The learning process is based on psychological and pedagogical concepts, which are often also called didactic systems. The didactic system is a set of elements that form a single integral structure and serves to achieve the goals of learning. The description of the system is reduced to a description of the goals, content of education, didactic processes, methods, means, forms of education and its principles.
Summarizing the richness of the available didactic concepts, three should be distinguished: traditional, pedocentric and modern system didactics. Each consists of a number of directions, pedagogical theories. The division of concepts into three groups is based on how the learning process is understood - the object and the subject of didactics. In the traditional learning system, teaching, activities
teachers. It consists of the didactic concepts of such teachers as J. Komensky, I. Pestalozzi, and especially I. Herbart and the didactics of the German classical gymnasium.
In the pedocentric concept, the main role in teaching is assigned to teaching - the activity of the child. This approach is based on the system of D. Dewey, the labor school of G. Kershenshteiner, V. Lai - the theory of the period of reforms in pedagogy at the beginning of the 20th century.
The modern didactic system proceeds from the premise that both sides - teaching and learning - constitute the activity of learning, and their didactic attitude is the subject of didactics. The modern concept of learning is created by such areas as programmed, problem-based learning, developmental learning (P. Galperin, L. Zankov, V. Davydov), humanistic psychology (K. Rogers), cognitive psychology (J. Bruner), pedagogical technology, pedagogical views groups of teacher innovators of the 80s in Russia. Let us briefly dwell on the meaningful characteristics of these concepts.
THE TRADITIONAL DIDACTIC SYSTEM is associated primarily With named after the German scientist I.F. Herbart, who substantiated the teaching system still in use in Europe. The purpose of training, according to Herbart, is the formation of intellectual skills, ideas, concepts, theoretical knowledge. At the same time, Herbart introduced the principle of upbringing education: the organization of education and the entire order in an educational institution should form a morally strong personality. Education should be of an upbringing nature, link knowledge with the development of feelings, will, with what today is called the motivational-need-sphere of the individual.
To achieve these goals, according to Herbart, the learning process should be built in four formal steps that determine its structure. Clarity level: highlighting the material and examining it in depth. Association stage: connection of new material with past knowledge. System stage: discovery of conclusions, formulation of concepts, laws. Method step: understanding of theories, their application to new phenomena, situations. In modern terms, the structure of learning
niya constitute presentation, understanding, generalization, application. They are recommended as compulsory, regardless of the level and subject of study. The logic of the learning process, therefore, consists in moving from the presentation of the material through the explanation to understanding and generalization. It is not difficult to see in this the outline of most of the lessons to this day. There is no doubt that this theory ordered, organized the learning process, prescribed the rational activity of the teacher in teaching. Herbart's didactics are characterized by words such as management, teacher guidance, regulations, rules, prescriptions. Herbart strove to organize and systematize the teacher's activities, which was important for didactics. This was all the more important because he based the stages of education on psychological analysis and the study of the mental processes of knowledge formation, as well as on philosophical and ethical ideas about the personality. However, Herbart's ethics and psychology were idealistic and metaphysical. This weakened his didactic system, made it excessively rational, inflexible.
By the beginning of the 20th century, this system was sharply criticized for verbalism, bookishness, intellectualism, isolation from the needs and interests of the child and from life. Criticism for the fact that it sets the goal of transferring ready-made knowledge without involving the child in mental activity, does not contribute to the development of thinking, because it is authoritarian, suppresses the student's independence. Therefore, at the beginning of the 20th century, new approaches are being born.
Among them, the most prominent is PEDOCENTRIC DIDACTICS. It is also called progressive, reformatory, learning by doing. Its appearance is associated with the name of the American teacher D. Dewey, whose work had a huge impact on the Western school, especially the American one. It bears the name "pedocentric" because D. Dewey proposed to build the learning process based on the needs, interests and abilities of the child. The purpose of training should be the development of general and mental abilities, a variety of skills of children. Pedocentrism is a direction in pedagogy that develops problems of teaching and upbringing, proceeding solely from the characteristics of the child. Pedocentric, reformist
didactics was the reaction of 20th century educators to the Herbartian model of teaching. Progressive teachers called it the "school of book learning", cut off from the child's world, and opposed it to the "school of work, life." One of the Western scholars so figuratively expressed the orientation of the new didactics towards the child: the verb "to teach" has two meanings - to teach whom, to teach what. To "teach John Latin" - you need to know both John and Latin, and until recently it was believed that for learning you need to know only Latin.
According to representatives of the new pedagogy, the main problem of didactics was the activation of the student in the learning process. It had to be done so that the study was independent, natural, spontaneous. For this, training must be built not as a presentation, memorization and reproduction of ready-made knowledge, but as a discovery. The acquisition of knowledge by students in the course of their spontaneous activities. Hence the name "learning by doing". The structure of the learning process looks like this: feeling of difficulty in the process of activity, formulating the problem and the essence of the difficulty, putting forward and testing hypotheses to solve the problem, conclusions and new activities in accordance with the knowledge gained. The stages of the learning process reproduce research thinking, scientific research. This approach entailed changes in the content, methods and organizational forms of training. One of the reformers V. Lai singled out three stages in the learning process: perception, processing, expression. He attached particular importance to "expression" understanding by this the various activities of children based on knowledge: essays, drawings, theater, practical work, calling it "pedagogy of action." Undoubtedly, this approach activates cognitive activity and contributes to the development of thinking, the ability to solve problems, allows comprehensive development of students, makes the learning process interesting. However, the absolutization of such didactics, its extension to all subjects and levels raises an objection: overestimating the spontaneous activities of children and following their interests in teaching leads to a loss of systematicity, to a random selection of material, does not provide a comprehensive study of the material. Such training is uneconomical. It is time consuming. In addition, with this approach, the teacher is pushed aside to the second
plan, he turns into a consultant, which leads to a decrease in the level of training.
Thus, didactics is faced with a dilemma: either to give a systematic, general fundamental education at a high academic level by the method of directed teaching - and lose individuality, psychological originality and personality development, or to give the child free initiative in learning, go only from his needs, using learning through doing - and lose the systematic knowledge of students, reduce the level of education at school, which is the case today in the United States.
The presence of problems in the traditional and pedocentric concepts makes us look for ways to solve them. The second half of the 20th century is characterized by the development of didactic thought both in our country and abroad. The contours of the modern didactic system are gradually emerging. And although as such there is no unified didactic system in science yet, there are a number of theories that have something in common. The learning objectives in most approaches envisage not only the formation of knowledge, but also the general development of students, intellectual, labor, artistic skills. The content of training is structured mainly as a subject, although there are integrative courses in both junior and senior grades. The learning process must adequately meet the goals and content of education and therefore is understood as two-way and teacher-driven. The teacher guides the students' educational and cognitive activities, organizes and conducts it, while simultaneously stimulating their independent work, avoiding the extremes of traditional, explanatory and reformist research didactics and using their merits. The learning process and other issues of didactics of the modern Russian school, as well as some Western theories, are given below in more detail. We conclude this chapter with a brief description of the main directions of transformation schooling in the present conditions and dwell on the search for pedagogy in the development of a modern didactic system that meets the objective needs of society and education.
Pedagogy. Textbook for students of pedagogical universities and pedagogical colleges / Ed. P.I. Perky. - M: Pedagogical Society of Russia, 1998 .-- 640 p.
MODERN DIDACTIC CONCEPTS
| Parameter name | Meaning |
| Topic of the article: | MODERN DIDACTIC CONCEPTS |
| Category (thematic category) | Education |
§ 1. Characteristics of the basic concepts of developmental education
In Russian pedagogy, there are a number of concepts of developmental education that interpret this issue in different ways. In this regard, it is advisable to refer to their analysis.
L. V. Zankov's concept. Since the late 1950s. the scientific team under the leadership of L. V. Zankov began a large-scale experimental study to study the objective laws and principles of teaching. It was undertaken with the aim of developing the ideas and provisions of L. S. Vygotsky on the relationship between education and the general development of schoolchildren.
The efforts of L.V. Zankov's team were aimed at developing a system of teaching younger schoolchildren, which would achieve a much higher level of development of younger schoolchildren than when teaching according to traditional methods. Such training was of a complex nature: the content of the experiment was not individual objects, methods and techniques, but "verification of the legitimacy and effectiveness of the very principles of the didactic system."
The basis of the training system according to L.V. Zankov is the following interrelated principles:
training at a high level of difficulty;
fast paced learning program material;
the leading role of theoretical knowledge;
students' awareness of the learning process;
purposeful and systematic development work for all students, including the weakest.
The principle of teaching at a high level of difficulty is characterized, according to L. V. Zankov, not so much by the fact that the "average norm" of difficulty is exceeded, but above all by the fact that the child's spiritual forces are revealed, and they are given space and direction. At the same time, he had in mind the difficulty associated with the knowledge of the essence of the studied phenomena, the dependences between them, with the genuine introduction of schoolchildren to the values of science and culture.
1 See: L. V. Zankov. Selected pedagogical works. - M., 1990 .-- S. 102.
The most essential thing here is, in fact, that the assimilation of certain knowledge becomes at the same time both the property of the student and the next step that ensures the transition to a higher stage of development. Learning at a high level of difficulty is accompanied by the observance of the measure of difficulty, which is of a relative nature.
For example, the program for grade III includes the topic "The meaning of the cases of nouns (adverbs). Some basic meanings". This topic is of a sufficiently high level of difficulty for a given age, but its study stimulates the development of schoolchildren's thinking. Prior to this topic, they studied the first, second and third declensions of nouns and are already familiar with the endings of nouns related to different types declension, but standing in the same case. Now students should distract from the differences that are characteristic of all types of declension, and comprehend the meaning of a particular case in a generalized form. Thus, the non-sentence instrumental case, depending on the verb, is shown in the most typical meaning of the tool or means with which the action is performed (chopping with an ax, drawing with a brush, writing with a pen, etc.). This generalization is a transition to a higher level of thinking. This principle is uniquely implemented in the training system of the innovator teacher S. N. Lysenkova.
2 See: L. V. Zankov, Didactics and Life. - M., 1968.
Another principle is organically connected with the principle of teaching at a high level of difficulty: when studying program material, you need to go forward at a fast pace. This presupposes a refusal from the repetitive repetition of the past. At the same time, the most important thing is the continuous enrichment of schoolchildren with new and new knowledge. At the same time, this principle should not be confused with haste in educational work; one should also not strive for a large number of tasks performed by schoolchildren. More important is the enrichment of the student's mind with versatile content and the creation of favorable conditions for a deep understanding of the information received.
An effective means that allows both strong and weak students to go at a fast pace is the use of a differentiated methodology, the specificity of which is that different students go through the same questions of the program with different depths.
The next principle of L.V. Zankov's system is the leading role of theoretical knowledge already in primary school, which are the leading means of the development of schoolchildren and the basis for mastering skills and abilities. This principle was put forward in opposition to the traditional ideas about the concreteness of the thinking of primary schoolchildren, since modern psychology does not provide a basis for such a conclusion. On the contrary, experimental research in the field educational psychology, without denying the role of students' figurative ideas, show the leading role of theoretical knowledge in primary education (G.S.Kostyuk, V.V.Davydov, D.B. Elkonin, etc.).
Younger schoolchildren are capable of assimilating terms that cannot be regarded as mere memorization of definitions. Mastering a scientific term is an important condition for correct generalization and, therefore, for the formation of a concept.
Theoretical knowledge is not limited to terms and definitions. An important place in the teaching of primary schoolchildren is occupied by the assimilation of dependencies, laws (for example, the transposition law of addition, multiplication in the course of mathematics, the patterns of seasonal changes in the life of plants and animals in natural science, etc.).
This principle applies to the study of all subjects. But it does not diminish the importance of the formation of skills and abilities in junior schoolchildren. In the training system of L. V. Zankova, skills are formed on the basis of full-fledged general development, on the basis of a deep understanding of the relevant concepts, relationships, dependencies.
The principle of schoolchildren's awareness of the learning process follows from the generally accepted didactic principle of consciousness. L. V. Zankov, analyzing his various interpretations (S. V. Ivanov, M. N. Skatkin, N. G. Kazansky, I. I. Ganelin, etc.), emphasized the importance of understanding teaching material, the ability to apply theoretical knowledge in practice, recognized the extreme importance of mastering mental operations (comparison, analysis, synthesis, generalization), the importance of positive attitude schoolchildren for educational work. All this, according to L.V. Zankov, is extremely important, but not enough. An important condition for the development of a student is the fact that the process of mastering knowledge and skills is the object of his awareness.
According to the traditional technique, when passing the multiplication table, various techniques are used to facilitate its memorization. This makes it possible to shorten the time for studying it and eliminate many difficulties. According to L.V. Zankov's system, the educational process is structured so that the student understands the grounds for the location of the material, it is extremely important to memorize certain of its elements.
A special place in his system is occupied by the principle of purposeful and systematic work on the development of all students, incl. and the weakest. L.V. Zankov explained this by the fact that an avalanche of training exercises falls on weak students. According to the traditional methodology, this measure is necessary to overcome the academic failure of schoolchildren. The experience of L.V. Zankov showed the opposite: the overload of those who do not succeed with training tasks does not contribute to the development of children. It only increases their lag. Unsuccessful students, no less, but more than other students, need to be systematically worked on their development. Experiments have shown that such work leads to shifts in the development of weak students and to better results in the assimilation of knowledge and skills.
The considered principles were concretized in programs and methods of teaching grammar, reading, mathematics, history, natural history and other subjects.
The didactic system proposed by L. V. Zankov turned out to be effective for all stages of the learning process. At the same time, despite its productivity in the development of a schoolchild, it remains an unrealized concept so far. In the 1960s and 1970s. attempts to implement it in mass school practice did not give the expected results, since teachers were unable to provide new programs with appropriate teaching technologies.
School orientation in the late 1980s - early 1990s. on personal developmental learning led to a revival of this concept.
Content learning concept. In the 1960s. a scientific team was created under the leadership of psychologists V.V.Davydov and D. B. Elkonin, who tried to establish the role and significance of the younger school age in the mental development of a person. It was found that in modern conditions at a given age, it is possible to solve specific educational tasks, provided that students develop abstract-theoretical thinking and arbitrary control of behavior.
1 See: V. V. Davydov. Problems of Developmental Education. - M., 1986.
Research has also found that traditional primary education does not provide the full development of the majority of primary schoolchildren. This means that it does not create the necessary zones of proximal development in working with children, but trains and consolidates those mental functions, which arose in their base and began to develop back in preschool age(sensory observation, empirical thinking, utilitarian memory, etc.). It follows that training should be aimed at creating the necessary zones of proximal development, which would eventually turn into mental neoplasms.
Such training is focused not only on familiarization with the facts, but also on the knowledge of the relationship between them, the establishment of cause-and-effect relationships, on the transformation of relations into an object of study. Proceeding from this, V.V. Davydov and D. B. Elkonin associate their concept of developmental education, first of all, with the content of academic subjects and the logic (methods) of its deployment in the educational process.
From their point of view, the orientation of the content and methods of teaching mainly towards the formation of the foundations of empirical thinking in schoolchildren in primary school is not the most effective way of children's development. The construction of school subjects should imply the formation of theoretical thinking in schoolchildren, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ has its own special, different from the empirical, content.
At the root of the developmental education of schoolchildren, according to V.V. Davydov and D.B. Elkonin, lies the theory of formation learning activities and its subject in the process of assimilating theoretical knowledge through analysis, planning and reflection. In this theory, we are not talking about a person's assimilation of knowledge and skills in general, but namely about the assimilation that occurs in the form of a specific educational activity. In the process of its implementation, the student acquires theoretical knowledge. Their content reflects what is happening, the formation and development of an object. At the same time, the theoretical reproduction of the real, the concrete as a unity of diversity is carried out by the movement of thought from the abstract to the concrete.
When starting to master a subject, schoolchildren, with the help of a teacher, analyze the content of the educational material, highlight in it a non-initial general attitude, discovering at the same time that it manifests itself in many other special cases. By fixing the distinguished initial general relation in sign form, they create a meaningful abstraction of the studied subject.
Continuing the analysis of the educational material, the students reveal with the help of the teacher the natural connection of this initial relationship with its various manifestations and thereby obtain a meaningful generalization of the subject being studied. Further, students use meaningful abstractions and generalizations to consistently create, with the help of a teacher, other, more particular abstractions and combine them in a holistic academic subject. In this case, they turn the initial mental formations into a concept, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ serves in the future general principle their orientation in all the variety of factual educational material.
This way of assimilating knowledge has two characteristic features. First of all, the thought of students purposefully moves from the general to the particular. Secondly, assimilation is aimed at identifying by students the conditions of origin of the content of the concepts they are assimilating.
For example, even in elementary school, children get an idea of the common plants of their area - about trees and shrubs of a forest, park, garden, about vegetables and field crops, learn to distinguish them by their external features, learn how a person uses them. This is the first stage of acquaintance with the plant world, the result of which is the knowledge of the sensually concrete. After that, the children begin a detailed study of the individual organs of the flowering plant, their structure and functions. At this stage of cognition, abstractions are formed that reflect the individual aspects of the whole - the structure, functions and regularities of the life of a seed, root, stem, leaf͵ of a flower. Flowering plant here it is torn out of the general natural connection with other groups of plants and is considered statically, outside of phylogeny. At the next stage, based on previously formed abstractions, theoretically reproduced specifically the entire vegetable world in his historical development... It is no longer sensually concrete, but conceptually concrete, reproduced on the basis of abstractions and cognitive laws.
Acquaintance with the leading theoretical positions should be close to the beginning of the study of the subject. Facts are easier to assimilate if they are studied in relation to theoretical ideas, grouped and systematized with their help.
The described general psychological characteristics of the process of ascent from the abstract to the concrete becomes clearer if we turn to a specific example.
One of the basic tasks of teaching the Russian language in primary school is the formation of spelling skills in schoolchildren, which is usually poorly solved. The reason for this, according to V.V. Davydov, is that the spelling material is perceived not in its own specific system, but in the form of isolated rules, concepts, due to which children are not aware of the basic laws of Russian spelling, the systematic nature of its concepts and rules.
The basis for teaching Russian spelling to primary schoolchildren, in his opinion, is the phonemic principle of Russian spelling. Associated with this principle is the general regularity of Russian spelling, according to which the same letters of the alphabet denote a phoneme in all its modifications. The use of this principle suggests the formation of the concept of a phoneme in schoolchildren in its weak and strong position (unstressed and stressed vowels), ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ can then serve as a single basis for teaching children a common way of highlighting and writing all spelling.
Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, junior schoolchildren from the very beginning they master the theoretical foundations of Russian writing and master spelling skills. Οʜᴎ see the letter as a sign of a phoneme, not a sound. A phoneme is that unit of the sound structure of a language that performs the function of identifying and developing it significant units(morpheme) and which is realized not in a separate sound, but in a system of positionally alternating sounds. The letter acts for children as a means of realizing, when writing, that the relationship between the meaning of a morpheme and its phonemic form, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ in oral speech is realized through sounds. Isolation and initial analysis of this relationship, outside of which it is impossible to understand the nature of Russian writing, should constitute the content of the first educational tasks solved by primary schoolchildren.
This example shows that for the formation of a full-fledged educational activity in younger students, it is extremely important that they systematically solve educational problems. When solving them, they find a general way of approaching many particular problems, which are subsequently carried out as if on the move and immediately correctly.
The educational task is solved through a system of actions. The first is acceptance learning task, the second is the transformation of the situation included in it. The task is aimed at finding a genetically initial relationship of the objective conditions of the situation, the orientation towards ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ serves as a general basis for the subsequent solution of all other tasks. With the help of other educational actions, schoolchildren model and study this initial attitude, isolate it in private conditions, control and evaluate it.
The assimilation of theoretical knowledge through appropriate actions requires an orientation towards the essential relationships of the subjects studied, which involves the implementation of analysis, planning and reflection of a meaningful nature. For this reason, during the assimilation of theoretical knowledge, conditions arise for the development of precisely these mental actions as important components of theoretical thinking.
1 See: A. Zak 3. Development of theoretical thinking in younger students. - M., 1984.
The carrier of educational activity is its subject. The younger student in this role performs educational activities initially together with others and with the help of a teacher. The development of the subject occurs in the very process of the formation of this activity, when the student gradually turns into a student, ᴛ.ᴇ. into a child who changes and improves himself. To do this, he must be aware of his limited abilities in something, strive and be able to overcome his own limitations. This means that the child must consider the basis of his own actions and knowledge, ᴛ.ᴇ. reflect.
The child's acquisition of the need for learning activity, the corresponding motives, contributes to the strengthening of the desire to learn. It is the desire and ability to learn that characterize the younger student as a subject of educational activity.
Initially, younger students carry out educational activities together, support each other in accepting and solving a problem, and discuss ways to search. It is in these situations that zones of proximal development arise. In other words, at the first stages, educational activity is performed by a collective subject. Gradually, everyone begins to independently implement it, becoming an individual subject of this activity.
1 See: G.A. Tsukerman Types of communication in training. - Tomsk, 1993.
The concept of developing education by V. V. Davydov and D. B. Elkonin is aimed primarily at the development of creativity as the basis of the personality. It is this type of developmental education that they oppose to the traditional one. It should be noted that many of the provisions of this concept have been confirmed in the course of long-term experimental work. Its development and testing continues at the present time. At the same time, this concept is not yet sufficiently implemented in mass educational practice.
The concept of the phased formation of mental actions was developed on the basis of the corresponding theory of P.Ya. Galperin and N.F. Talyzina. It can be thought of as a series of steps.
The first stage involves the actualization of the student's corresponding motivation, preliminary acquaintance with the purpose of the action, since only in the case when the purpose of the assignment coincides with the motive, actions can be considered activity.
The second stage is associated with the awareness of the scheme of the orienting basis of activity (action). Students first get acquainted with the nature of the activity, the conditions for its course, the sequence of orientation, executive and control functions. The level of generalization of actions, and hence the possibility of transferring them to other conditions, depends on the completeness of the indicative basis of these actions. There are three types of such a basis:
‣‣‣ an incomplete system of orientations is given in a finished form, according to the model, necessary for operational execution (for example, mastering the elements of reading techniques);
‣‣‣ a complete approximate basis of action is given in the finished form;
‣‣‣ The indicative basis for action is presented in a generalized manner.
The third stage is the performance of an action in an external form - material or materialized, ᴛ.ᴇ. using any models, diagrams, drawings, etc. These actions include not only orientation, but also executive and control functions. At this stage, students are required to pronounce aloud the messages about the operations performed and their features.
The fourth stage involves external speech, when the action is subjected to further generalization due to speech (oral or written) design and separation from materialized means.
The fifth stage is the stage of inner speech, at which the action takes on a mental form.
Finally, the sixth stage is associated with the performance of the action on the mental plane (interiorization of the action).
The advantage of the technology of the gradual formation of mental actions is the creation of conditions for the student to work at an individual pace and for motivated self-management of educational and cognitive activities.
The concept of problem learning is related to intensification traditional learning, which involves the search for reserves of mental development of students and above all - creative thinking, the ability to independently cognitive activities... The development of the concept is due to the fact that in recent years the total volume of scientific knowledge has been rapidly increasing: according to scientists, it doubles every eight years. The rapidly growing flow of scientific information leads to the fact that every year the gap between the total amount of scientific knowledge and that part of it that is assimilated at school or university is increasing. Not a single educational institution is able to give a person all the knowledge that he will need for work. All your life you will need to study, replenish your knowledge in order to keep up with the rapid pace of life, from the rapid progress of science and technology.
Fundamental works on the theory and practice of problem learning appeared in the late 1960s - early 1970s. (T.V. Kudryavtsev, A.M. Matyushkin, M.I.Makhmutov, V. Okon and others).
The essence of problem-based learning is the creation (organization) of problem situations in front of students, awareness, acceptance and solution of these situations in the process of joint activities of students and teachers with the maximum independence of the former and under the general guidance of the latter, directing the students' activities.
Problem-based learning, unlike any other education, contributes not only to the formation of an extremely important system of knowledge, abilities and skills among students, but also to the achievement of a high level of mental development of schoolchildren, the development of their ability to self-study, self-education. Both of these tasks are implemented with great success precisely in the process of problem-based learning, since the assimilation of educational material occurs in the course of an active search activity of students, in the process of solving a system of problem-cognitive tasks by them. One more important goal of problem-based learning should be noted: the formation of a special style of mental activity, research activity and student independence.
See: Kudryavtsev T.V. Psychology of creative thinking. - M., 1975 .-- S. 200-201.
Problem-based learning in general is as follows: the students are faced with a problem, and they, with the direct participation of the teacher or independently, explore the ways and means of solving it, ᴛ.ᴇ. build a hypothesis, outline and discuss ways to test its truth, argue, conduct experiments, observations, analyze their results, reason, prove. These are, for example, tasks for the independent "discovery" of rules, laws, formulas, theorems, independent derivation of the law of physics, spelling rules, mathematical formulas, discovery of a method for proving a geometric theorem, etc.
At the same time, the teacher is like an experienced conductor organizing a research search. In one case, he himself can conduct this search with the help of students. Having posed a problem, the teacher reveals a way to solve it, reason with the students, make assumptions, discuss them with them, refute objections, and prove the truth. In other words, the teacher demonstrates to students the path of scientific thinking, makes them follow the dialectical movement of thought to the truth, makes them, as it were, accomplices in scientific search. Otherwise, the role of the teacher should be minimal. It provides students with the opportunity to completely independently look for ways to solve problems. But even here the teacher does not take a passive position, and when it is extremely important, he subtly guides the students' thoughts in order to avoid fruitless attempts and unnecessary waste of time.
The use of problem-based learning technology in this regard allows you to teach students to think logically, scientifically, dialectically, creatively; promotes the transfer of knowledge into beliefs; evokes in them deep intellectual feelings, incl. feelings of satisfaction and confidence in their capabilities and powers; forms students' interest in scientific knowledge. It has been established that independently "discovered" truths, patterns are not so easily forgotten, and if they are forgotten, they can be restored faster.
As already noted, the main thing in problem learning is the creation of a problem situation. A problematic situation characterizes a certain psychological state of a student that arises in the process of completing an assignment, for which there are no ready-made means and ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ requires the assimilation of new knowledge about the subject, methods or conditions. The condition for the emergence of a problem situation is extremely important in the disclosure of a new relationship, property or method of action.
A problematic situation means that in the course of activity a person came across, often quite unexpectedly, something incomprehensible, unknown, disturbing, etc. The thinking process begins with an analysis of a problem situation, the result of which is the formulation of a task (problem). The emergence of the problem means that it was possible to preliminarily separate the given (known) and unknown (sought). Establishing a connection, a relationship between the known and the unknown allows you to search and find something new, hitherto hidden, unknown (A.V. Brushlinsky).
The first sign of a problematic situation in learning is that it creates a difficulty that the student can overcome only as a result of his own mental activity. The problem situation should be meaningful to the student. Its emergence should, as far as possible, be related to the interests and previous experience of the students. Finally, a more general problematic situation should include a number of more specific ones.
The types of problem situations that most often arise in the educational process were identified by T.V. Kudryavtsev. A problematic situation arises:
‣‣‣ when a discrepancy is found between the already existing knowledge systems of students and new requirements (between old knowledge and new facts, between knowledge of a lower and higher level, between everyday and scientific knowledge);
‣‣‣ while it is extremely important to choose from the systems of available knowledge, the only extremely important system is the use of which alone can provide the right decision the proposed problematic task;
‣‣‣ in front of students - when they are faced with new practical conditions for using existing knowledge, when there is a search for ways to apply knowledge in practice;
‣‣‣ if there is a contradiction between the theoretically possible way of solving the problem and the practical impracticability or inexpediency of the chosen method, as well as between the practically achieved result of the task and the lack of theoretical justification;
‣‣‣ when solving technical problems - when between appearance there is no direct correspondence between the schematic images and the design of the technical device;
‣‣‣ when there is an objectively inherent contradiction in the schematic diagrams between the static nature of the images themselves and it is extremely important to read the dynamic processes in them.
The creation of a problem situation presupposes a practical or theoretical task in which the student must discover new knowledge or actions to be assimilated. In this case, the following conditions should be observed:
‣‣‣ the assignment should be based on the knowledge and skills that the student possesses;
‣‣‣ unknown, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ needs to be discovered, constitutes a general pattern to be learned, a general mode of action or some general conditions for performing an action;
‣‣‣ the completion of the problematic task should cause the student to have a need for assimilable knowledge.
The problem task offered to the student must correspond to his intellectual capabilities. As a rule, it precedes the explanation of the learning material to be assimilated.
Study tasks, questions, practical tasks, etc. can serve as problem tasks. At the same time, a problematic task and a problem situation should not be confused. A problematic task in itself is not a problem situation; it can cause a problem situation only under certain conditions. The same problematic situation should be caused by different types of jobs.
It is customary to distinguish four basic links in the technology of problem learning: awareness of the general problem situation; its analysis and the formulation of a specific problem; solving the problem (putting forward, justifying hypotheses, consistently testing them); checking the correctness of the solution to the problem.
Given the dependence on which and how many links are implemented in the educational process, we can distinguish three levels of implementation of problem learning technology.
With traditional teaching technology, the teacher himself formulates and solves the problem (deduces a formula, proves a theorem, etc.). The student must understand and remember someone else's thought, remember the formulation, the principle of the solution, the course of reasoning.
The first level of problem learning technology is characterized by the fact that the teacher poses a problem, formulates it, indicates the final result and directs the student to an independent search for solutions. The second level differs in that the student develops the ability to independently formulate and solve a problem, and the teacher only points to it, not formulating the final result. And finally, at the third level, the teacher does not even point out the problem: the student must see it on his own, and having seen it, formulate and explore the possibilities and ways of solving it. As a result, the ability to independently analyze a problem situation and see the problem, find the right answer is brought up.
If the teacher feels that students find it difficult to complete a particular task, he can enter additional information, thereby reducing the degree of problematicity and transfer students to a lower level of problem learning technology.
The three-level technology of problem learning is applicable when setting a problem to "discover" a simple mathematical law, spelling rule, historical or biological regularity.
The concept of ZI Kalmykova. According to this concept, such learning is developmental, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ forms productive or creative thinking. The main indicators of this thinking are:
‣‣‣ originality of thought, the ability to receive answers that deviate far from the usual;
‣‣‣ the speed and smoothness of the emergence of unusual associative links;
‣‣‣ "susceptibility" to the problem, its unusual solution;
‣‣‣ fluency of thought as the number of associations, ideas that arise per unit of time in accordance with some requirement;
‣‣‣ the ability to find new unusual functions of an object or part of it.
1 See: Kalmykova Z.I. Productive thinking as the foundation of learning. - M., 1981.
Developmental learning should be carried out while focusing on a system of didactic principles. Among them, the most significant are: problematic teaching; individualization and differentiation of learning; harmonious development of various components of thinking (concrete, abstract-theoretical); the formation of algorithmic and heuristic methods of mental activity; special organization of mnemonic activity. The last two principles are specific to this concept.
Considering the formation of generalized methods of mental activity as a principle of developmental learning, ZI Kalmykova divides them into two large groups - methods of an algorithmic type and heuristic ones. The first are methods of rational, correct thinking, fully consistent with the laws of formal logic. Such techniques determine the sequence of actions for the purpose of error-free problem solving. At the same time, the formation of algorithmic methods of mental activity is a necessary, but not sufficient condition for the development of students' creative thinking. Algorithmic techniques are the basis for the formation of reproductive thinking.
The specificity of creative (productive) thinking involves the use of heuristic techniques. These techniques include concretization, abstraction, variation, analogy. Οʜᴎ are called heuristic because they directly stimulate the search for new problems, the discovery of new knowledge for subjects and thus correspond to the very nature, the specifics of creative thinking. Unlike algorithmic ones, heuristic methods are oriented not towards formal-logical, but towards meaningful analysis of problems, directing thought towards penetrating into the essence of the phenomenon being studied. Since only very few students develop these techniques independently, they need to be specially taught.
ZI Kalmykova considers another principle of developmental education to be a special organization of mnemonic activity that ensures the strength of knowledge, the readiness of students to update them in accordance with the requirements of the problem. The emphasis on this principle is due to the fact that increased attention to productive (creative) thinking led to an underestimation of the other side of mental activity - reproductive thinking - and the inextricably linked mnemonic activity. In works devoted to the problems of productive thinking (A.M. Matyushkin, T.V. Kudryavtsev, etc.), the negative role of past experience, which can inhibit the movement of thought in a new direction, is considered. In independent, creative thinking, according to Kalmykova, productive and reproductive processes are inextricably linked.
Conscious knowledge is an essential component of mental development. Their preservation requires special efforts. Studies by Z. I. Kalmykova confirm that for the realization of the possibilities of creative thinking, it is extremely important not only to have knowledge in working memory, but also to translate it into long-term memory for further use.
Experiments have shown that in simple situations, when addictions are used in the same way, when reproductive thinking is required, preliminary special memorization of knowledge (definitions, formulas, etc.) is not necessary. In this case, reference books can be used. Moreover, in difficult situations, when solving non-standard tasks, when it is extremely important to activate productive thinking, a firm consolidation of basic knowledge in memory is required. This probably applies not only to formulas and not only mathematics, but also to other subjects and other aspects of each subject.
VF Shatalov, a Ukrainian teacher-innovator, believes that a student who works with a reference book differs from a student who knows all the formulas, in the same way as a beginner chess player differs from a grandmaster. The first one sees only one move ahead. To think creatively, to discover the new, to reject the already known, the old, it is extremely important to own this old, to know that you are rejecting.
3. I. Kalmykova identifies the following methods of mnemonic activity: direct setting on memorization; conscious application of such techniques as grouping, classification, drawing up a plan, highlighting semantic supports; "compression", "compaction" of the material; the imposition of information on graphically presented "supports" - conventional symbols
MODERN DIDACTIC CONCEPTS - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "MODERN DIDACTIC CONCEPTS" 2017, 2018.
Subject, functions and tasks of didactics as a science.
Didactics as an academic subject.
Connection of didactics with other sciences.
Subject, functions and tasks of didactics as a science.
Plan
In the process of the evolution of cognition in society, a pedagogical science - didactics (term: from the Greek. didaktikos means "teaching, related to teaching", didasko- "studying").
From the history of didactics. The term was introduced into pedagogical reality by a famous German scientist Wolfgang Rathke(Ratichiem) (1571 - 1635), who viewed didactics as the art of teaching. The founder of didactics is considered to be an outstanding Czech teacher Jan Amos Comenius (1592 - 1670), who, in his theoretical treatise "Great Didactics", expressed the idea that didactics is "the universal art of teaching everyone to everything", "the formation of morals in the direction of comprehensive morality" and set out the main provisions, ideas and conclusions on learning theory.
I.F. Herbart(17762-1841), developing the theoretical foundations of didactics, understood it as an internal, holistic and consistent theory of "upbringing learning", combining the process of teaching and learning;
K.D. Ushinsky(1824-1870) raised the problem of the extreme importance of establishing links between theory and practice of teaching, psychology and pedagogy on the basis of the unity of the sensual and rational in cognition;
D. Dewey(1859-1952) focused on the active role of the child in the learning process, the principle of practical activity based on personal experience and the formation of the ability for intellectual activity.
In the development of didactics, one can conditionally distinguish historical stages.
So I. Marev, a famous Bulgarian philosopher and teacher, identifies the following stages in the development of didactics.
The first period: until the 17th century (before Ya. A. Komensky) - the pre-scientific stage of "pedagogical and didactic creativity"; situational, direct comprehension of the didactic process, "educational traditions and customs" in the conditions of the domination of medieval scholasticism.
Second period: from 17th century - to mid. 20th century (from J.A. Komensky - before the appearance of cybernetics as general theory on management processes) - the development of pedagogical and didactic theories, the establishment of basic laws. Contributions to the development of didactics were made by: I. G. Pestalozzi, I. F. Herbart, A. F. Disterweg, K. D. Ushinsky, N. A. Korf, V. P. Vakhterev, P. F. Kapterev, and others scientists.
The third period: from the middle of the 20th century - to the present day - a stage when a tendency was outlined for solving urgent scientific and social problems on the creation and integration of quantitative and qualitative theories in pedagogy and didactics, on the creation and use of new didactic materials, technical teaching aids , educational and monitoring programs. At this time didactics were developed by J. Dewey (USA), P.N. Gruzdev, M.A. Danilov, B.P. Esipov, L.V. Zankov, M.N. Skatkin, Polish teacher V. Okon, I. Ya.Lerner, V.V. Kraevsky and other scientists of our country.
Didactics- a branch of pedagogical science that develops the theory of teaching and education.
Didactics as a science - it is a pedagogical theory of upbringing and developmental training and education.
"Didactics is a theory of upbringing and developmental education, or, in other words, a phenomenon of reality, characterized by a purposefully programmed content of social experience and organized transmission of it to the younger generation in order to preserve and develop culture." (I.Ya. Lerner. Philosophy of didactics and didactics as philosophy. M .: Publishing house of ROU, 1995, p.11).
In modern didactics, the organization of the educational process as a whole is also studied. At the same time, in the world scientific knowledge under the conditions of the process of differentiation and integration of sciences, a tendency has emerged to create a science of education - educationalology (the term is from the English).
The object of research in didactics is the learning process in all its scope and diversity. Subject research is the organization of the learning process in logic: patterns, principles, goals and objectives, content, methods and techniques, technologies, means, organizational forms of training. According to V. Okon, the subject of didactic research is any conscious didactic activity expressed in learning processes, in their content, course, methods, means and organization, subordinated to the set goals.
The purpose of didactics: describe, explain, simulate the process of modern learning and education for the productive implementation of the developmental possibilities of the learning and education process in the modern educational space. Learning theory is designed to solve a number of tasks, represented in the opinion of V.A. Sitarov, in a certain hierarchy.
General task (for pedagogical sciences): familiarizing the younger generation with universal human values through mastering the most significant achievements of human civilization in order to acquire solid and true knowledge about the basic phenomena and laws of nature, society and man and their conscious and active implementation in their own practical activities.
Specific tasks didactics as learning theory: determination of the scope and content of scientific knowledge, ᴛ.ᴇ. identification of the ontological foundations of the learning process; the formation of technological tools focused on the functions of didactics; identification of prognostic-target positions of didactics, ie, the creation of optimal conditions for organizing the educational process and their correction.
Specific tasks of teaching technology: identification of the didactic construct of the learning process, that is, its cognitive (epistemological) essence; designing a learning model in accordance with its structural characteristics: the purpose of learning, content, methods and techniques, forms of organization of learning, learning outcomes.
In general terms, the tasks of didactics can be represented as follows:
to explore the regular connections between the development of a personality and the learning process in which it develops;
scientifically substantiate the goals of training and education, the selection and design of the content of training and education,
selection of teaching aids (methods, forms, technologies, etc.); study the forms of organization of training, etc.
Functions of didactics defined in the following form: in domestic didactics - scientific-theoretical and design-technological (M.N. Skatkin, V.V. Kraevsky), in foreign didactics: cognitive, practical (V.Okon ').
The result scientific research didactics are the theoretical foundations of the organization of upbringing and developmental training and education.
Didactic knowledge is systemic, universal and regulatory character.
Systemic character knowledge of didactics is explained by the fact that the learning process is characterized by a set of invariant features that give constancy to many characteristic connections between the sides of learning and their interaction, which makes it possible to consider didactic knowledge in a certain hierarchy. So in didactics there were blocks of knowledge: goals, content of education, its functions in the formation of personality, methods of assimilation, teaching methods, their forms, organizational forms of teaching, learning technologies, learning outcomes, which form a system of interrelated, interdependent and mutually influencing factors of the educational process.
Universal character didactic knowledge lies in their universal (general educational) meaning, in the extreme importance of their application where training takes place ( Kindergarten, school, university, etc.).
Normative nature due to the fact that the use of many theoretical didactic knowledge is the norm in the organization of the educational process of any educational institution.
The conceptual foundations of didactics, according to B.S.Gershunsky and N.S. Rozov, consist in the following fundamental provisions:
variability, that is, theoretical recognition of the objective diversity of learning technologies and their practical implementation;
fundamentality, assuming focus on generalized and universal knowledge, the formation of a general culture and the development of scientific thinking;
individualization, due to the need for unregulated, creative activities in accordance with the characteristics of each individual individual;
theorizing, which relates to the general content of education and to the status of the components of taught knowledge;
pluralization, associated with the extreme importance of making decisions in the context of the multiplicity of education in the world;
axiologization, assuming a systematic consideration of possible value orientations and systems;
humanization, the basis of which is the individual-personal, value-semantic, cultural and activity orientation of the subjects of the educational process;
integrity and integration both content and technological components of the educational process, focused on the perception of system-structured knowledge based on the integration of materials from various scientific fields, the presence of interdisciplinary connections and dependencies, etc.
Didactics asks t p and key questions and answers on them in didactic research and their theoretical understanding.
Why teach?- The goals of education related to the motivational and value orientations of the subjects of the educational process.
What to teach?- Determination of the content of education, development of educational standards, curricula and methodological support to the educational process.
How (how?) To teach?- Selection of didactic principles, methods, technologies and forms of education that meet modern requirements for the organization of the educational process.
Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, modern didactics, with more than three hundred years of development history, continues to develop the most general theoretical problems of organizing the process of teaching and education with the aim of normative and applied support of modern practice of the educational process.
2. Basic concepts and scientific categories in didactics.
The main categories of didactics are: the learning process, the principles of didactics, the content of training and education, forms and methods of organizing educational activities; each of them is interconnected with others and is considered as a part, an element of an integral scientific and didactic system.
Basic concepts of didactics: education, training, teaching, learning.
Education considered as: a) a system, b) a process; c) the result; d) value, etc.
The RF Law "On Education" (1992 ᴦ.) Presents education as a purposeful process of upbringing and training in the interests of a person, society, and the state, accompanied by the statement that students have achieved educational levels (educational qualifications) established by the state, certified by an appropriate document.
The RF Law “On Education” defines the most important positions of the state in the field of education.
The right to education is one of the basic and inalienable constitutional rights of citizens Russian Federation... Education is carried out in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation and the norms international law... The field of education in our country has been proclaimed one of the priority ones.
Modern education makes it possible to ensure continuous education in a single system of state and public educational institutions, ensuring the unity and interconnection of all links that jointly solve the problems of general education, polytechnic and vocational training a person, taking into account the needs and capabilities of the person himself and society.
Under education understand today integrative and multifaceted process and result familiarizing a person with culture, social experience, spiritual and informational spheres and - holistic personality formation.
In modern education, there are trends:
Democratization (expansion of the rights and freedoms of all subjects of the educational process);
Humanization (gradual transition to a humanistic educational process through humanization of all its manifestations and aspects);
Humanitarization (an increase in the proportion of humanitarian knowledge: about a person, his abilities,
relationships, opportunities and humanization of knowledge for the purpose of spiritual development of students);
Diversification (the presence of multivariance in the educational space: a variety of educational
programs, textbooks, types of educational institutions, etc.);
Individualization and differentiation of learning;
Continuity of education;
Alternatives to education (the possibility of choosing different forms of education: in a state educational institution, distance learning, external studies, individual training, etc.);
Enhancing the role and prestige of education (for society as a whole and for each person individually), etc.
In the studies of B.S. Gershunsky, E.I. Kazakova, B.T. Likhachev, A.P. Tryapitsyna, education is considered as a concept that includes the following aspects:
education as a process,ᴛ.ᴇ. integral unity of training, education, development, self-development of the individual; preservation of cultural norms with a focus on the future state of culture; creating conditions for the full realization of the internal potential of the individual and his formation as an integrated member of society, performing the function of connecting generations in a common co-existence space;
education as a socio-cultural institution, contributing to the economic, social, cultural functioning and improvement of society through specially organized purposeful socialization and inculturation of individual individuals, expressed in a system that includes educational institutions, their governing bodies, educational standards that ensure their functioning and development;
education as a result,ᴛ.ᴇ. level general culture and the education of the younger generation, the development of the spiritual and material potential that has been accumulated by human civilization in the process of its evolutionary development and is aimed at further social progress. Education as a system- this is a specially organized system of conditions and educational, methodological and scientific bodies and institutions necessary for human development, specially organized in society. (G, M. Kodzhaspirova, A. Yu. Kodzhaspirov. Pedagogical Dictionary... M .: Academy, 2003, p. 92).
Another interpretation of education, presented in the works of E.P. Belozertsev, is associated with the semantics and deep religious meaning of the concept of "sample" - "image of God", denoting the face, mask of a person, the form of human existence in the semantic field of historically formed morals, values and national ideals society. Education is viewed as an essential characteristic of an ethnos, society, human civilization, a way of their self-preservation and development, i.e. ... to educate a person - it means to change him, transform, develop his personality , to form a person in him; to engage in self-education - to transform one's own personality, to shape it under the influence of one's own intentions and work on oneself.
In domestic didactics, the most recognized is the following definition of the concept of "teaching" (based on the theory AND I. Lerner, M. N. Skatkin, V. V. Kraevsky and etc.).
Education is a specially organized, pedagogically purposeful process of the interconnected activity of the teacher and the student, aimed at the assimilation of the educational content by the student (systems of knowledge, abilities, skills, methods of creative activity, life values and worldview ideas). Teaching- this is the activity of the teacher (teacher) to organize the assimilation of the content of education by students. Teaching- ϶ᴛᴏ the activity of the student (pupil) under the guidance of the teacher, ensuring the assimilation of the content of education.
V.Okon is considering education as "a set of actions (external and internal) that allow people to learn about nature, society and culture, take part in their formation and at the same time ensure the multilateral development of skills, abilities and talents, interests and sympathies, beliefs and attitudes, as well as the acquisition of professional qualifications" ...
I.F. Kharlamov explains education as a purposeful pedagogical process of organizing and stimulating active educational and cognitive activities of students in mastering knowledge, skills, skills, development creativity, worldview, moral views.
According to V.A. Slastenin, "Teaching is nothing more than a specific process of cognition, controlled by a teacher."
3. Connection of didactics with other sciences. Didactics is related to:
with philosophy; with epistemology(theory of knowledge), which allows you to find a methodological justification for didactic manifestations and research);
with physiology(allows you to understand the mechanisms of managing the physical and mental development of students) ;
with pedagogical, developmental, social psychology, with personality psychology ( explain the main approaches to personality development in the learning process);
with the psychology of cognition(assimilation, creativity, cognitive processes, etc.);
with history ( general and educational history) ;
with linguistics ( by means of general patterns of teaching languages, depending on educational goals, tasks and the nature of the studied material in mono- and bilingualism );
with math( are used mathematical methods research) ;
with cybernetics ( the science of managing complex dynamic systems for the perception, storage and processing of information for the purpose of modeling and researching psychological and pedagogical processes);
with sociology ( sociological research methods are used), etc.
Didactics is connected with private methods, since it is the basis for the formation subject methods (private didactics), as it contains specific technologies for their practical implementation.
Pedagogy and didactics are overlapping (related) concepts;
Pedagogy and didactics are in the relationship between the whole and the part;
“Didactics” is a broader concept than “pedagogy”;
Pedagogy and didactics are separate independent disciplines.
In the majority of modern works (M. A. Danilov, V. Okon, M. N. Skatkin, G. I. Shchukina, etc.) didactics is considered as a part of pedagogy, which has its own subject of research.
4. Didactics as an academic subject will allow the future teacher:
assimilate knowledge: a) conceptual nature (basic didactic concepts, patterns, theories, etc.);
b) normative - applied nature (the implementation of didactic principles and rules allows you to build the learning process on a normative basis, etc.);
develop general didactic skills(setting a didactic goal and objectives , choice of teaching method, determination of the type of lesson, etc.): reproductive, design-variative, creative;
v) show value to various parties teaching activities related to the organization of training;
G) develop general pedagogical skills(organizational, communicative, perceptual, etc.);
d ) develop reflexive skills;
e) form information and communication competencies, etc.
The study of didactics is organized in the following forms: lectures, seminars, pedagogical research
Literature
Main literature
1. Didactics of secondary school / Edited by M. N. Skatkin..- M., 1982.
2. Okon B... Introduction to general didactics. - M., 1990.
3. Sitarov V.A.... Didactics. - M .: Publishing house. Center "Academy", 2002.
4. Pedagogy: Educational. Manual for students of pedagogical educational institutions / Slastenin V.A., I.F. Isaev, A.I. Mishchenko, E.N. Shiyanov.- M .: School-Press, 1997.
additional literature
1. Gershunsky B.S. Philosophy of Education for the 21st Century. - M., 1998.
2. Zagvyazinsky V.I. Learning theory: Modern interpretation: Textbook. manual for stud. higher. ped. institutions. - M .:
"Academy", 2001.
3. Klingberg L. Learning theory problems. - M., 1984.
4. Kupisevich Ch. Foundations of general didactics. - M., 1986.
5. Lerner I. Ya. The theory of the modern learning process and its importance for practice. // Sov. pedagogy., 1989, No. 11.-
6. Lerner I.Ya. Philosophy of didactics and didactics as philosophy. Moscow: ROU Publishing House, 1995, p. 11.
7. Marev I. Methodological foundations of didactics. - M., 1987.
8. New values of education: Thesaurus. - M., 1995.
Questions and tasks for self-control for lecture 1.
o Give a definition of didactics as a science.
o What is the purpose of didactics?
o What are basic concepts didactics?
o What sciences is didactics associated with?
o For reflection ... In everyday life we find words associated with the word "didactics": didactic goal, didactic relations, didactic requirements, didactic material, didactic theater, didacticism, didascal, didactogeny. a) What is their essence? b) Which of the following does not apply to pedagogical phenomena?
Test tasks to lecture 1.
1. The subject of didactics as a science is
1.the theoretical foundations of the organization of educational activities of students;
2.theoretical foundations of the organization of the process of upbringing and developmental training and education:
3. theoretical foundations of the organization of the pedagogical process in an educational institution.
2. The founder of didactics is considered
1. Rousseau J.-J.
2. Disterweg A.
3. Komensky Ya.A.
4. Pestalozzi I.G.
3. Functions of didactics as a science according to M.N. Skatkin, I.Ya. Lerner, V.V. Kraevsky:
1. cognitive and practical;
2. epistemological and practical;
3. scientific and theoretical and design and technological.
4. Education is
1. a multifaceted and integrative process of the holistic formation of a personality;
2. the process of assimilation by a person of social experience;
3. the process of transferring social experience to the younger generation.
4. The learning process is
1. the process of interaction between a teacher and students, aimed at assimilating knowledge, skills, skills, methods of creative activity, experience of an emotional-value attitude to the world.
2.the process of transferring social experience from the teacher to the student
3. assimilation of educational material by students.
5. The two-sidedness of the learning process is due to the unity of activities ... and ...
6. The teacher's activity in organizing the educational and cognitive activity of students is usually called ……
7. The activity of a student in the conditions of a pedagogically organized assimilation of knowledge and skills is customarily called….
8. Establish the correspondence between the definition of the essence of the learning process and the author
Learning is seen as.
Romantsova M.G., Ledvanova M.Yu., Sologub T.V.,
Section 1. Fundamentals of pedagogy and didactics
Let's characterize the most common definitions of pedagogy.
Pedagogy a science that studies the essence, patterns, tendencies of managing the process of individual and personality development.
Pedagogy - a set of theoretical, applied sciences studying upbringing, education, training.
Pedagogy - the science of upbringing relationships arising in the process of interconnection of upbringing, education and training with self-upbringing, self-education, self-study and aimed at human development.
Pedagogy - training course, which is taught in educational institutions for profiling programs.
General pedagogy - a basic discipline that studies and forms the principles, forms and methods of teaching and upbringing that are common to all age groups and educational institutions.
Pedagogical process - specially-organized, purposeful interaction of teachers and pupils, aimed at solving developmental and educational problems.
Pedagogical process - an integral educational process in the unity and interconnection of education and training, characterized by joint activities, cooperation and co-creation of its subjects, contributing to the most complete development and self-realization of the personality of the pupil. The process that realizes the goals of education in the conditions pedagogical systems, in which teaching and educational, educational, professional educational institutions.
O.S. Grebenyuk (2003) believes that pedagogy is a science that studies the essence, patterns, tendencies and prospects for the development of the pedagogical process, and the pedagogical process is dynamic system, a system-forming factor, which is a pedagogical goal, and the overall quality is the interaction of a teacher and a student.
Pedagogical excellence , according to O.S. Grebenyuk, should be supplemented by the organization of collective and individual activity, the skill of persuasion, the skill of transferring knowledge and the formation of experience in activities, the skill of mastering pedagogical techniques (2003).
Functions of pedagogy
Theoretical function pedagogy is implemented at three levels:
- Study of pedagogical experience and diagnostics of the state and results of pedagogical processes;
- Revealing stable connections and patterns in pedagogical phenomena;
- Predictive research of pedagogical activity.
Technological function also has three levels of implementation:
- Development of teaching materials;
- Implementation of the achievements of pedagogical science into pedagogical practice;
- Assessment of the impact of research results on the practice of teaching and upbringing and the corresponding correction of the interaction between theory and practice.
Under education According to O.S. Grebenyuk (2003), it is necessary to understand the process and the result of assimilating systematized knowledge, skills, and providing, on this basis, an appropriate level of personality development. According to VB Uspensky (2004), education is the process and result of mastering the system of scientific knowledge, cognitive skills and abilities, the development of creative powers and abilities of the individual.
Knowledge and its varieties
In order to understand the nature of knowledge, it is necessary to clarify the content of the term "knowledge ". In the pedagogical literature, the term is used widely. The content of the term "knowledge" is one of the eternal problems, the solution of which requires further efforts.
Let us characterize a number of statements related to the content of the term "knowledge".
Knowledge - a necessary element and prerequisite for the practical activity of a person.
Knowledge - This is a set of ideas of a person, in which the theoretical mastery of the subject is expressed. (Ideas are the yardsticks from which a person creates new ones from existing ideas).
Knowledge - the form of the subject's activity, which reflects things and processes of objective reality.
The problem over subject skills is related to content curricula traditional disciplines. This relationship is determined by the understanding of the term " knowledge".
According to P.V. Kopnin, knowledge as a necessary element and a prerequisite for a person's practical relationship to the world is the process of creating ideas that purposefully reflect objective reality in the forms of its activity and existing in the form of a certain language system. When comparing the two definitions, it is clear that there is no component that emphasizes the role of knowledge as a necessary element and a prerequisite for a person's practical relationship to the world, which separates the concepts of “sign system” and “activity for practical use”. The proof of this is the classification of academic disciplines (Kraevsky V.V.,
Lerner I.Ya.), according to which all subjects are divided into 6 types, and the following are the leading ones:
- Subjects in which subject scientific knowledge is the leading component;
- Subjects in which the leading component is the way of activity;
- Items in which the leading component is the so-called. "Vision of the world";
- Subjects, the leading component of which is a symbiosis of knowledge and methods of activity.
Didactic systems and their development
V contemporary works on didactics, it is noted that learning is an integral function of society for all peoples and for all times. Education is becoming massive and requires the creation of a permanent institution, there is a need for a scientific substantiation of this activity and the materials and means involved for its implementation. This is how it appears diadactics.
Didactics - the science of teaching and education, including the goals, content, methods, means, learning outcomes that are achieved in the process of obtaining education.
Didactics - the theory of education and training, a branch of pedagogy. The didactic principles include the main provisions that determine the content, organizational forms and methods of the educational process in accordance with its general goals and patterns.
According to N.V. Bordovskaya (2003), didactics is a branch of pedagogy aimed at studying and disclosing theoretical foundations organization of the learning process (patterns, principles, teaching methods), as well as the search and development of new principles, strategies, techniques, technologies and learning systems.
Subject of didactics - definition and formulation of the laws of the learning process, as well as the design of a more effective than the existing learning process (I.I. Logvinov).
Didactics - theoretical and normative-applied science. Its scientific function is to study real learning processes, to establish facts and regular connections between various aspects of learning, to reveal their essence, to identify trends and development prospects. Developing the problems of selecting the content of education, establishing the principles of teaching, standards for the application of methods and means of teaching, didactics performs a normative-applied, constructive-technical function. The constructive function of didactics corresponds to its principles.
The volume of didactic knowledge (I.I.Logvinov, 2007) is structured around the "points of attraction" (the learning process, principles of didactics, the content of training, organizational forms of training). The modern content of didactic knowledge differs from the knowledge of the 19th century by highlighting the principles of teaching in a separate section. Its main content corresponds to the following structural components:
- The essence of the learning process;
- Learning principles;
- Content of education;
- Teaching methods;
- Teacher;
- Organization of the learning process.
Principles of didactics
Didactic principles are decisive in the selection of the content of education, in the choice of methods and forms of education.
All the principles of didactics in their unity objectively reflect the most important laws of the learning process.
- The principle of visibility. Expresses the need for the formation of ideas and concepts based on sensory perceptions of objects and phenomena.
- The principle of consciousness and activity. In the process of learning, only knowledge is transmitted, and each person develops his own beliefs independently, i.e. consciously. In the learning process, it is necessary to take into account the general signs of the conscious assimilation of knowledge. Knowledge should be clothed in the correct verbal form, consciousness is expressed in a positive attitude towards the material being studied, in interest. A sign of the conscious assimilation of the material is the degree of independence, the higher it is, the more consciously knowledge is assimilated. Students should be interested in the learning process itself. “Beliefs cannot be bought in a shop, they are formed in the process of cognitive activity” (DI Pisarev).
- Accessibility principle lies in the need to match the content of the material, methods and forms of teaching to the level of development of students. Accessibility is determined by many factors: adherence to the principles of didactics, careful selection of the content of the material, the use of the most effective system for its study, more rational working methods, the skill of the teacher, etc.
- Scientific principle. The main goal of the principle is that students understand that everything is subject to laws and that knowledge of them is necessary for everyone living in modern society... The proposed educational material must meet modern scientific achievements. Therefore, it is necessary to constantly acquaint students with the latest achievements of scientific thought in the appropriate section of the curriculum.
- The principle of an individual approach. By implementing individual approach it is necessary to take into account the receptivity of the trainees to learning i.e. learnability. Signs of learning ability include: a stock of knowledge and skills, the ability to comprehend educational material, independently apply it in solving various problems, be able to generalize, highlight the essential features of new material, etc.
- The principle of systematicity and consistency. The presentation of the educational material is brought by the teacher to the level of consistency in the minds of the students, knowledge is given in a certain sequence and they must be interconnected. The implementation of the principle of systematicity and consistency presupposes continuity in the learning process, i.e. logical consistency and connection between the studied subjects, new material should be based on what was learned earlier.
- The principle of strength in mastering knowledge, skills and abilities. This principle is that strength is not only deep memorization, but also the ability to use what the memory has.
- The principle of connection between theory and practice. Practice is the foundation of knowledge. Theoretical research is carried out not for the sake of science itself, but for the improvement of practical activity. Education is always educational in nature. Education and upbringing is a holistic process. The learning process is the process of transferring knowledge, and the upbringing process is the process of influencing the student's system of attitudes towards the surrounding reality.
Professional education - the formation of skills in handling the appropriate means of labor, the study of the characteristics of specific types of human labor activity and the formation of skills and abilities for their implementation. The subject of didactics is teaching systems or didactic systems.
Didactic system - an ordered set of goals, content, forms, methods and teaching aids. The basis of the learning process as a didactic system is educational activity. Learning activity is carried out by a person throughout his life. This is the second profession of every person. Any didactic system includes the following elements: the goal and objectives of training (teaching); content of training; methods and means of teaching; forms of organization of training; learning outcomes.
Didactic theories and concepts
Teaching, teaching, learning are the main categories of didactics.
In the pedagogical literature, there are many definitions of the category of learning. This category is defined in terms of the result and the process. Education as a process aimed at the formation of certain knowledge, abilities, skills, social experience, personal qualities. Education as an interaction between teacher and learner. Education is a way of organizing the educational process. It is the most reliable way to receive a systematic education. At the heart of any kind or type of education is a system - "teaching and learning". Teaching - this is the teacher's activity in transferring information, organizing educational and cognitive activities, assisting with difficulties in the learning process, stimulating the interest, independence and creativity of students, assessing educational achievements. Teaching - this is the activity of the student on the development, consolidation and application of knowledge, abilities, skills; stimulation to search, solving educational problems, self-assessment of educational achievements; awareness of the personal meaning and social significance of cultural values and human experience, processes and phenomena of the surrounding reality.
Learning process bilateral, includes the learning process and the teaching process (O.S. Grebenyuk, 2003). Under training , I. N. Logvinov (2005) understands the professional activity of a teacher, which is aimed at transferring knowledge, skills, and abilities in the learning process. Activities are carried out in two versions - reproductive (reproducing) and productive (creative).
Understanding of the essence of the learning process lies at the heart of didactic theories or concepts.
The concept of didactic encyclopedia. (Ya.A. Komensky, J. Milton, I.V. Basedov).
The main goal of education is to transfer to students an extremely large amount of scientific knowledge. To fully master the content requires a search for intensive methods on the part of the teacher and a lot of independent work of students.
The concept of didactic formalism. (E. Schmidt, A. Nemeyer, I. Pestalozzi, A. Dobrovolsky). Education as a means of developing the abilities and cognitive interests of students. "Much knowledge does not teach the mind" (Heraclitus) - the main principle of the supporters of didactic formalism. The main goal of the training is to emphasize the correctness and thinking of students "to teach to think", and the rest will come to them in the process of growth. "
The concept of didactic pragmatism (J. Dewin, G. Kershenshteiner). Learning is interpreted as a process of "reconstruction of the experience" of the student. With this approach, the dialectical relationship between cognition and practical activity is violated as the basis for the harmonious development of a person in the learning process.
The concept of functional materialism . At the heart of the concept (V. Okun) lies the provision on the integral connection between cognition and activity. As the main criterion for the construction of academic disciplines, "leading ideas" are proposed that have ideological significance (for example, the ideas of evolution in biology, class struggle in history, etc.).
Paradigm (paradigm-exemplary) learning concept ... Its essence (G. Scheyerl) consists in the fact that the educational material should be presented "focally" (without observing the historical, logical sequence, focusing on typical facts and events, "exemplary" to present the content instead of a continuous presentation of the entire educational material.) This concept violates the principle of systematic presentation of educational material.
Cybernetic learning concept. (S. I. Arkhangelsky, E. I. Mashbits) Learning is the process of processing and transmitting information. The methodological basis of this direction is the theory of information and systems, as well as cybernetic patterns of information transfer.
Associative learning theory. This theory (J. Locke, Ya.A. Komensky) is based on the principles: all learning is based on sensory knowledge: visual images are important, because ensure the advancement of consciousness to generalizations; the main teaching method is exercises. The weakness of this theory is in the absence of the formation of creative activity, the ability to independently search for new knowledge is not laid.
The theory of the phased formation of mental actions in the learning process. (P.Ya. Galperin, N.F. Talyzina). The ability to manage the learning process is significantly increased if students are guided through interrelated stages: preliminary acquaintance with the action and the conditions for its implementation; formation of an action with the deployment of all operations included in it; the formation of actions on internal speech.
Management learning model (V.A. Yakunin). Learning is viewed in terms of management. Expanding the learning process, the stages of its organization as a management process are distinguished: the formation of goals; formation of an information basis for training; forecasting; decision-making; organization of performance; communication; control and evaluation of results; correction.
The well-known didactic theories have accumulated a rich practical experience of teaching and reveal the patterns, principles and methods of its organization up to the description educational technologies and the nature of the teacher-student interaction. The main didactic relation "teaching-learning" is investigated from the standpoint of different methodological foundations, with the formation of diverse didactic theories, concepts and models.
Table 1.1.
The structure of a productive version of educational activity
(quoted by I.I. Logvinov)
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1. Perception or independent formulation of the problem statement |
Indicative stage |
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2. Analysis of the problem statement 3. Reproduction of the knowledge necessary for the solution |
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4. Forecasting the search process and its results, formulating a hypothesis |
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5. Drawing up a plan, (project, program) solution |
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6. Solution of the problem based on known methods |
Executive stage |
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7. Redesigning the solution plan, finding a new way |
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8. Solving the problem in new ways |
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9. Verification of the solution. Evaluation of the rationality and effectiveness of the selected solution option |
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10. Introduction of the obtained analysis (method) into the system of knowledge, ideas, available to the student |
Control and systematizing stage |
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11. Entering new problems |
Learning process - an objective process, colored by the subjective characteristics of its participants. Learning requires a purposeful interaction between the teaching, the learner and the studied object.
Education occurs only with vigorous student activity. The educational process is carried out only if the goals of the student are consistent with the goals of the teacher.
Concepts can be learned if cognitive activity is organized. Skills can be formed on the condition of organizing the reproduction of operations and actions that underlie the skill. The strength of the assimilation of the content of educational material is the greater, the more systematically the repetition of the content is organized, and its introduction into the system of the learned earlier content. Any units of information and methods of activity become knowledge and skills, depending on the degree of reliance on the level of knowledge and skills already achieved at the time of the presentation of the new content. The presentation of variable assignments forms the readiness to transfer the acquired knowledge and related actions to a new situation.
Teaching methods
From a didactic point of view, it is advisable to single out:
Reproductive method - application of what has been learned based on a pattern or rule. Trainees' activities are algorithmic in nature, i.e. following instructions.
Explanatory and illustrative method - students gain knowledge by listening to a lecture, getting acquainted with educational and methodological literature. Perceiving and comprehending facts, assessments and conclusions, they remain within the framework of reproductive thinking.
Problem learning method ... Using various sources and means of information, the teacher, before presenting the material, poses a problem, formulates a cognitive task, shows a way to solve the task.
Partial search method. It consists in organizing an active search for solutions to the cognitive tasks put forward by the teacher. The thinking process becomes productive.
Research method. Listeners (students) independently study literature. Initiative, independence, creative search are manifested in the research plane most fully.
Patterns of the learning process
According to Yu.K. Babanskiy, "the learning process is naturally connected with the process of education, upbringing and development, which are part of the integral pedagogical process." The first regularity is the upbringing nature of teaching. The second is that the learning process is developing in nature.
N.V. Bordovskaya (2003) identifies external and internal patterns of learning. The first include the dependence of learning on social processes and conditions (socio-economic, political situation, the level of culture, the needs of society and the state in a certain type and level of education); to the second - the connections between the components of the learning process (between the goals, content of education, methods, means and forms of learning, the meaning of the educational material).
Let us characterize the features and signs of the lecture-practical training system.
Lecture - this is the main form of transferring a large amount of systematized information as an indicative basis for independent work of students (90 minutes).
Practical lesson is a form of organizing detailing, analysis, expansion, deepening, consolidation, control of the received educational information under the guidance of a university teacher.
GRAPH OF LOGICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EDUCATIONAL DISCIPLINE
The teacher should be able to develop a graph of the logical structure of the entire academic discipline and individual topics, as well as select the content of the topic.
The content of the discipline is information from a certain section of science or practical activity of a person used in the educational process to achieve the goals of studying the discipline. Today, each educational institution independently compiles work program studying the discipline. The work program can be compiled rationally if you first draw a GRAPH OF THE LOGICAL STRUCTURE OF THE WHOLE DISCIPLINE.
The graph of the logical structure of the discipline is a generalized diagram of the key concepts of the academic discipline and their interrelationships that realize the goals of its study.
When constructing the graph, only those are selected from the discipline information that must be relied upon when performing the activities defined in order to study the discipline. A graph of 2 points is built - on top, the discipline is built as a science, and below is activity - the goal of studying the discipline. In the process of drawing up the graph, these two sections are "docked". Each science has a subject of study, an object of study and specific methods of study.
Table 1.2.
Generalized graph of the logical structure of disciplines
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Discipline (science) |
Discipline (section of practical human activity) |
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Object of study, subject of study, study methods |
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Key concepts |
Key concepts |
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Relationship of key concepts |
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Activities (goals of studying the discipline) |
Activities (goals of studying the discipline) |
There can be several options for presenting the content of training in the form of a logical structure graph; the graph reflects the author's vision of the discipline. In the pedagogical literature, the term "Topic logical structure graph" - a model of educational content, presented in the form of a graph - a set of points on a plane that reflect the educational elements of a given topic, and the lines connecting them, which are didactic connections. As an example, we give the graph of the logical structure of the disciplines "Human Anatomy" and "Pedagogy with teaching methods" (diagrams). The graph of the logical structure of the discipline is its most generalized image, by concretizing the general provisions of the graph, you can easily draw up a work program for the discipline. It is necessary to structure the work program by discipline in the following sections.
Objectives of studying the discipline , formulated in the form of skills and knowledge that must be achieved at the end of the study of the discipline;
Thematic plans of lectures, seminars and workshops with brief annotations and guidelines to their conduct;
References (main and additional);
Samples of teaching and monitoring tasks (examples and answers).
Based on the work programs, the educational process is planned for a specific school year and teaching aids (textbooks, tutorials, information support of the educational process), containing detailed information, in contrast to the generalized information of the program.
The independent activity of the student acts as the basis of education at the university. The general structural cascade of any lecture is the formulation of the topic, the message of its plan and recommended literature for independent work. As the main requirements for lecturing, they put forward: high scientific level the stated information, which has ideological significance. A large volume of clearly and densely systematized and methodically revised modern scientific information. Evidence and argumentation of the statements made. Clarity of presentation of thoughts and activation of the thinking of listeners, posing questions for independent work on the problems discussed. Analysis of different points of view on solving the problems posed. Derivation of the main provisions and the formulation of conclusions. Explanation of the entered terms and names. Allowing students to listen, comprehend and record information. Establishing pedagogical contact with the audience, using didactic materials and technical means.
Logical structure graph of a discipline section
"Pedagogy with teaching methods"
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Discipline section |
Methods of teaching special disciplines of the state educational standard for higher vocational training medical specialties |
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Key concepts |
Higher professional medical education in the Russian Federation VPO management; Normative and legal documents; Educational institutions; profession, qualifications, specialization |
Pedagogical technologies Pedagogical goals, basis of activity, teaching methods, planning of the educational process, means of education, control methods |
Fundamentals of pedagogical technologies Knowledge Skill Skills Personal qualities The level of preparedness (training) Technology efficiency Pedagogical experiment |
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Relationship of key concepts |
Components pedagogical technology |
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Target activities |
Designing, organizing, conducting and evaluating the effectiveness of a practical (seminar) lesson in a medical discipline |
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Types of lectures
Introductory lecture gives the first holistic view of the subject and orientates the student to the system of work for this course. At the lecture, ideas are expressed on the methodological and organizational features of the work within the course, as well as an analysis of the educational and methodological literature recommended to students, the terms and forms of reporting are announced.
Lecture-information. Focused on the presentation and explanation of scientific information to students, subject to comprehension and memorization. This is the most traditional type of lecture in high school practice.
Overview lecture - represents the systematization of scientific knowledge at a high level, the material is presented when disclosing intra-subject and inter-subject communication, detailing and concretization is excluded. The core of the stated theoretical provisions is the scientific-conceptual and conceptual basis of the entire course or its large sections.
Problematic lecture. In this lecture, new knowledge is introduced through the problematic nature of a question, task or situation. At the same time, the process of students' cognition in cooperation and dialogue with the teacher approaches research activities... The content of the problem is revealed by organizing the search for a solution or summing up and analyzing traditional and modern points of view. .
Lecture-visualization is a visual form of presentation of lecture material by means of TCO or audio-video technology. Reading such a lecture is reduced to a detailed or short commentary on the viewed visual materials.
Binary lecture - is a kind of lecturing in the form of a dialogue between two teachers (either representatives of various scientific schools, or a scientist and a practitioner, or a teacher and a student).
Lecture with pre-planned mistakes. The lecture is designed to stimulate students to constantly monitor the proposed information (search for errors). At the end of the lecture, students are diagnosed and the mistakes made are analyzed.
Lecture-conference. It is conducted as a scientific and practical lesson with a predetermined problem and a system of reports, lasting up to 10 minutes. The totality of the presented texts (reports) will make it possible, within the framework of the proposed program, to highlight the problem. At the end of the lecture, the teacher summarizes and formulates conclusions.
Consultation lecture. This version of the lecture can be carried out according to several scenarios. The first option is carried out according to the "questions-answers" type. The second option is of the “question-answer-discussion” type.
Fundamentals of Practical Pedagogy
Pedagogical activities - professional activity, aimed at creating in the pedagogical process optimal conditions for training, education, development and self-development of the student's personality and the choice of opportunities for free and creative self-expression. Competent pedagogical activity presupposes mastery of the following skills:
1. to set and solve pedagogical problems;
2. to organize the pedagogical process as cooperation and interaction;
3. to organize educational material as a system of cognitive tasks, to carry out interdisciplinary communications, to form general educational and special skills and abilities;
4. focus on the personality and its individual characteristics;
Possess methodological and self-educational skills and abilities.
Learning process - a set of consistent and interrelated actions of the teacher and students, aimed at the conscious and lasting assimilation of the system of knowledge, skills, skills, the formation of the ability to apply them in life, the development of independent thinking, observation and other cognitive abilities of students, mastering the elements of the culture of mental work and the formation of the foundations of the worldview and perception of the world. A feature of the learning process is the predominance of a logical, cognitive (cognitive) component, with the assimilation of knowledge, the acquisition of skills, methods of cognitive activity.
Table 1.3.
Characteristics of the learning process
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Kind of activity |
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Planning |
Calendar-thematic plans |
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Organization of its activities |
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Organization of students' activities and the formation of motivation |
Setting goals for educational work and defining educational tasks; the formation of positive motivation to accept the learning task; organization of cooperation and interaction |
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Stimulating activity |
Attraction to the topic, arousing curiosity and interest, using the technology of active learning, the inclusion of students in ongoing activities |
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Control and regulation |
Observation, control questions, individual interview, written, oral interviews |
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Analysis of the results |
Revealing the level of knowledge, establishing the level of formation of skills and abilities, identifying and correcting shortcomings, summing up the overall result of the work |
Pedagogical research methods
Pedagogical research methods can be divided into three groups:
1. Methods for studying pedagogical experience.
2. Theoretical analysis.
3. Mathematical and statistical methods.
Methods for studying pedagogical experience are aimed at studying the really emerging experience of organizing the educational process. When studying pedagogical experience, methods such as observation, conversation, interviews, questionnaires, and the study of pedagogical documentation are used.
Observation - purposeful perception of a phenomenon, in the process of which the researcher receives specific factual material. The observation is carried out according to a pre-planned plan with the allocation of specific objects. Observation protocols are being kept. Observation stages include: defining goals and objectives; choice of an object, subject and situation; the choice of the observation method that best ensures the collection of the necessary information; choice of methods of registration of the observed, processing and interpretation of data.
Polling methods: conversation, interview, questionnaire . Conversation is used with the aim of obtaining necessary information or clarification that was not clear enough upon observation. Issues requiring clarification are highlighted.
An interview is a kind of conversation. Here the researcher adheres to pre-planned questions, asked in a certain sequence. Answers are recorded openly. Questionnaire - collecting material using a questionnaire, in which they give written answers to the proposed questions. Valuable material can be obtained by studying the products of the trainees' activities: written, graphic, test papers. These works can provide information about achieved level skills, skills of students in a particular area.
Experiment - plays a special role in pedagogical research. This is a specially organized test of the reception of work, the method for identifying its pedagogical effectiveness.
The following types of experiment are distinguished:
1. Theoretical (statement of the problem, definition of the goal, object and subject of research, its tasks and hypotheses).
2. Methodical - the development of a research methodology, its plan, program, methods of processing the results.
3. The experiment itself is a series of experiments.
4. Analytical, quantitative and qualitative analysis, interpretation of the results obtained, the formation of conclusions and recommendations. The object of study and generalization of pedagogical experience is "mass" experience - to identify the leading trends. "Negative" experience - to identify the characteristic flaws and errors. “Best practice” for identifying and summarizing the innovative search for teachers. The criteria for advanced experience are: novelty, effectiveness and efficiency, compliance with the requirements of pedagogy, methods and psychology. Stability and repeatability of results over a long period of time using this method.
Theoretical analysis - the allocation and consideration of individual sides, signs, features, properties of pedagogical phenomena. Analysis is accompanied by synthesis and helps to penetrate into the essence of the studied pedagogical phenomena. Theoretical methods are needed to identify problems, formulate hypotheses, and evaluate collected facts. They are associated with the study of literature, general and special works on pedagogy, historical and pedagogical documents, periodical pedagogical press, reference pedagogical literature, teaching aids in pedagogy and related disciplines.
Working with literature involves the use of methods such as bibliography, abstracting, note-taking, and citation.
Mathematical and statistical methods in pedagogy, they are used to process the data obtained by survey and experiment methods, as well as to establish quantitative relationships between the studied phenomena. Well-known statistical methods are widely used - arithmetic mean, median, variance, coefficient of variation and others.
The teacher's assessment of the degree of their compliance with professional requirements
In the pedagogical process, the skills that characterize the structure of pedagogical activity, covering the functional groups of technological skills, are most clearly manifested: operational-methodological, psychological-pedagogical, diagnostic, evaluative, expert and research. Each of them is presented as a set of specific professional skills.
Complex of operational and methodological skills
Determination of the effectiveness of teaching technologies and the development of adequate methods in accordance with the goals and conditions that provide the highest indicators in solving the assigned tasks;
Adaptation of general didactic provisions to a specific subject of study;
Information modeling of the educational process in connection with the goals and specific tasks of training, the composition and structure of scientific knowledge;
Technological development of information structures in the form of a monologue, in task execution, drawing up logical-structural diagrams, transforming educational information, its analysis, generalization, methods and means of introducing educational information into the learning process;
The use of stimulating methods of pedagogical influence;
Control of educational activities (current, final, written, oral, selective, frontal, reproductive, creative)
Planning the educational process in one training lesson and in the system.
Complex of psychological and pedagogical skills
1. Formation of cognitive needs among students;
2. Creation of conditions that stimulate the cognitive activity of students;
3. Implementation of communicative methods in the learning process;
4. Application pedagogical techniques for the formation of cognitive activity;
5. Development and application of individualized technologies, methods and techniques of teaching;
6. Creation of a favorable psychological climate for the implementation of the educational process.
Complex of diagnostic skills
1. Drawing up diagnostic programs in the form of tasks, tests that play the role of teaching aids.
2. The use of diagnostic techniques in the educational and pedagogical process in the following characteristics: complementarity of pedagogical and educational actions, the effectiveness of specific teaching technologies.
3. Application of techniques aimed at identifying the effectiveness of the educational and pedagogical process.
4. Application of methods to identify the level of formation of skills and abilities of cognitive activity.
5. Implementation of introspection and self-control methods into teaching practice.
6. Use of classical methods of testing intellectual operations, creativity and motivation.
A set of skills based on the implementation of expert assessments
1. Application of diagnostic techniques that reveal the usefulness and effectiveness of different training systems.
2. Analysis of the functioning learning process.
3. Provision of methodological assistance related to the assessment and correction of the pedagogical process.
4. Analysis of new information and communication structures in the learning process, taking into account personal factors that affect the communication style and learning outcome.
5. Intensification of the learning process by deepening educational work and accelerating the pace of passing the educational material on the program.
6. Individualization of the learning process, orientation information technologies on the individual characteristics of students.
7. Development additional system teaching methods focused on activating students in the educational process, developing initiative, competitiveness and other personality traits.
A set of skills for pedagogical research work
1. Development of new teaching technologies, as well as individual subject teaching methods.
2. Intensification of teaching methods.
3. Drawing up new curricula.
4. Analysis of the main trends in the development of the education system.
5. Identification of priority directions in the development of pedagogical technologies.
6. Analysis of the work experience of colleagues, its generalization and application.
This list of skills reflects the general directions of professional tasks that a higher school teacher has to solve.
Criteria for pedagogical innovation
Innovation - innovation, innovation. The main indicator is the progressive beginning in the development of the educational institution in comparison with the established traditions and mass practice.
The main criterion for innovation is novelty, which has an equal ratio of advanced teaching experience. For a willing teacher to join innovation process it is important to determine what is the essence of the proposed new, what and what is the level of novelty. For one it may be really new, for another it is not.
Optimality. This criterion of the effectiveness of pedagogical innovations means the expenditure of the efforts and resources of the teacher and students to achieve results. The introduction of pedagogical innovation into the educational process and the achievement of high results with the least physical, mental and time expenditures testifies to its optimality.
Effectiveness as a criterion for innovation means a certain sustainability of positive results in the teacher's activities.
The possibility of creative application of innovation in mass experience is considered as a criterion for pedagogical innovation.
Communicative behavior of the teacher
The teacher's speech is a determining factor in the teacher's communicative behavior. Communicative behavior is not only the process of speaking, transmitting information, but also such an organization of speech and the corresponding speech behavior of the teacher, which affects the creation of an emotional and psychological atmosphere, communication between the teacher and the student, the nature of the relationship between them, and the style of their work.
Conditions for the effectiveness of the teacher's speech
1. Compliance with the law of rhetoric, the quality of speech is determined by the quality and number of thoughts in it per unit of occupied space and time.
2. Awareness of the pedagogical task and the purpose of speech communication.
4. Emotional coloring of the situation.
5. Conviction and reasoning.
6. The novelty of ideas and thoughts.
7. Expressiveness - imagery, brightness, emotionality.
8. General speech culture - the normative use of words and speech turns, the normative structure of speech and its phonetic reproduction.
9. The tone of speech, the nature of facial expressions, gestures, accompanying speech.
Components of Speech Ability
1. Good verbal memory.
2. Wealth of vocabulary.
3. Correct selection of language tools.
4. Logical construction and presentation of the statement.
5. Ability to orient speech to the interlocutor.
6. High level anticipation (the effect of speech on the listener).
7. Ability to listen.
Listener attention management
2. Good organization of speech.
3. Intonational emphasis of individual moments of speech.
4. Repetition of the most important thoughts.
5. The dynamism of speech.
6. Bright argumentation.
7. Ability to put yourself in the shoes of the audience.
8. Having eye contact.
9. Working out the text in free speech design.
10. Restoration and / or strengthening of the audience's attention using voice techniques, pauses, gestures, movements, questions, elements of dialogue, discussions, visual aids, humor.
V.P. Kopnin Logical foundations of science. - Kiev. - 1968. - S. 15-26.
Babansky Yu.K. Intensification of the educational process. - M., 1987 .; V.V. Okon Introduction to general didactics., M., 1990.
Bordovskaya N.V., Rean A.A. Pedagogy. - Peter, 2003. -S.86.
Bordovskaya N.V., Rean A.A. Pedagogy. - Peter. - 2003.
Meshcheryakova M.A. Methods for teaching special disciplines. - M., - 2006. -
S. 56-64.
Kodzhaspirova G.M. Pedagogy in diagrams, tables, supporting notes. - M., 2008 .-- 253 p.
Sedova N.E. Fundamentals of Practical Pedagogy. - M., 2008 .-- S. 174.
We bring to your attention the journals published by the "Academy of Natural Sciences"
The basis of the learning process is didactic concepts, or so called didactic systems. Based on how the learning process is understood, there are three basic didactic concepts: traditional, pedocentric and modern.
Knowledge as a subject of assimilation has three interconnected parties:
1) theoretical (facts, theoretical ideas and concepts);
2) practical (skills and abilities of applying knowledge in various life situations);
3) ideological and moral (ideological and moral and aesthetic ideas contained in knowledge).
With a properly delivered teaching, students master all these aspects of the material being studied, namely:
1) learn the theory (concepts, rules, conclusions, laws);
2) develop skills and abilities to apply theory in practice;
3) develop ways of creative activity;
4) deeply comprehend worldview and moral-aesthetic ideas.
This means that in the learning process, the following occurs simultaneously and in an indissoluble unity:
1) enrichment of the individual with scientific knowledge;
2) development of her intellectual and creative abilities;
3) the formation of her worldview and moral and aesthetic culture, which makes training a very important means of education.
Based on the above facts, different learning concepts emerge. Their main difference lies in the understanding of the learning process.
Traditional concept. This concept can also be called pedagogical-centric. The main role in this system is played by the teacher. A similar doctrine was developed by educators such as Comenius, Pestalozzi, Herbart. The principle of this teaching is such concepts as leadership, management, rule. The learning process is based on the authoritarian influence of the teacher on the student, on the explanation of the material.
The traditional concept has recently been criticized for being authoritarian. It is believed that this system does not contribute to the development of the student's creative thinking, since the material is provided ready-made and does not give the student the opportunity to independently find knowledge.
Pedocentric concept. This theory puts the child and his activities at the forefront. Adherents and developers of this doctrine are considered J. Dewey, G. Kershenshtein, V. Laya. Teachers strive to build the learning process in such a way that it is interesting primarily to the child, based on his needs, life experience. In this case, learning is natural. The child himself realizes the need to obtain certain knowledge.
When faced with a problem, the student must have a motive to overcome it. The teacher's problem in this case is to help solve the problem, show the ways out of the situation, but in no case insist on completing the assignment. The pedocentric concept is called "pedagogy of action", because learning is carried out through the active activity of the student. It is believed (and not without reason) that this doctrine promotes the development of creative thinking.
However, the pedocentric concept overestimates the child's ability for active independent activity, which often leads to an unjustified waste of time and a decrease in the level of learning. And knowledge is random.
Since neither pedocentric nor pedagogical-centric systems can satisfy the needs of modern didactics, modern didactic system.
Its essence is to use positive sides of both one and the other doctrine. The modern concept believes that both learning and teaching are integral parts of the learning process. This system is developed and based on the concepts proposed by P. Galperin, L. Zamkov, V. Davydov, K. Rogers, Brunenr. Elements of the modern concept are areas such as problem learning, programming, developmental learning, pedagogy of cooperation.
The modern didactic concept is based on the interaction and mutual understanding of the teacher and the student. The educational process is built on the transition from reproductive to search activities of the student. The teacher's task is to set a goal, a problem; he is an active assistant in finding a way out of a difficult educational situation. But, unlike the pedocentric concept, the teacher is not forced to wait for the student to find the problem, he artificially creates it. In the course of the joint activity of the teacher and the student, the problem must be solved. In training, collective activity and analysis of knowledge are encouraged.
In the modern Russian school, the traditional classroom-lesson system is still strong, in which the teacher is an indisputable authority. But in the modernization of the modern school, new pedagogical directions are replacing traditional concepts, contributing to the solution of many problems in the modern school.
On the this moment in didactics, two contradictions emerged: between theory and practice (i.e., didactics and teaching practice) and between education and teaching (within the theory itself). According to the theory, the content of education is divided into 4 types:
1) knowledge about nature, society, technology, man, art, etc .;
2) methods of activity (skills and abilities), the mastery of which is necessary for a person in order to preserve and replenish the culture;
3) experience of creative activity;
4) the experience of an emotional and value relationship to reality, to people, to oneself.
This theory shows the place of knowledge, skills and abilities in the structure of the content of education and, therefore, shows the difference between education and training content. The essence of education and training in activity is characterized by content and objectivity. This means that the presented theory should be valid for both teaching and education, as well as perform the function of uniting between them and eliminating contradictions. There are two reasons for this theory:
1) composition invariant;
2) the invariant of the types of human activity in the development of the content of human experience.
By the mid-80s. XX century didactics had two theories of the content of education, each of which had a right to exist.
New theory of educational content Is an open, dynamic, humanitarian-axeological, multifunctional system, consisting of an invariant composition of the content of education in all its socio-cultural completeness and an invariant structure of activities that reflects psychological aspect human activity.
In connection with the new ideas about the personal orientation of learning and education, the most probable object of didactics is: the chain of education - learning - the relationship between them as an important element in the dynamics of development. The difference between education and training lies in the fact that between them there are not only content-educational relations, but also functional-historical ones. Let's show the functional relationship between them. It is well known that education is characterized by autonomy, the logic of self-development, continuity and is above the situation.
Learning, in turn, is characterized by purposefulness(or the prescription of results within a limited time frame), controllability, discreteness. An educational institution (school or lyceum) has vitality and prospects if its development is consistent with the strategy of development and self-development of education. In addition, if the logic of education management takes into account the logic of self-development of education, then the learning system will be more favorable and sustainable.
Problems of didactic research:
1) self-knowledge and self-realization in considering education;
2) the ratio of scientific and educational knowledge in the education process; cognition and self-knowledge in the structure of human activity as a subject of comprehension in didactics;
3) the relationship between the logic of education management and the logic of its self-development under conditions of gradual stabilization of society and under conditions of a dynamically changing society.
The laws of materialistic dialectics- the main forms of reflection of reality in knowledge. At the same time, they can act as methodological principles of scientific and theoretical activity. The general scheme of the cognition process is expressed in the position V. I. Lenin:"From living contemplation to abstract thinking and from it to practice."
Modern studies of the neurophysiological mechanisms of human cognitive activity indicate the reality of the difference between the physiological support of concrete-figurative and abstract thinking, that is, the existence of specific, territorially separated structures with which various forms of thinking are associated. This information was obtained by studying the functional asymmetry of the human brain, the functional specialization of each of its hemispheres.
It has been proven that all types of speech activity, as well as reading, writing, counting operations, are functions of the left hemisphere, while the right one provides the spatial orientation of the body. In addition, it was found that the right hemisphere specializes in processing primary information, single features of objects and reflects a specific material picture of the world, while the left, using memory standards (verbal symbols, signs), reflects a schematized essential image of the world devoid of specific details, deep causal -investigative ties.
At the same time, in conditions of functional disunity, the activity of each of the hemispheres is characterized by a certain emotional tone, i.e., different types of cognitive activity are characterized by different emotional support: creative activity due to predominantly positive emotional tone, imaginative thinking is associated with negative emotional states that arise mainly in conditions that are unfavorable for individuals.
At the same time, the spatial separation of the physiological support of concrete-figurative and abstract thinking is of a relative nature. The most complete, adequate reflection outside world is achieved through a complex and contradictory interaction of both hemispheres: the integration of the functions of the right and left hemispheres contributes to the optimization of mental activity in general.
However, for the correlation of the concrete and the abstract in the cognitive activity of the student, it is important to pay attention to the features of the subject being studied. If we talk about literature, then earlier the goal of artistic activity was to reunite into a concrete integrity those endless abstract definitions into which the social person was fragmented by the system of division of labor in the capitalist formation.
Likewise, the method of reproducing reality in consciousness in the sought-for epistemological form had to consist in an ascent from the abstract to the concrete. Today this idea consists in overcoming the concrete integrity and completeness of sensual poetic contemplation and in the development of general abstract ideas and formal logical concepts.
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