patterns, understanding their dependence on environment, upbringing, from features
functioning of the nervous system.
The form of transition from the description of the fact of behavior to its explanation is hypothesis- a scientific assumption to explain a phenomenon that has not yet been confirmed, but not refuted either.
In order for observation not to turn into passive contemplation, but to correspond to its purpose, it must meet the following requirements: 1) purposefulness; 2) systematic; 3) naturalness; 4) obligatory fixing of results. The objectivity of observation primarily depends on the purposefulness and systematic nature.
Requirement purposefulness suggests that the observer must have a clear idea of what he is going to observe and for what (definition of goals and objectives), otherwise the observation will turn into a fixation of random, secondary facts. Observation must be carried out according to a plan, scheme, program. It is impossible to observe “everything” in general due to the limitless variety of existing objects. Each observation should be selective: it is necessary to highlight the range of issues on which it is necessary to collect factual material.
Requirement systematic means that observation should not be carried out occasionally, but systematically, which requires a certain more or less long time. The longer the observation is carried out, the more facts the psychologist can accumulate, the easier it will be for him to separate the typical from the accidental, and the deeper and more reliable his conclusions will be.
Requirement naturalness dictates the need to study the external manifestations of the human psyche in natural conditions - ordinary, familiar to him; at the same time, the subject should not know that he is being specially and carefully observed (hidden nature of observation). The observer should not interfere in the activity of the subject or in any way influence the course of the processes of interest to him.
The next requirement is obligatory recording of results(of facts, not their interpretation) observations in a diary or protocol.
In order for the observation to be complete, it is necessary: a) to take into account the diversity of manifestations of the human psyche and observe them in various conditions (in the classroom, at recess, at home, in in public places etc.); b) fix the facts with all possible accuracy (incorrectly pronounced word, phrase, train of thought); c) take into account the conditions that affect the course of mental phenomena (situation, environment, human condition, etc.).
Observation can be external and internal. External observation is a way of gathering data about another person, their behavior and psychology through observation from the outside. The following types of external observation are distinguished:
Continuous, when all manifestations of the psyche are recorded for a certain time (in the classroom, during the day, during the game);
Selective, i.e., selective, aimed at those facts that are relevant to the issue under study;
Longitudinal, that is, long-term, systematic, over a number of years;
Slice (short-term observation);
Included, when the psychologist temporarily becomes an active participant in the process being monitored and fixes it from the inside (in closed criminal groups, religious sects, etc.);
Not included (non-involved), when the observation is carried out from the outside;
Direct - it is carried out by the researcher himself, observing the mental phenomenon during its course;
Indirect - in this case, the results of observations made by other people (audio, film and video recordings) are used.
internal observation (self-observation) is the acquisition of data when the subject observes his own mental processes and states at the time of their occurrence (introspection) or after them (retrospection). Such self-observations are of an auxiliary nature, but in a number of cases it is impossible to do without them (when studying the behavior of cosmonauts, the deaf-blind, etc.).
The essential advantages of the observation method are the following: 1) the phenomenon under study occurs in natural conditions; 2) the possibility of using accurate methods of fixing facts (film, photo and video filming, tape recording, timing, shorthand, Gesell's mirror). But this method has negative sides: 1) passive position of the observer (the main drawback); 2) the impossibility of excluding random factors influencing the course of the phenomenon under study (therefore, it is almost impossible to accurately establish the cause of this or that mental phenomenon); 3) the impossibility of repeated observation of identical facts; 4) subjectivity in the interpretation of facts; 5) observation most often answers the question “what?”, And the question “why?” remains open.
Surveillance included integral part into two other methods - experiment and conversation.
Experiment is the main tool for obtaining new psychological facts. This method involves the active intervention of the researcher in the activities of the subject in order to create conditions in which a psychological fact is revealed.
The interaction of experiment with observation was revealed by the outstanding Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov. He wrote: "Observation collects what nature offers it, while experience takes from nature what it wants."
An experiment is a research method, the main features of which are:
The active position of the researcher: he himself causes the phenomenon of interest to him, and does not wait for a random stream of phenomena to provide an opportunity to observe it;
Ability to create the necessary conditions and, carefully controlling them, ensure their constancy. Conducting a study in the same conditions with different subjects, the researchers establish the age and individual characteristics of the course of mental processes;
Repeatability (one of the important advantages of the experiment);
The possibility of variation, changing the conditions under which the phenomenon is studied.
Depending on the conditions of the experiment, two types of it are distinguished: laboratory and natural. Laboratory the experiment takes place in a specially equipped room, with the use of equipment, devices that allow you to accurately take into account the conditions of the experiment, reaction time, etc. A laboratory experiment is very effective if the basic requirements for it are met and the following are provided:
Positive and responsible attitude towards him of the subjects;
Accessible, understandable instructions for the subjects;
Equality of conditions for participation in the experiment of all subjects;
Sufficient number of subjects and number of experiments.
The undeniable advantages of the laboratory experiment are:
1) the possibility of creating conditions for the emergence of the necessary mental phenomenon; 2) greater accuracy and purity; 3) the possibility of strict accounting of its results; 4) repeated repetition, variability; 5) the possibility of mathematical processing of the obtained data.
However, the laboratory experiment also has disadvantages, which are as follows: 1) the artificiality of the environment affects the natural course of mental processes in some subjects (fear, stress, excitement in some, and excitement, high productivity, good success in others);
2) the intervention of the experimenter in the activity of the subject inevitably turns out to be a means of influencing (beneficial or harmful) on the personality being studied.
The famous Russian doctor and psychologist A.F. Lazursky (1874–1917) proposed using a peculiar version of psychological research, which is an intermediate form between observation and experiment - natural experiment. Its essence lies in the combination of the experimental nature of the study with the naturalness of the conditions: the conditions in which the activity under study takes place are subjected to experimental influence, while the activity of the subject is observed in a natural course under normal conditions (in the game, in the classroom, in the classroom, at recess, in the dining room, at walk, etc.), and the subjects do not suspect that they are being studied.
Further development of the natural experiment led to the creation of such a variety of it as psychological and pedagogical experiment. Its essence lies in the fact that the study of the subject is carried out directly in the process of his training and education. At the same time, the ascertaining and forming experiment are distinguished. A task ascertaining The experiment consists in simply fixing and describing the facts at the time of the study, i.e., in stating what is happening without active intervention in the process by the experimenter. The results obtained are not comparable to anything. Formative The experiment consists in studying a mental phenomenon in the process of its active formation. It can be educational and educative. If there is a learning of any knowledge, skills and abilities, then this is - teaching experiment. If, in the experiment, the formation of certain personality traits occurs, the behavior of the subject changes, his attitude towards his comrades, then this is - nurturing experiment.
Observation and experiment are the main objective methods for studying the psychological characteristics of a person in ontogenesis. Additional (auxiliary) methods are the study of products of activity, survey methods, testing and sociometry.
At study of products of activity, or rather, the psychological characteristics of activity based on these products, the researcher is not dealing with the person himself, but with the material products of his previous activity. Studying them, he can indirectly judge the features of both the activity and the acting subject. Therefore, this method is sometimes called the "method of indirect observation". It allows you to study the skills, attitude to activities, the level of development of abilities, the amount of knowledge and ideas, horizons, interests, inclinations, features of the will, features of various aspects of the psyche.
The products of activity created in the process games, are various buildings made of cubes, sand, attributes for role-playing games made by the hands of children, etc. Products labor activity can be considered a part, workpiece, productive- drawings, applications, various crafts, needlework, piece of art, a note in the wall newspaper, etc. To the products learning activities include tests, essays, drawings, drafts, homework, etc.
To the method of studying the products of activity, as well as to any other, certain requirements are imposed: the presence of a program; the study of products created not by chance, but in the course of typical activities; knowledge of the conditions for the course of activity; analysis of not single, but many products of the subject's activity.
The advantages of this method include the ability to collect a large amount of material in a short time. But, unfortunately, there is no way to take into account all the features of the conditions in which the products of activity were created.
A variation of this method is biographic method, associated with the analysis of documents belonging to a person. Documents are any written text, audio or video recording made according to the subject's intention, literary works, diaries, epistolary heritage, memories of other people about this person. It is assumed that the content of such documents reflects his individual psychological features. This method is widely used in historical psychology to study the inner world of people who lived in bygone times, inaccessible to direct observation. For example, for most art and literary works to a certain extent, one can judge the psychology of their authors - this circumstance has long been successfully used by literary and art critics who are trying to better understand the psychology of the author “through” the work, and vice versa, having known the psychology of the author, to penetrate deeper into the content and meaning of his works.
Psychologists have learned to use the documents and products of people's activities to reveal their individual psychology. To this end, special procedures have been developed and standardized for the meaningful analysis of documents and products of activity, which make it possible to obtain completely reliable information about their creators.
Survey Methods- these are methods of obtaining information based on verbal communication. Within the framework of these methods, one can single out a conversation, an interview (oral survey) and a questionnaire (written survey).
Conversation is a method of collecting facts about mental phenomena in the process of personal communication according to a specially compiled program. The interview can be viewed as directed observation, centered around a limited number of issues of great importance in this study. Its features are the immediacy of communication with the person being studied and the question-answer form.
The conversation is usually used: to obtain data on the past of the subjects; more in-depth study of their individual and age features(inclinations, interests, beliefs, tastes); studying the attitude to one's own actions, the actions of other people, to the team, etc.
The conversation either precedes the objective study of the phenomenon (in the initial acquaintance before conducting the study), or follows it, but can be used both before and after observation and experiment (to confirm or clarify what was revealed). In any case, the conversation must necessarily be combined with other objective methods.
The success of the conversation depends on the degree of its preparedness on the part of the researcher and on the sincerity of the answers given to the subjects.
There are certain requirements for a conversation as a research method:
It is necessary to determine the purpose and objectives of the study;
A plan should be drawn up (but, being planned, the conversation should not be of a template-standard nature, it is always individualized);
For the successful conduct of the conversation, it is necessary to create a favorable environment, ensure psychological contact with the subject of any age, observe pedagogical tact, ease, goodwill, maintain an atmosphere of trust, sincerity throughout the conversation;
It is necessary to think carefully in advance and outline the questions that will be asked to the subject;
Each subsequent question should be posed taking into account the changed situation that was created as a result of the subject's answer to the previous question;
During the conversation, the subject can also ask questions to the psychologist conducting the conversation;
All answers of the subject are carefully recorded (after the conversation).
During the conversation, the researcher observes the behavior, facial expression of the subject, the nature of speech statements - the degree of confidence in the answers, interest or indifference, the peculiarity of the grammatical construction of phrases, etc.
The questions used in the conversation should be clear to the subject, unambiguous and appropriate to the age, experience, knowledge of the people being studied. Neither in tone nor in content should they suggest certain answers to the subject, they should not contain an assessment of his personality, behavior or any quality.
Questions can complement each other, change, vary depending on the course of the study and the individual characteristics of the subjects.
Data about the phenomenon of interest can be obtained both in the form of answers to direct and indirect questions. Direct questions sometimes confuse the interlocutor, and the answer may be insincere (“Do you like your teacher?”). In such cases, it is better to use indirect questions when the true goals for the interlocutor are disguised ("What do you think it means "a good teacher ^?").
If it is necessary to clarify the subject’s answer, one should not ask leading questions, suggest, hint, shake one’s head, etc. It is better to formulate the question neutrally: “How should this be understood?”, “Please explain your thought,” or ask a projective question: “ What do you think a person should do if he was undeservedly offended? ”, Or describe the situation with a fictional person. Then, when answering, the interlocutor will put himself in the place of the person mentioned in the question, and thus express his own attitude to the situation.
The conversation could be standardized with precisely worded questions that are asked to all respondents, and non-standardized when questions are asked freely.
The advantages of this method include its individualized nature, flexibility, maximum adaptation to the subject and direct contact with him, which makes it possible to take into account his responses and behavior. The main drawback of the method is that conclusions about the mental characteristics of the subject are made on the basis of his own answers. But it is customary to judge people not by words, but by deeds, specific actions, therefore, the data obtained during the conversation must necessarily be correlated with the data of objective methods and the opinion of competent persons about the person being interviewed.
Interview- This is a method of obtaining socio-psychological information using a targeted oral survey. The interview is more commonly used in social psychology. Types of interview: free, not regulated by the topic and form of the conversation, and standardized similar to a questionnaire with closed questions.
Questionnaire is a data collection method based on a survey using questionnaires. The questionnaire is a system of questions logically related to the central task of the study, which are given to the subjects for a written answer. According to their function, questions can be basic, or suggestive, and control, or clarifying. Main component Questionnaires are not a question, but a series of questions that correspond to the general plan of the study.
Any well-written questionnaire has a strictly defined structure (composition):
The introduction outlines the topic, objectives and goals of the survey, explains the technique for filling out the questionnaire;
At the beginning of the questionnaire, simple, neutral in meaning questions (the so-called contact questions) are placed, the purpose of which is to form an attitude towards cooperation, the interest of the respondent;
In the middle are the most difficult questions that require analysis, reflection;
At the end of the questionnaire are simple, "unloading" questions;
The conclusion (if necessary) contains questions about the passport data of the interviewee - gender, age, civil status, occupation, etc.
After drawing up the questionnaire, it must be subjected to logical control. Is the technique for filling out the questionnaire clear enough? Are all questions written stylistically correctly? Are all terms understood by the interviewees? Shouldn't the item "Other Answers" be added to some of the questions? Will the question cause negative emotions among the respondents?
Then you should check the composition of the entire questionnaire. Is the principle of the arrangement of questions observed (from the simplest at the beginning of the questionnaire to the most significant, targeted in the middle and simple at the end? Is there an influence of previous questions on subsequent ones? Is there a cluster of questions of the same type?
After logical control, the questionnaire is tested in practice during the preliminary study.
The types of questionnaires are quite diverse: if the questionnaire is filled out by one person, then this is - individual questionnaire, if it expresses the opinion of some community of people, then this group questionnaire. The anonymity of the questionnaire lies not only and not so much in the fact that the subject may not sign his questionnaire, but, by and large, in the fact that the researcher does not have the right to disseminate information about the content of the questionnaires.
Exists open questionnaire - using direct questions aimed at identifying the perceived qualities of the subjects and allowing them to build a response in accordance with their desires, both in content and in form. The researcher does not provide any guidance on this. The open questionnaire must contain the so-called control questions, which are used to ensure the reliability of the indicators. Questions are duplicated by hidden similar ones - if there is a discrepancy, the answers to them are not taken into account, because they cannot be recognized as reliable.
Closed(selective) questionnaire involves a number of variant answers. The task of the examinee is to choose the most suitable of them. Closed questionnaires are easy to process, but they limit the autonomy of the respondent.
IN questionnaire-scale the subject not only has to choose the most correct answer from the ready-made ones, but also scale, evaluate in points the correctness of each of the proposed answers.
The advantages of all types of questionnaires are the mass nature of the survey and the speed of obtaining a large amount of material, the use mathematical methods its processing. As a disadvantage, it is noted that when analyzing all types of questionnaires, only upper layer material, as well as the difficulty of qualitative analysis and the subjectivity of assessments.
The positive quality of the questionnaire method itself is that it is possible to obtain a large amount of material in a short time, the reliability of which is determined by the "law big numbers". Questionnaires are usually subjected to statistical processing and are used to obtain statistical average data that are of minimal value for research, since they do not express patterns in the development of any phenomenon. The disadvantages of the method are that qualitative data analysis is usually difficult and the possibility of correlating the answers with the actual activity and behavior of the subjects is excluded.
A specific variant of the questioning method is sociometry, developed by the American social psychologist and psychotherapist J. Moreno. This method is used to study collectives and groups - their orientation, intra-group relations, the position in the team of its individual members.
The procedure is simple: each member of the studied team answers a series of questions in writing, which are called sociometric criteria. The selection criterion is the desire of a person to do something together with someone. Allocate strong criteria(if a partner is selected for joint activities - labor, educational, social) and weak(in case of choosing a partner for joint pastime). Respondents are placed so that they can work independently and given the opportunity to make several choices. If the number of choices is limited (usually three), then the technique is called parametric, if not - nonparametric.
The rules for conducting sociometry provide:
Establishing a trusting relationship with the group;
Explanation of the purpose of conducting sociometry;
Emphasizing the importance and importance of autonomy and secrecy in responses;
Guaranteeing the secrecy of answers;
Checking the correctness and unambiguity of understanding of the issues included in the study;
Accurate and clear display of response recording technique.
Based on the results of sociometry, a sociometric matrix(table of choices) - unordered and ordered, and sociogram- a graphical expression of the mathematical processing of the results obtained, or a map of group differentiation, which is depicted in the form of either a special graph or a drawing, a diagram in several versions.
When analyzing the results obtained, group members are assigned to sociometric status: in the center - sociometric star(those who received 8-10 choices in a group of 35-40 people); in the inner intermediate zone are preferred(those who received more than half of the maximum number of choices); located in the outer intermediate zone adopted(having 1–3 choices); in the outer isolated(pariahs, "Robinsons") who did not receive a single choice.
Using this method, it is also possible to identify antipathies, but in this case the criteria will be different (“With whom would you not want to ..?”, “Whom would you not invite ..?”). Those who are not deliberately chosen by group members are outcasts(rejected).
Other sociogram options are:
"grouping"- a flat image, which shows the groupings that exist within the group under study, and the connections between them. The distance between individuals corresponds to the proximity of their choices;
"individual", where the members of the group with whom he is associated are located around the subject. The nature of the connections is indicated by conventional signs:? - mutual choice (mutual sympathy),? - one-sided choice (sympathy without reciprocity).
After conducting sociometry to characterize social relations in a group, the following coefficients are calculated:
The number of choices received by each individual characterizes his position in the system of personal relations (sociometric status).
Depending on the age composition of the groups and the specifics of the research tasks, various variants of the sociometric procedure are used, for example, in the form of experimental games “Congratulate a comrade”, “Choice in action”, “Secret”.
Sociometry reflects only a picture of emotional preferences within the group, allows you to visualize the structure of these relationships and make an assumption about the style of leadership and the degree of organization of the group as a whole.
A special method of psychological study, which does not belong to research, but to diagnostic, is testing. It is used not to obtain any new psychological data and patterns, but to assess the current level of development of any quality in a given person in comparison with the average level (an established norm or standard).
Test(from the English test - test, test) is a system of tasks that allows you to measure the level of development of a certain quality or personality trait that have a certain scale of values. The test not only describes personality traits, but also gives them qualitative and quantitative characteristics. Like a medical thermometer, it does not make a diagnosis, much less cure, but it contributes to both. When performing tasks, the subjects take into account speed (execution time), creativity, and the number of errors.
Testing is used where there is a need for a standardized measurement of individual differences. The main areas of use for tests are:
Education - in connection with the complication curricula. Here, with the help of tests, the presence or absence of general and special abilities, the degree of their development, the level of mental development and the assimilation of knowledge by the subjects are examined;
Vocational training and selection - in connection with the increase in growth rates and the complexity of production. It turns out the degree of suitability of the subjects for any profession, the degree of psychological compatibility, the individual characteristics of the course of mental processes, etc.;
Psychological counseling - in connection with the acceleration of socio-dynamic processes. At the same time, personal characteristics of people, compatibility of future spouses, ways of resolving conflicts in a group, etc. are revealed.
The testing process is carried out in three stages:
1) choice of test (in terms of the purpose of testing, reliability and validity);
2) the procedure for conducting (determined by the instruction);
3) interpretation of the results.
At all stages, the participation of a qualified psychologist is necessary.
The main test requirements are:
Validity, i.e., suitability, validity (establishing a correspondence between the mental phenomenon of interest to the researcher and the method of measuring it);
Reliability (stability, stability of results during repeated testing);
Standardization (multiple checks on a large number of subjects);
The same opportunities for all subjects (the same tasks to identify mental characteristics of the subjects);
Norm and interpretation of the test (determined by a system of theoretical assumptions regarding the subject of testing - age and group norms, their relativity, standard indicators, etc.).
There are many types of tests. Among them are tests of achievement, intelligence, special abilities, creativity, personality tests. Tests achievements are used in general and vocational training and reveal what the subjects learned during the training, the degree of possession of specific knowledge, skills and abilities. These tests are based on educational material. Varieties of achievement tests are: 1) action tests that reveal the ability to perform actions with mechanisms, materials, tools; 2) written tests that are performed on special forms with questions - the subject must either choose the correct answer among several, or mark the depiction of the described situation on the graph, or find in the figure a situation or detail that helps to find correct solution; 3) oral tests - the subject is offered a pre-prepared system of questions to which he will have to answer.
Tests intellect serve to reveal the mental potential of the individual. Most often, the subject is asked to establish logical relations of classification, analogy, generalization between the terms and concepts that make up the test tasks, or to assemble a picture from cubes with multi-colored sides, to add an object from the presented details, to find a pattern in the continuation of the series, etc.
Tests special abilities designed to assess the level of development of technical, musical, artistic, sports, mathematical and other types of special abilities.
Tests creativity are used to study and evaluate the creative abilities of the individual, the ability to generate unusual ideas, deviate from traditional patterns of thinking, quickly and in an original way to solve problem situations.
Personal tests measure various aspects of the personality: attitudes, values, attitudes, motives, emotional properties, typical forms of behavior. They, as a rule, have one of three forms: 1) scales and questionnaires (MMPI - Minnesota Multi-Phase Personality Questionnaire, tests by G. Eysenck, R. Kettel, A.E. Lichko, etc.); 2) situational tests, which involve an assessment of oneself, the world around; 3) projective tests.
Projective tests originate from the depths of centuries: from divination on goose giblets, candles, coffee grounds; from visions suggested by veins of marble, clouds, clouds of smoke, etc. They are based on the projection mechanism explained by Z. Freud. Projection is an unconsciously manifested tendency of a person to involuntarily attribute to people their psychological qualities, especially in cases where these qualities are unpleasant or when it is not possible to definitely judge people, but it is necessary to do so. Projection can also manifest itself in the fact that we involuntarily pay attention to those signs and characteristics of a person that are most consistent with those that we ourselves have on this moment needs. In other words, the projection provides a biased reflection of the world.
Thanks to the projection mechanism, according to the actions and reactions of a person to the situation and other people, according to the assessments that he gives them, one can judge his own psychological properties. This is the basis of projective methods designed for a holistic study of personality, and not for identifying its individual features, since each emotional manifestation of a person, his perception, feelings, statements, motor acts bear the imprint of personality. Projective tests are designed to “hook” and extract the hidden setting of the subconscious, in the interpretation of which, of course, the number of degrees of freedom is very large. In all projective tests, an indefinite (multi-valued) situation is proposed, which the subject in his perception transforms in accordance with his own individuality (dominant needs, meanings, values). There are associative and expressive projective tests. Examples associative projective tests are:
Interpretation of the content of a complex picture with indefinite content (TAT - thematic apperception test);
Completion of unfinished sentences and stories;
Completion of one of the actors on the plot picture (test by S. Rosenzweig);
Interpretation of events;
Reconstruction (restoration) of the whole in detail;
Interpretation of indefinite outlines (G. Rorschach's test, which consists in the interpretation by the subject of a set of ink spots of various configurations and colors that have a certain meaning for diagnosing hidden attitudes, motives, character traits).
TO expressive projective tests include:
Drawing on a free or given topic: "Kinetic drawing of a family", "Self-portrait", "House - tree - man", "Non-existent animal", etc.;
Psychodrama is a type of group psychotherapy in which patients alternately act as actors and spectators, and their roles are aimed at modeling. life situations having personal meaning for the participants;
Preference of some stimuli as the most desirable to others (test by M. Luscher, A.O. Prokhorov - G.N. Gening), etc.
The advantages of the tests are: 1) simplicity of the procedure (short duration, no need for special equipment); 2) the fact that the results of the tests can be expressed quantitatively, which means that their mathematical processing is possible. Among the shortcomings, several points should be noted: 1) quite often there is a substitution of the subject of research (aptitude tests are actually aimed at examining existing knowledge, the level of culture, which makes it possible to justify racial and national inequality); 2) testing involves evaluating only the result of the decision, and the process of achieving it is not taken into account, i.e. the method is based on a mechanistic, behavioral approach to the individual; 3) testing does not take into account the influence of numerous conditions that affect the results (mood, well-being, problems of the subject).
Prusova N V
3. Tasks of labor psychology. The subject of labor psychology. The object of labor psychology. The subject of labor. Methods of labor psychology The main tasks of labor psychology are: 1) improving industrial relations and improving the quality of work; 2) improving living conditions
the author Prusova N V7. Methods of labor psychology Experiment. Non-included observation. Enabled surveillance. The method of surveys and interviewsThe method is understood as a system of theoretical and practical actions, models for studying certain problems and the practical activities of a psychologist.
From the book Labor Psychology the author Prusova N V From the book Legal Psychology. cheat sheets author Solovieva Maria Alexandrovna3. Methods of legal psychology Legal psychology studies mass phenomena characteristic of social psychology (social, collective, group goals, interests, requests, motives, opinions, norms of behavior, customs and traditions, moods, etc.);
From the book Cheat Sheet on General Psychology author Voytina Yulia Mikhailovna14. PRINCIPLES OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY. METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY The principle of determinism. This principle means that the psyche is determined by the conditions of life and changes with a change in lifestyle. If we talk about the psyche of animals, then it is believed that its development is determined by natural
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Kolominsky Yakov Lvovich
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From the book Psychology: Cheat Sheet author author unknown From the book Psychology and Pedagogy: Cheat Sheet author author unknownIn order to be able to put into practice the acquired knowledge in the field of psychology, it is necessary to know and be able to use a special set of psychological methods.
The correct application of these methods of psychology, subject to certain norms and rules, will provide reliable information. At the same time, the choice of method during the study cannot be accidental, it completely depends on the characteristics of the studied mental phenomenon.
The methods of modern psychology force a person conducting psychological research to return to the object of study, thereby delving into his understanding. If we consider the essence of the method, then this is a way of conducting research in reality, that is, in the real world.
Psychology is the expression in words of what cannot be expressed in them.
John Galsworthy
Methods of modern psychology
Each such technique includes several actions and ways of their implementation by the researcher during the study of the object. But any method corresponds to only one characteristic type of these actions and methods of implementation, which corresponds to the tasks and goals of the study.One such technique may be based on several methods. And also it should be noted the fact that psychological science lacks any complex, methods that have no other research option.
Consider some of these techniques, their classification and characteristics. To do this, we divide them into two groups: methods of basic (general) psychology and methods of applied psychology.
Methods of basic (general) psychology
Basic (general) psychology conducts research using general concepts of human consciousness, its views on the world, lifestyle and disposition, and also includes everything that can influence the conduct of this psychological research.The methods of basic (general) psychology are the ways in which the person conducting the research has the opportunity to obtain reliable information for further advancement. scientific theory and the opportunity to give practical advice.
1. Observation
Purposeful and organized perception and fixation of the behavior of the object of study. This technique is considered one of the most ancient and should be carried out in the usual conditions for the person who is the object of this study. Observation is usually carried out when it is impossible to intervene in the process of what is happening, or it is not recommended to violate the process of the relationship of a person with his environment.This method of research is needed when it is necessary to get a complete picture of the situation and most fully note all the ongoing changes in the behavior of one person or group of people.
The essential features of the observation method are:
- impossibility or difficulty of secondary observation;
- observation accompanied by excessive emotionality;
- the object of observation is associated with the observer.
- the process of observation should in no way influence the course of events that is taking place;
- it is better to observe not one person, but a group of people, then the observer has the opportunity to compare;
- observation should be repeated and regularly, taking into account previously obtained data.
Observation stages:
- Determination of the object, subject or situation that will be monitored.
- Decide on the technique used in the observation process and the method of recording the information received.
- Develop an observation plan.
- Decide on the method by which the recorded data will be processed.
- Just an observation.
- Processing and interpretation of the received information.
Often, the method of observation is referred to this type of research as an experiment, but this is not so, due to the fact that:
- the person conducting the observation does not interfere in what is happening in any way;
- the observer registers only what he observes.
The ethical side of the issue is as follows, according to the rules of the American Psychological Association (APA) - observation must be carried out according to strictly defined rules:
- Mandatory obtaining consent to participate in the experiment from its participants. The only exception is the observation in a public place.
- Eliminate the possibility of causing harm to the participants of the experiment in the process of its implementation.
- Avoid or minimize the intrusion of the researcher's privacy.
- All information received about the participants in the experiment is strictly confidential.
2. Psychological experiment
An experiment conducted by a researcher in conditions specially created for this, in order to obtain the necessary information about the subject by interfering with his life. In this case, the experimenter constantly changes the conditions of the experiment and evaluates the result.In addition, a psychological experiment can combine such methods as: testing, questioning, observation. But it can also be independent of other methods.
According to the method of conducting experiments, there are:
- laboratory method (the possibility of changing conditions and influencing certain facts);
- natural method (carried out under ordinary circumstances, without informing the subject about the experiment);
- psychological and pedagogical method (obtaining skills and specific qualities when teaching something);
- pilot method (used as a pilot study, before the start of the experiment itself).
- Explicit– the person participating in the experiment knows about it and is familiar with all the details of its implementation;
- Hidden- a person who is not aware of the experiment.
- Combined- the participant of the experiment has only a certain part of the experiment and is deliberately misled.
As a scientific method, an experiment must meet the following criteria:
- Impartiality in obtaining data.
- Reliability of the received information.
- Validity and suitability of the information received.
Advantages of the method:
- There is a right to choose the starting point during the study.
- There is a right to repeat the experiment.
- It is possible to change the conditions of the experiment with the possibility of influencing the result.
- The complexity of the psyche for the experiment.
- Instability and uniqueness of the psyche.
- The psyche has the property of suddenness.
As in the case of observation, the psychological experiment must be carried out in accordance with the APA code of ethics.
An ordinary person can, quite independently, without the help of a specialist in the field of psychology, conduct independent experiments in Everyday life. Of course, the data obtained by him during such an experiment will be far from the truth, but it is still possible to obtain certain information.
Remember, when conducting an experiment in the field of psychology on your own, you need to be attentive to others and ensure that you do not harm anyone.
Psychology is the right words for a wrongly formed belief.
Aishek Noram
3. Self-observation
Tracking oneself and the individual traits of one's behavior and disposition. This method is used in the form of self-control and is of great importance in the psychology and life of a person.Nevertheless, it should be noted that self-observation in most cases can only establish the fact of something, but not the basis (left somewhere, and where and why only God knows). In this regard, self-observation cannot be considered an autonomous and main method in the process of comprehending the essence of manifestations of the psyche.
The work of this method directly depends on the self-esteem of the individual. This method is most often resorted to by people with low self-esteem, and as a result, when choosing this method, a person begins to self-flagellate, namely, delving into himself, feeling guilty, looking for an excuse for his actions, etc.
In order for this study to be accurate and have a result, it is necessary:
- keep a diary;
- compare observations of oneself with observations of others;
- increase self-esteem;
- participate in trainings that promote personal growth and development.
4. Testing
It is related to the field of psychodiagnostics and is engaged in the study of the psychological qualities and properties of a person through the use of psychological tests. This technique is most common in psychotherapy, in counseling, and also at an interview with an employer.This method is necessary when the most specific awareness of a person's personality, which cannot be achieved using other methods.
The main features of psychological tests include:
- Validity- the validity and suitability of the information received as a result of the testing of the feature in relation to which the test was carried out;
- Reliability- confirmation of the results obtained earlier by duplicating the test;
- Reliability- even with deliberately false answers, the test gives a true result;
- Representativeness- compliance with the characteristics of the norms.
The test goes through a multi-level testing and adaptation process. Productive psychological test- this is a standard control, at the end of which, upon receipt of the results, it becomes possible to assess the psychophysiological and personal development, skills, knowledge and abilities of the test participant based on the summed up.
Psychological tests are of the following types:
- Career guidance test - establishes a person's propensity for a particular type of activity, or indicates the expediency and harmony of the position held;
- Personality tests - help to explore the nature, needs, feelings, abilities and other personal qualities of a person;
- Tests for the mental abilities of a person - examine the level of formation of intelligence;
- Verbal tests - explore the ability to describe and convey the actions of a person using words.
- Achievement tests - assess the degree of assimilation of certain knowledge and skills.
In addition, this method of research can be easily applied to any person, thereby learning about their potentially hidden capabilities.
5. Biographical method
This is the study, diagnosis, regulation and planning of a person's life-long journey. Various variations of this method began to form and emerge in the early twentieth century.In the current methods of biographical research, a person is studied, guided by historical connections and opportunities for personal growth.
In this case, personal information is obtained from the following sources:
- autobiography,
- questionnaire,
- interviewing,
- witness statements,
- analysis of notes, messages, letters, diaries, etc.
6. Survey
A method based on joint contact between the researcher and the object of study, during which the respondent is asked questions, to which he, in turn, gives answers.This method is most popular in psychological science. Moreover, the question of a psychologist depends on what data you need to find out in the process of research. This technique is usually used to find out the necessary information and data not about one particular person, but about a whole group of people.
Surveys are usually divided into the following types:
- Standardized (classic surveys that can give a total look at the question of interest);
- Not standardized (to a lesser extent related to the classical form of the survey, they allow you to master the specific nuances of the problem).
Polls are:
- Written- to obtain shallow information about the problem.
- Oral- allow you to break into the deeper layers of human psychology.
- Questionnaire- answering questions immediately before the conversation itself.
- Personality Tests- are carried out in order to clarify the characteristics of the psyche of the individual.
- Interview- personal conversation.
When formulating questions, consider the following rules:
- Reticence and isolation.
- The absence of characteristic words that are concepts of something in psychology.
- Constriction and stinginess.
- Definition.
- Lack of hints.
- The questions are designed in such a way as to avoid unconventional answers.
- Questions do not have a repulsive effect.
- The inability of questions to inspire anything.
Questions are divided into several types regarding the task:
- Open (configuration of responses in this case is unhindered);
- Closed (answers prepared in advance);
- Subjective (of a personal nature concerning a person's views towards someone or something);
- Projective (about a third person, without mentioning any information about the respondent).
The technique is very relevant and significant for obtaining important information on topics of interest and concern to most people.
7. Conversation
One of the types of surveillance Refers to an independent method of researching a personality, the purpose of which is to determine the range of those issues that cannot be identified by ordinary observation.A conversation is a dialogue, the effectiveness of which depends on the following conditions:
- It is necessary to think ahead of time about the content of the conversation;
- Establish contact with the interlocutor;
- Eliminate all possible unfavourable conditions that can cause inconvenience to the person under study (tension, alertness, fear, etc.)
- Clarity of questions for the person under study;
- Questions, in some way, should not indicate the correct answer;
- During the conversation, the psychologist observes the behavior of the participant in the dialogue and compares his reaction with the received answer to the question;
- The content of the conversation must be kept in memory or hidden audio or video recordings of the conversation should be kept in order to be able to understand the problem in more detail and analyze it;
- You should not record the conversation openly, such actions may create discomfort for the research participant and cause distrust;
- You should watch out for answers that have understatement, reservations, etc.
Methods and research in applied psychology
Applied psychology is aimed at conducting research with a specific group of people, the methods of which allow you to change the mental state and behavior of a person.1. Suggestion
The process of wedging into the subconscious of a person instructions, views, principles, beliefs and certain formulas without conscious control by him. Suggestion is indirect and direct.The purpose of the method is to reach the desired state or opinion. The way in which this goal is achieved does not matter. It is only important to achieve the desired effect.
Actually for this reason, when suggesting, they freely use emotional fixation in the memory of the signs of objects in the correction of behavior, confusing, distracting interest, intonations, remarks, and even blackouts (hypnosis, narcotic substances, drinks containing alcohol).
There are the following types of offerings:
- direct (influence on a person with the help of words - order, orders, instruction),
- indirect (hidden, intermediate influence),
- intentional
- unintentional
- positive
- negative.
Suggestion methods are also different:
- Techniques of direct suggestion - recommendation, order, instruction, command.
- Methods of indirect suggestion - disapproval, praise, hint.
- Techniques of hidden suggestion - allowing to use various options, deception of choice, well-known truth, banality.
Often the method is used during hypnosis or when a person is in a trance state. Suggestion is an integral part of human life since early age, this method is applicable in the period of education, the formation of political beliefs, watching commercials, relationships, religious views, etc.
2. Reinforcements
This is an immediate reaction, usually positive or negative, of the person conducting the study or the surrounding conditions to the actions of the subject. The reaction must be really lightning fast, only in this case the participant of the experiment will be able to associate it with his action.In the event that the reaction is positive, then subsequently the actions and actions should be similar to the previous ones. In the case of a negative effect, it is necessary to act in reverse.
Types of reinforcement in psychology:
- positive (fixes the right behavior / deed),
- negative (warns wrong behavior/act),
- conscious,
- unconscious,
- natural (it comes out inadvertently: burn, electric shock, etc.)
- conscious (discipline, education, training)
- disposable,
- regular,
- straight,
- indirect,
- basic,
- whole (full),
- partial.
3. Psychological consultation
A conversation between a psychologist and a patient, helping the latter to solve complex issues that have developed in his life. In this case, the specialist needs to start work immediately without delay, since in this case any preparatory measures are not required and the client does not need them. During such a conversation, the psychologist can understand the problem and outline the steps on the way to success in solving the problem.
Usually people turn to a specialist with the following problems:
- Relationships - betrayal, jealous attitude towards a spouse, difficulties that arise when communicating with people, raising children.
- Problems of a private nature - failure, bad luck, health problems, self-organization.
- Labor activity - layoffs and layoffs, lack of tolerance for criticism, low income.
Psychological counseling includes the following steps:
- contract,
- inquiry,
- action plan,
- mood for work
- order execution,
- homework,
- end of work.
Currently, there are a large number of options and types of counseling. Meeting and talking with a psychologist often helps to solve not only life problems, but also helps to get out of difficult circumstances.
Conclusion
On this, perhaps, the classification can be completed, but this is not the whole list of methods used in modern psychology to solve various kinds of problems and tasks.In order to understand inner world of a person and the essence of things in general, it is necessary to understand that the basis leading to understanding is science - Psychology.
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